Category: Colonialism

American Colonization Society was a movement in America that was founded by Henry Clay, John Randolph and Richard Bland Lee with an aim of freeing black people from slavery (Yarema, 2006). According to Robert Finley one of the members of the ACS, the black people would never be fully integrated into the American society. Taking black people back to the land of their fathers, would be the best solution (Yarema, 2006). This paper will discuss the history and origin of the American colonization society. In addition, the paper will discuss the strategies used by the movement and reasons behind the fall of this group.

The American colonization society was founded in the year 1816 (Yarema, 2006). This group was the primary vehicle that promoted the return of free black African Americans to Africa. In December 1816, the movement officially established and launched its activities in Washington (Yarema, 2006). The founders of the movement wanted to satisfy two different groups in America. One group consisted of abolitionist and philanthropists who wanted the African slaves to be freed back to Africa (Finkenbine, 2004).

On the other hand, the other group consisted of American slave owners who did not like black people and they wanted to expel them from America (Finkenbine, 2004). Because many people believed that black people could not be assimilated in the American society, the movement became popular and received a lot of support (Zinn, 2005). When the group gained enough support, the movement began strategizing how they would execute their plan to free black people from America to Africa.

Foremost, the movement did fundraising to acquire enough resources and power to accomplish its mission. In fact, the group received $ 100,000 from the US congress to facilitate transportation process (Zinn, 2005). After sometime, the movement also received more money from the US administration to promote their plan. With the funds, the American colonization society paid passage for the black people to Liberia (Yarema, 2006). In addition to this, the group sought for presidential support concerning the matter and president Lincoln Abraham advocated for activities of the ACS (Zinn, 2005). During the next two decades, the colony established economical power and the ACS employed white people to administer the group (Finkenbine, 2004).

Despite the efforts to free black people, some of black people already considered themselves as Americans causing resistance. However, the movement made some efforts and transported about 4 million people to Africa. The ACS was not very successful due to numerous challenges. Foremost, there was strong opposition and resistance from some of the black people (Hine, Hine and Harrold, 2009).

Secondly, a lot of resources and money was needed to facilitate the process of moving black people to Africa (Yarema, 2006). The number was big (about 4 million) and there was no enough money to facilitate this process. Lastly, the group experienced difficulties in finding appropriate place or location to take the black people. In fact, no African community was ready and willing to accept large numbers of black newcomers (Yarema, 2006).

In conclusion, the main goals of the American Colonization Society were to free Africans from slavery and return them to Africa. The movement used different strategies including fundraising and seeking political support to achieve its objective. However, the American Colonization Society was not successful in its mission due to resistance from freed Africans, high costs of relocation and lack of locations in Africa to settle freed Africans (Yarema, 2006).

Reference List

Finkenbine, R. (2004). Sources of the African American past: Primary sources in American history. (2nd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.

Hine, D., Hine, W., & Harrold, S. (2009). African Americans: A concise history. (3rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.

Yarema, A. (2006). American Colonization Society: An avenue for freedom? Lanham: University Press of America

Zinn, H. (2005). A peoples history of the United States: 1492-present. New York: Harper Perennial.

Introduction

Decolonization is the process of undoing colonialism within one or several countries. For understanding decolonization, it is vital to consider the notion of colonization itself. To the country, colonization means the process of conquering the territory and the countrys lands. Moreover, colonization has multiple adverse effects such as the raping of women, child kidnapping, infringement of rights, slavery, and discrimination by race or gender (TEDx Talks, 2019). These factors leave a specific imprint on the lives of indigenous, colonized people in Canada and worldwide. Therefore, it is informative to consider why we need to decolonize countries. Moreover, it is feasible to look at how colonization impacted colonized people and what decolonization means to a person.

Colonization and its Effects

To start with, the notion of colonization is crucial to almost everyone because it happened over the globe. Due to the Earths long history, people moved from one country to another, attempting to approach new territories. In general, colonialism aims to conquer and develop new territory by replacing the existing population with colonizers. It is an essential issue for understanding the chain of situations that happened to indigenous peoples. It is also necessary to grasp that many countries were established through the colonization process. For example, in Canada, indigenous people were subjected to rapes, genocides, and many other violations. Colonizers desired to assign the countries territories by removing people from their homeland and making native Canadians extinct.

Furthermore, colonizers attempted to civilize indigenous people by employing cultural, sexual, and physical violence. As seen from history, colonizers created residential schools for the indigenous Canadians to educate and assimilate them into society. These schools were active for a long time; it is also worth mentioning that the last school closed in 1996 (TEDx Talks, 2019). Besides, the mortality rate in these schools was often above 50 percent; there were also tests of electric chairs and starvation effects on students of residential schools (TEDx Talks, 2019). This physical and psychological abuse was done to make indigenous people submissive to colonizers and their policies.

Moreover, colonizers wanted to remove indigenous people of Canada from their native lands to benefit from Canadas natural resources (TEDx Talks, 2019). Traditionally, the country is one of the largest petrostates and enriched with tar sands (Parson & Ray, 2016). However, the desire to receive the natural resource became a massive problem for native Canadians; the extraction still has its effects and results in enormous economic and ecological catastrophes for the country. It becomes clear that colonizers attempted to take advantage of the countrys resources, which is one of the primary reasons for colonization.

Overcoming the impacts of the colonization

One big concern is what we should do with the impacts of the colonization history? The answer might be relatively ambiguous; Canadians still feel guilt and shame for the chain of events during colonization (TEDx Talks, 2019). However, the main message is that people should not feel guilty; rather, they should take responsibility for recovering from the impacts that colonization brought to peoples lives. One of the possible ways to solve this question is to start the process of decolonization.

In this case, decolonization becomes a lifestyle that moves people forward happy future, leaving the experiences of the past behind. People have to be brave enough to look at their history for practical actions for a successful future (TEDx Talks, 2019). Linguistic revitalization, the work of land-based defense, and practices should become a concern for indigenous people whether their ancestors were colonized or colonizers (TEDx Talks, 2019).

What does decolonization mean to me?

Indeed, we cannot erase the past; but we can take actions to recover from the consequences of decolonization. Besides, there are some examples of successful decolonization for the countries. For instance, African and Indian territories received independence and strive to develop their infrastructures for the better. Therefore, Canadian territories might be revealed from a new, positive angle, and people may rewrite history from a new unique perspective.

Moreover, for many Canadians, this violent colonization history means a lot. For instance, colonization in Canada was guided by the belief that indigenous people need to be oppressed and led to self-extinction. If the person is more than a first-generation Canadian, their parents or grandparents faced the historical bystander trauma (TEDx Talks, 2019). Probably, most of my friends and my older natives witnessed the effects of colonization. There is no matter if somebodys ancestors were colonizers or colonized because finally, all these people became victims of the colonizations impacts. Thus, the notion of decolonization is significant; perhaps, nowadays, it is essential to recover from the effects of the violent history, irrespective of nations, locations, and the past in general. For me personally, it means that there is no need to blame somebody for those consequences brought by colonization; instead, we need to produce a better future.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, the effects of colonization left a specific psychological imprint on the past and current generations. There is no sense to turn back to the violent past; instead, it has to be repaired by the joint united efforts. The world might need a new generation that will bring something better to society and create a better world without violence for everybody. It can be possible to do with the help of integrated power of those who strive to change their lives for the better.

References

Parson, S., & Ray, E. (2016). Sustainable colonization: Tar sands as resource colonialism. Capitalism nature socialism, 29(3), 6886. Web.

TEDx Talks. (2019). Decolonization is for everyone | Nikki Sanchez | TEDxSFU. YouTube. Web.

Today, people pay more and more attention to the role of women in historical events. Various achievements were previously considered only in terms of male participation. However, women have come a long way towards the current level of freedom and equality. America of the Colonial period is characterized by discrimination not only by race but also by gender. However, colonizing new lands requires both men and women to cooperate to build settlements and provide them with populations. Depending on gender, people experienced life differently in terms of their rights and responsibilities within families and outside the home (Shehan, 2018, p. 87). The essay explores the status of women and gender roles in colonial America. The difference between the lives of women in the Northern and Southern Colonies is also discussed. Finally, the movement of republican mothers and their contribution to the revolution are analyzed.

The first colonizers of the New World were Europeans, who brought with them European concepts of the family and womens role in society. Thus, colonial Americas social organization was patriarchal, where men represented authority, were political leaders, moral models, and controlled property (oclsvideos, 2017). For colonial America, the family was the fundamental element in maintaining social order, defining work responsibilities, and determining participation in politics (ColumbiaLearn, 2017). Nevertheless, there were differences between families and, accordingly, gender roles in the Northern and Southern colonies, which is explained by the peculiarities of developing different lands. As such, a womans life in colonial America will vary greatly, whether she lives in a New England village or on a Chesapeake plantation.

Even though womens lives in different parts of America varied, some aspects were characteristic of both the North and the South. First of all, women were supposed to take care of the home, children, and food production for the family. Any woman in colonial America also had to get married and have children as early as possible (ColumbiaLearn, 2017). Women left Europe hoping to find a husband in America, as marriage was the major route to upward social mobility& as well as a source of economic security (Shehan, 2018, p. 84). The life of women was regulated by British common law, according to which they were under the protection of husbands or fathers. Thus, women were not legally free members of society, because law reinforced dependencies of all sorts (Hoffer, 2019, p. 40). The men of colonial society enjoyed much more freedom, while the wives life was severely limited.

Despite the legal differences in status, both spouses ran the household. Often the household responsibilities of a man and a woman were the same: they raised children together, looked after the house, and worked in the fields (Shehan, 2018). Thus, women also participated in the cultivation and harvesting on an equal basis with men; however, only they manufactured candles, soap, and fabric. Nevertheless, they did not have access to the households economic affairs and could not sell the goods they produced. Women also supervised and coordinated the work of servants and farmworkers. An essential part of their life was the socialization of children and their introduction into society (ColumbiaLearn, 2017). Thus, for women, the lives of women in colonial America were strictly limited to housekeeping and family prosperity, while men actively participated in societys political and economic life.

A womans life also depended on whether she was married or not. A married woman transferred all her property to her husband, while an unmarried woman disposed of her property and body (ocls videos, 2017). Under British common law, women were technically the property of their husbands, so they could not legally represent themselves. Thus, she could not enter into contracts on her behalf, get into debt, or participate in business (Salmon, 2016). Not allowed to participate in government processes, they often communicated with other women, spent a lot of time with each other, forming their community.

The woman has always represented her husband and was always one with him. The only way to avoid this was to refuse marriage, but an unmarried woman received a spinsters stigma, which forced her to work as a servant in someone elses house (Gallay, 2016). As a result, economic and social needs and societys perceptions of women shaped womens gender roles in colonial America. In particular, women were not independent individuals separate from their husbands; they did not directly participate in political or economic processes. Nevertheless, they played an essential role in supporting the family, which was the foundation of society, and raising children.

There were also significant differences between womens lives in the North and the South, resulting from diverse demographic, religious, and economic situations. In the North, there were about two women for three men in New England, which led to the formation of stable families. Whereas in the South, the ratio was already one to six, and a century later  one to three (oclsvideos, 2017). This difference in the number of women influenced their role as well. Plantation work was mainly a male occupation, and farms were remote from each other, so the South women lived in some isolation from society. In the southern colonies, mortality was much higher than in the northern ones, which affected property inheritance. Widows often inherited their deceased husbands property, which gave them more power (oclsvideos, 2017). Moreover, the northern colonies were more religious, as the southern colonies settlers sought to earn money, which more imposed religious, moral restrictions on New England women.

The society of colonial America sought to separate the individual from the political, giving women exclusively the household chores sphere. However, the end of the 18th century brought significant political and economic changes that forced a re-examination of the role of women in government affairs. The concept of republican mothers appeared, whose role was to nurture the civic virtue of husband and children at home, but not to play any direct role in the public world of politics (Blumenfeld, 2017). Thus, women became a crucial element in the preparation of the future generation of male leaders. This shift in perception made it clear the need for womens education to raise worthy members of society (Thorsen, 2020). The concept of republican mothers claimed that although women cannot participate in political and economic processes, they are an essential part of social progress. Thus, republican motherhood retained the traditional female role, giving it a new, political significance.

Strict gender restrictions distinguished colonial America at that times. The role of women in such a society was to maintain the household and raise children. They had no direct political or economic influence, as well as property rights. Mens dominant position was held by men, while women were considered their property and were completely dependent on marriage. However, by the end of the 18th century, society recognized their position as fundamental for development.

References

Blumenfeld, L. (2017). Republican womanhood: Then and now. Gender Forum, 61, 3-19.

ColumbiaLearn (2017). MOOC WHAW1.1x | 2.3.1 The Daily Lives of Women in Colonial America with Carol Berkin [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Gallay, A. (2016). Colonial and Revolutionary America. Routledge.

Hoffer, P. (2019). Law and people in colonial America (2^nd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.

Oclsvideos. (2017). Woman in early America [Video].YouTube. Web.

Salmon, M. (2016). Women and the law of property in early America. University of North Carolina Press.

Shehan, C. (2018). Gender roles in American life: A documentary history of political, social, and economic changes. ABC-CLIO.

Thores, E. (2020). Republican motherhood, the American Revolution, and the persistence of memory: The legacy of the Livingston daughters. The Macksey Journal, 1(62), 1-16.

The European colonization of America changed the life and culture of Native Americans forever. It has affected my family and me so that the descendants of the native Cherokee Indians are forced to live and work on the reservation. There are many problems in the reserves, such as poverty, alcoholism, low literacy, unemployment, which prevent the preservation of native American culture. In North America, indigenous peoples remain strangers in their own country: those who leave the reservation face racism at all levels, from domestic to the official. In the world of white people, it is almost impossible for Indians to find a job; it is difficult to get an education. Colonization also had a substantial impact on the communitys health: the expected average life expectancy of the Cherokee is 72.3 years (Ongaro et al., 2019). At the same time, the average life expectancy for the United States is 76.5 years (Ongaro et al., 2019). In the reserves, due to the lack of medical care, child mortality is high. In addition, uranium was previously mined on the lands of the reservation, which caused contamination of the grounds, and as a result, oncological diseases of the tribe members.

Modern Indian communities represent a specific institution of the indigenous population of the United States. The average monetary income on the reservation is about $ 3,233 per month, so natives have to leave it in search of work (Ongaro et al., 2019). Preserving cultural identity outside the reservation is incredibly difficult, but me, my family, and my community have shown strength and resilience in trying to do this. We have to deal with national discrimination and interethnic contradictions daily. We are fighting against the manifestations of racism against the Indian population by the authorities and police structures. Since every day we have to use English as the language of interethnic communication, there is a significant risk of forgetting the native language of the tribe. Therefore, we show perseverance and try to communicate in the Cherokee language at every convenient opportunity to preserve it. As Indian social activists, we show resilience in the struggle for the rights of our fellow tribesmen. We constantly try to remind the world of the many problems faced by the inhabitants of reservations.

Traditional Indigenous ceremonies are inextricably linked with this strength and resilience. They contain instructions, moral and aesthetic norms, rules, and skills of economic activity. Stability, repeatability, consolidation in customs  all this has made the tradition a means of transmitting the culture of the Cherokee people. Traditions function in all social systems and are a necessary condition for their vital activity. A lousy attitude to traditions leads to a violation of continuity in the development of Cherokee society and culture and the loss of valuable achievements. Cultural traditions go back centuries, but they do not lose their modernity. Tradition is one of the essential categories of the theory of culture. The universality of this category is determined by the fact that indigenous traditions are present in every sphere of human life  in material, political, artistic, and moral. Traditions are the essential tool for the transfer and development of Cherokee cultural heritage, and they should be handled carefully and skillfully. My peoples historical mission and international duty are to constantly introduce new generations to cultural values, to enrich and replenish the treasury of Indigenous culture. Therefore, my family and my community observe Indigenous ceremonies, showing strength and resilience to preserve them.

Reference

Ongaro, L., Scliar, M. O., Flores, R., Raveane, A., Marnetto, D., Sarno, S., & Montinaro, F. (2019). The genomic impact of European colonization of the Americas. Current Biology, 29(23), 3974-3986.

Columbian Exchange

With the expanding European colonization and increasing trade between the Old and New worlds, both realms experienced significant changes in their diet and lifestyle. The two continents exchanged plants, animals, people, and diseases  the process known as the Columbian Exchange. Although such economic interaction overall was more beneficial for Europeans than for indigenous Americans, the new commodities were successfully adapted by local societies and could shape the future of many (if not all) nations.

The Exchange of Plants

Firstly, both hemispheres were introduced to plants previously unknown. In this regard, Europe and Africa started consuming and cultivating maize, potatoes, various kinds of beans, peanuts, tomatoes, pineapples, and papayas, to name a few. On the other hand, indigenous Americans imported rice, wheat, coffee, olives, wine grapes, and some other edibles. Sooner or later, all the novel plants became common and even started playing a central role in national cuisines. For instance, tomatoes in Italy, chili peppers in India and Korea, and paprika in Hungary are those countries culinary centerpieces nowadays. However, the introduction of the new plants sometimes also had adverse effects on local ecosystems. In particular, Cusack (2020) states that the widespread of wheat in the North American prairies for agricultural purposes led to a significant reduction in the number of bison herds. Therefore, it can be argued that food and plant globalization had both positive and negative consequences.

The Exchange of Animals

Both domains across the Atlantic also enlarged the number of animal species present. The varieties new to the Old world included alpaca, iguana, flying squirrel, catfish, rattlesnake, and armadillo, whereas the New world was introduced with horses, cattle, and sheep, goats, and pigs. However, seemingly Native Americans could benefit more from this type of biological diversity as European animals were actively used for breeding and food, while horses facilitated hunting and provided warfare advantages.

The Exchange of Diseases

Conversely, in terms of diseases, it can be argued that indigenous people in America suffered much more than their European and African counterparts. While the latter only imported syphilis, the latter encountered such deadly bacteria and viruses as smallpox, bubonic plague, malaria, and yellow fever for the first time. For this reason, according to researchers estimates, European diseases caused the death of 80%-90% of Indians as the locals did not have immunity against them.

Reference

Cusack, I. (2020). Ripples from the Columbian Exchange? In Dublin Symposium Gastronomy (Ed.), 2020: Food and disruption: What shall we eat tomorrow?(pp. 61-72). Dublin Gastronomy Symposium. Web.

Colonization of the American continent began with European explorers in the region. Spain and Portugal were two European nations to establish colonies in the American continent in the 16^th Century. Portugal established its colonial territory in Brazil while Spain colonized the expansive South American region. Later in the 17^th Century, the Portuguese and Spanish colonial monopolies found new challenges from the Dutch, English, and French. These three countries aggressively sought to establish their colonial empires in the American continent. These European nations established colonies in the American continent for various reasons; the Spanish desired to have gold and silver; the French sought animals with valuable fur for trade, and the English sought fortune in the American continent. The majority, however, aspired to discover freedom; freedom of religion, and freedom of government. The British were encouraged to move to the American continent by the explorations made by the French and Spanish. In addition, the English and the Dutch were determined to break the Spanish and Portuguese trade routes and overseas colonization. This led them to settle in the American continent. The Dutch colonized several Caribbean Islands and managed to seize Brazil from the Portuguese and Spanish dominance in 1621. They established the Dutch East India Company during the same period. Further in North America, the Dutch formed New Netherlands after the exploration conducted on their behalf by Henry Hudson. The Dutch then proceeded to buy the Island of Manhattan from the Native American tribe in 1624 and named it the city of New Amsterdam (McCannon 246). The English captured the city from the Dutch in 1664 and renamed it the city of New York. This essay discusses the colonization of North America, especially the American colonies controlled by the British.

The English and the Dutch moved into the American continent as part of their commercial and military rivalry with Spain. The two nations established their colonial empires in the Caribbean, specifically in the Islands of Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad. Successful North American colonization started at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1606. The first English permanent settlements were established in this town, and it was the first of the 13 colonies of America. The economic activities were the driving force of the establishment of the colony in Jamestown. However, many other colonies were established by religious minorities, specifically the puritans and Quakers who were escaping persecution at home. These people established settlements in America because they sought freedom of worship. The official religion in England then was the Church of England. The British King did not allow people to attend any other religion apart from the Anglican Church. Those who refused to follow the church were jailed or sent out of the country. Other members of the Anglican Church called the puritans had opposing ideas about the Church of England than the King did. The British monarchy did not allow them to express their ideas and therefore, they decided to leave England to find religious freedom. In 1620, the Mayflower colony was established; followed by Pilgrims Plymouth colony in 1628, and the Boston colony established in 1630. In 1664, the British took over the New Amsterdam colony from the Dutch and renamed it New York. The colony was Pennsylvania was organized in 1682 where the British established Americas largest city of Philadelphia. The French colonization of the American continent commenced in Canada in the 16^th and 17^th Centuries. The French laid claim of the expansive Louisiana territory in the 16oos. Louisiana territory included the Mississippi basin and the Great Lakes. They also challenged the Spanish in the south and along the Mexican Gulf. The main interest of the French interest in colonizing North America was the fur trade. The French colonists were skilled hunters, voyageurs, and woodsmen. However, by mid 17^th Century, the French had lost much of their colonial territory in the American continent. Its principal continental rival was the English although the Spanish were also her enemies. Despite collaborating with several Native American tribes, the French colonists were defeated by the English settlers in several conflicts. These conflicts included; Queen Annes war which began in 1701-1714, King Georges War which happened in 1740 and ended in 1748, and the Seven Years War in Europe. The result of the French Indian War, that is, the Seven Years War enabled England to seize Canada from the French. The French were also forced to hand over to Spain the Louisiana region. However, the French recaptured back the region briefly in the late 1700s (McCannon 245).

In sum, the British were the last European power to publicly colonize the American continent. Their determination to colonize the US commenced in 1585. The English settlers arrived in the region and proceeded to establish the settlement of Raleigh presently referred to as North Carolina. The English then settled along the East Coast from the early 1600s to 1783 (Hone 26). The English then waged wars against; France for its expansion to the west, Spain for southward expansion, and the third was against her colonists in the American Revolutionary war. The British laid claim of North America and established its authority of possession. This authority demanded all its colonial subjects to be loyal to England. They provided charters to large companies that speculated land. These land speculation companies were owned by wealthy English citizens of the upper class. The British allowed each stockholder have a specified amount of acreage and the necessary authority on companies to distribute grants and land titles for all other farms within the charter to all those who were loyal to the British empire. The governments governing communities within the British colonies were under the authority of the British colonial empire. In its expansionism tendencies, the British saw the British annihilate its subjects in its attempt to settle north of Florida. However, the English settlements were only considered successful until they established Jamestown in 1607. The Virginia Company of London played a great role in this success. It became one of the first charters of England in North America. This engagement paved way for the future English involvement in the American continent (Hone 27).

Works cited

Hone, Wade E. Land and Property Research in the United States. New York: Ancestry Publishing, 1997.

McCannon, John. Barrons AP World History. New York: Barrons Online Bookshop, 2008.

The Revolution has been assigned a central role towards the American democratization and freedom but the revolutionary struggles in the United States brought lesser democratic gains than did the regime before that. The belief that the American revolution and resistance to the British rule brought about freedom and democracy conflicts with the historic claim that the former colonial rulers exercised the most democratic governance in the British Empire and perhaps the world (Spenser 1). This regime was characteristic of democratic tradition that can be traced from the founding of the colonies-a century before. Profound alterations in the political developments occurring during the revolution are not consistent with the dominant claim that the results of the revolution replaced an era of tyranny. Non-violent actions associated with the revolution have been unfairly attributed to resultant for more democratic advance in the country, and this evidence has been provided by research (Spenser 1). The description of the American Revolution as contributing to more freedom and democracy makes the history synchronous with other revolutions and independent struggles and has been instrumental in portraying the importance of civil society in developing democracy.

The documents provide substantial information as relates to the American struggle for freedom and independence. More importantly, it reveals the truth behind the issues relating to democracy. The document links the historical research on the levels of freedom available during 1584-1800 in 13 colonies that gained independence in 1776-among other documents; to the conception that the revolution brought about freedom and democracy to replace a regime of tyranny. The article is relevant to both the understanding of the place of the British colonys place of freedom and democracy, and the literature that nonviolent activities were vital to bringing democracy. The documents record relevant happenings that led to war: violent activities in resistance to the British rule resulted in war (out of a primarily nonviolent political struggle (Spenser 1) and made opposition to rebellion to be more toughened. The nonviolent approach of the colonialists was more democratic-achieving because they worked out the details on replacing services provided by Royal appointees (Spenser 1). The document contradicts the opinion that democracy was achieved through revolution activities and struggles. The author thinks that overall greater democracy and freedom would have resulted if the colonists maintained a nonviolent discipline because it would have created bigger problems for leading politicians in Britain and elsewhere (Spenser 2). The document links well with the readings in the lecture because it discusses the causes of the American Revolutions and gives a wider understanding of the matter, the issues surrounding the development of democracy in the United States, and the revolution in detail.

The document provides a framework that can be used to test the place of violence in achieving freedom and democracy as compared to nonviolent activities. The wisdom behind exhorting the idea that force had been used to achieve democracy is dangerous because it may encourage the people to support violence to fight for freedom and democracy in certain situations; in addition to it being inconsistent with the available evidence (Spenser 3). Several issues can be understood relating to the revolution. The pre-revolutionary era before 1776 was characterized by the exercise of rights in areas such as voting and newspaper rights. The democracy level in the 13 colonies that did not rebel (possibly Bermuda excepted) more than in England indicating that there was the practice of freedom in the colonial times (Spenser 12). Signs that the revolution did not result in more freedom indicate the fact that the number of adult men who could vote in 1987 (Spenser 13). However, the document provides the democratic results of the revolutions such as in the areas of Bills of Rights e.t.c. (Spenser 13), introduction of state constitutions, among others.

Works Cited

Tully, Alan. Political Development of the Colonies after the Glorious Revolution in Greene, Jack and Pole J. R. A Companion to the American Revolution. Malden: Blackwell, 2000.

Spencer, Graves. Violence, non-violence, and the American Revolution. Nonviolence & the American Revolution. 2005. Web.

Chapter 5 of the book talks about the condition of native women in the times of the colonial conquest of the Americas. The invasion of South and North America by the Europeans involved many males coming into contact with the local egalitarian societies. The Algonquian tribes experienced considerable changes in their established social and economic order (Hughes & Hughes, 1997). Before the invasion, the men and women of the tribe equally divided their work and responsibilities. Yet, after the conquest, the mens work, which was hunting for large game, became more in demand among the Europeans. Moreover, the trade between the tribe and the invaders made some of the womens work irrelevant, for instance, the creation of certain items which were now replaced by European ones. The Catholic Jesuits who came to spread Christianity also encouraged the establishment of a patriarchal society and primarily baptized tribal men. Many women opposed conversion to Christianity, but their husbands, brothers, and fathers beat them for their defiance of God.

In New Mexico, where the slave trade was the primary source of wealth for the Spanish, Many Indian women were made slaves and used as property without any rights or freedoms. In Barbados, black female slaves were forced to work in fields and were also subject to different types of exportation, including physical, sexual, and emotional ones. In New Spain, the Spanish conquerors established their cultural norms and rules for women, which implied that females had to be sexually pure and practice discretion. As a result, the Spanish often raped and sexually abused the native women to keep the Spanish ones intact. At the same time, the local population also embraced the Spanish traditions of honor, which once again led to the sexual exploration of native women.

Chapter 6 of the book concerns the topics of the role of African women during the 17th century. In the 1660s, a Lutheran pastor who visited the Fetu people described their social activities. As the pastor stated, the Fetu women dressed according to their status in the community and their wealth. The affluent females covered their breasts with silk, while the poorer ones were topless (Hughes & Hughes, 1997). During weddings, the tribe had festive events, and the bridegrooms had to show their generosity. Men could marry several times, yet the first wife always had the highest status, while the concubines were mostly slave women. The Bakongo tribe in Kongo had a particular social order where women could be given the status of wife or sister. Wives were young women who were able to bear children, yet after the end of their reproductive period, many of them became sisters. The concept of sisterhood implied autonomy and active participation in family matters. Yet, slave women only could have the status of a wife and be denied any autonomy.

The chapter also talks about queen Njinga, a woman who fought the Portuguese in Kongo after the death of her brother. The most important part of Njingas story was that to justify her legitimacy as queen, she became a man. As a noblewoman, she had the right to have several husbands, and she ordered all of them to dress in female clothes. Njinga became a successful ruler, led her army in battles, and repelled the attacks of the Portuguese. The chapter also provides information about Eur-African women who were born to European fathers and African mothers. Such women had a marginal status in African societies because they were not recognized by the natives as their family. Thus, Eur-African women, including Betsy Heard, leaned towards their fathers, who provided them with European education. The Eur-African women married other Europeans and thus accumulated resources and status, allowing them to act as intermediaries in the slave trade.

Reference

Hughes, S., & Hughes, B. (1997). Women in world history: V 2: Readings from 1500 to the present. Routledge.

Certain populations in the world are settlers in their origin: historically, they did not belong to the regions they occupied but substituted indigenous peoples. In scientific terms, this phenomenon is known as settler colonialism. As any form of intrusion, settler colonialism played an important role in shaping the culture, governmental structure, and social and political image of the affected regions. This paper presents the essential aspects of settler colonialism, such as historical examples, doctrines, contributions, and current tendencies.

Settler colonialism is a widespread phenomenon in world history since it affected different parts of the world. Lu defines this notion as settling in colonies by colonizers and the establishment of states and societies of their own by usurping native land instead of exploiting native labor (9). The important feature of settler colonialism is that it is associated with the elimination of the indigenous population and its substitution by settlers. In most cases, the methods of intruders were far from peaceful and included murdering of local people.

Several factors can be considered the driving forces of settler colonialism. The most important cause is connected with the acquisition of lands. Target territories were usually the lands with abundant natural resources or agricultural opportunities; consequently, they could be the source of wealth for settlers (Lu 11). Another driving force is associated with racial and cultural issues since the goal of settlers is to eliminate local culture and establish the dominance of their race, religion, and traditional practices (Lu 11). Other causes of settler colonialism include economic, social, and political turmoil within a colonizing country (Lu 14). These factors could vary in different regions, though the acquisition of land is believed to be the most common reason for the violent actions of settlers.

It is important to underline particular ideologies associated with settler colonialism. First, it is often described as an imposed structure rather than a process or a historical event (Gilio-Whitaker para. 5). This structure is based on the specific relationships between indigenous and non-indigenous people, where settlers are considered superior to the local population. At the same time, since the goal of settler colonialism is the elimination of the owners of a particular territory, it cannot be the synonym of genocide, which implies the elimination of an entire society (Lentin 58). Therefore, many researchers refuse to equate this phenomenon to genocide.

In order to demonstrate the nature and peculiarities of settler colonialism, it would be appropriate to analyze this notion through the example of Japanese intrusions. Settler colonialism of Japan was not the first in history: Japanese settlers followed the example of Anglo-American settler colonialism and the concept of land ownership (Lu 14). The process started in the nineteenth century when Japan was a growing empire. The neighboring territories, such as Hokkaido, Karafuto, Okinawa, the Bonin Islands, Taiwan, and the Korean Peninsula, were considered attractive in terms of their lands. They seemed empty and unworked for Japanese settlers, who ignored the fact that these lands were already densely populated (Lu 14). As a result, Malthusian expansionists started their migration-based colonialism to these territories, which were perceived as the sources of wealth.

The reasons behind this intrusion were not only connected with the acquisition of lands but were also triggered by the unstable political and social situation in Japan. Moreover, by expanding the territories of the empire, Malthusian intruders could solve the issue of overpopulation and free the country from social pressure (Lu 17). This example demonstrates that settler colonialism is not always limited to the mere ambitions of settlers to privatize lands but can be the means of solving the political, social, and economic problems of the intruding party.

Even though settler colonialism is mostly associated with the past, some signs of this phenomenon can be found in the modern world. The proof of this idea is the disappearance of indigenous people around the world. It is necessary to mention racialization in America, which implies intermarriage between indigenous and non-indigenous people. This process leads to the complete disappearance of local races like Indians or Native Hawaiian (Gilio-Whitaker para. 6). Another form of the modern settler colonialism underlined by the author includes the allocation of Indian lands, forced enrollment in Indian boarding schools, Christianization, and various relocation programs aimed at cultural assimilation (Gilio-Whitaker para. 7). Even though these methods do not involve the intentional physical elimination of people, they still lead to the attrition of the local culture, which is the undoubtful sign of settler colonialism.

It is possible to conclude that settler colonialism greatly contributed to the shaping of the cultural and racial image of certain territories. Even though it led to indigenous attrition in many regions, its major consequence is the emergence of indigenous resistance movements. One of the best examples of these protests is Native Americans resistance in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, known as Indian Wars (Sirvent and Haiphong ch. 1). Another American Indian movement took place between the 1960s and 1970s. These resistance movements significantly influenced the political structure of the U.S. Firstly, they emphasized that America is a multinational country where both indigenous and non-indigenous cultures should be respected. Secondly, it contributed to the development of the U.S. Constitution, where the forms of Indian government were accepted, and the equality of peoples was proclaimed the countrys priority (Sirvent and Haiphong ch. 1). As it is possible to see, settler colonialism led to important political consequences, besides social and cultural impact.

In conclusion, settler colonialism is based on the principle of settlers dominance over the native population and is associated with ethnic cleansing. Even though this notion is often connected to genocide and violence, it is hard to deny its significant role in the cultural, social, and political spheres of the colonizing country. Some less violent forms of settler colonialism still exist today in certain cultures. Therefore, this issue remains in the center of many historical studies.

Works Cited

Gilio-Whitaker, Dina. American Settler Colonialism 101. ThoughtCo, Web.

Lentin, Ronit. Traces of Racial Exception: Racializing Israeli Settler Colonialism. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018.

Lu, Sidney Xu. The Making of Japanese Settler Colonialism. Cambridge University Press, 2019.

Sirvent, Roberto, and Danny Haiphong. American Exceptionalism and American Innocence: A Peoples History of Fake NewsFrom the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror. Simon and Schuster, 2019.

Introduction

I am an American middle-aged man, aged 25 years, and not yet married. I live in New York with the rest of my family members and I am a Christian and still studying at the university. I am very much optimistic about my future and I do believe that there so much waiting for me because I am ready to face all the challenges of life when I finish my education. In the time of colonial period, we use to live in Connecticut. This was the land made up of farms. The settlers used to live harmoniously and their behavior was almost similar. This colony strongly believed in church and therefore most of them were Christians. Here is where our family was also converted to Christianity.

The colonial period

My experience of living in the colonial period started when I was still very young. I remember we use not to put on any clothing till the age of six. The clothing in the Connecticut colony was not anyway colorful. There was no decoration put on it and did not come in various designs. It took very long to make a cloth. Many of the clothes were therefore patched to save the raw materials used and also to save time. When we reached the age of six we were no longer taken as babies and we use to wear the same clothing like those of my sisters. We use to wear clothes which were made in a manner that looked like hanging sleeves. This was a material that was worn into the shoulders and then it hangs over the body covering from the shoulders to the feet. We use to wear this type of clothing mostly when we were learning how to walk. The raw materials which were used to make these clothes mainly came from animals and plants. The flux plants provided a superb raw material that was used to make materials for sheets, curtains, and napkins. On the other hand, sheep provided wool which was mainly used to make blankets and pullovers. (Andrews, 1931).

Our home was made of logs. Though frames were available by then, only the rich ones could afford them. Most of the houses which were made of frames were therefore owned by the wealthy ones. The rich families mainly constructed their homes near the churches because churches brought them together. Other residents who lived in this area constructed their homes using stones and mud. Mud was used then because there was nobody who knew about cement. Most houses contained cellars which were not only used as a storage place but also used to keep the house warm mainly during winter periods. Our home had only one room. This room contained a chimney in one corner where the cooking fire was lit. The windows to our home were very small so that they could conserve heat. The windows were also made from oiled paper. The oiled paper provided the house with light since glasses were rarely available then. The doors to our home were made from very thick planks which were fastened well so that they would resist pressure from wild animals. The ceiling of the house was laid down low to conserve heat in times of cold. Our family usually warmed themselves in the fireplace which was also used for cooking. A connection shed was constructed towards the barn. This shed enabled us to provide enough care to our domestic animals mostly in winter when the snowstorms were heavy. (Hooker, 1936).

As our family grew, my father extended our house to a doubled room. One room was used for cooking, eating, and warming while the other one was used for sleeping. We used to take our baths in the springs and also water which was used for drinking, cleaning, and cooking was transported from the springs to our home. In our home, furniture was not very comfortable and only my father was supposed to sit on the chair. The rest of the family including myself used to sit on the benches and stools. Sometimes we could sit at the table because the table was very long and narrow. The benches were also too narrow and very uncomfortable to sit on. We could at times take our meals while standing and at times take them directly from the pot using our hands. My father mainly obtains food from the field where he grew cones and sometimes, he could go hunting whenever he wanted meat. Breakfast mainly consisted of a soup of salt meat, herbs, and beans. Tea and coffee were not available then. We use to take our dinner at noon which consisted mostly of Indian pudding plus a dish of beef. Many dishes were mainly made of pumpkin which was either cooked, dried, fried, or souped.

The winter period was the most starving because less food was available. Wild animals which were hunted for meat were also so difficult to come by. Therefore, my father had invented various ways of keeping food till growing time. Since there were no refrigerators, my father had built a smokehouse where meat could be stored. Also, a pot that contained stew could be kept boiling on fire all day and all night. The stew could never spoil so long as it remained hot throughout. We could therefore eat it for almost a week. My father also used to construct a trough in the spring. This trough was used to store milk, vegetables, and also the leftovers. My father used to make fire using flint and steel. The fire was not allowed to go off because making fire using flint and steel was a very difficult task. Our pots and kettles used to be very heavy and some even weighed 40 pounds. (Axelrod, 1985).

Working period

When we were past ten years, we usually worked hard with my brothers and sisters in helping our parents with many home chores. This did not prevent us from playing. We had all kinds of games e.g. skating, hopping, skipping, Kite flying, jumping, swimming, and dancing. My sisters used to play with dolls that were mainly made from cornhusks, rugs, and apples. Other times we used to play singing games e.g. Ring around the rosy and London Bridge is falling.

I remember when my sister was 12 years old, my mother taught her how to use spinning wheels. Girls of this age were required to learn the skills of spinning wheel. The spinning wheel was mainly used to turn flax or wool into thread. A loom was then used in weaving large pieces of clothes. Looming was mainly done by my father because it involved the use of strength. Weaving usually took almost a year to complete the whole process. Dyes were mainly obtained from barks, roots, and plants. These were then boiled and the sap was extracted.

School period

At the age of 12, I was required to enroll in school. Connecticut colony used to strictly emphasize educating all children. Many private schools including Hopkins and Taft had been set out. We were required to be taught how to read we were also trained in honest calling. This was to help us in contributing to the colony and also it was to give us knowledge on the ways of taking care of ourselves. We were taught the kind of work one wishes to specialize in. Once trained on it, we were required to remain in the profession for the rest of our life. We mostly took our educated at home where we learned on religion, obedience, and the skills for handling any issues in our day-to-day life. Schools were established in towns by many widows in their own homes. These widows only provided education on the basic skills, alphabet, writing, arithmetic, and also spelling. We were required to pay a penny a day to attend these schools. (Higgibotham Jr, 1980).

Later, laws were established and two schools were specifically mentioned. Those that would provide education of grammar i.e., reading and writing, and those that will prepare boys to enter into the University. Our parents were required to buy pens, papers, books, and also firewood for their children. Firewood was mostly required during winter for warmth, children who performed a task successfully would be allowed to sit close to the fire. Discipline and strict obedience were expected from us and our schoolmasters used to whip us and at times tap us on the head. We also used to go to school all year round and the same books were being used to educate us.

References

Andrews, C (1931). The Colonial Background of the American Revolution. New Have, C.T. Yale University Press.

Axelrod, A. (1985) The colonial Revival in America. New York W.W. Norton.

Higgibotham Jr, L. (1980). In the mater of color: The colonial period. Oxford. Oxford University press.

Hooker, R. (1936). The colonial Trade of Connecticut. New Haven, CT.