The Cold War lasted approximately for forty-five years, and its primary goal was to confront and oppose the idea of communism in the entire territory of the Union of Soviet Socialistic Republics. The Korean War during this period involved the USA and China that were obliged to fight against each other, supporting South and North parts of Korea. The following paper will explain and cover the USA’s role in the Cold War era in Korea, and other significant shifts of this period.
Discussion
The United States of America’s government was supporting South Korean forces during the country’s conflict with North Korea. The latter opponent was supported by China, as their country did not have enough powerfulness and military supplies to confront such a strong country as the USA and South Korea together (Mercer, 2013). Moreover, the American government could benefit from its participation in this war later by investing its finances in various industries of South Korea. Nowadays, the US government has this country’s companies’ shares and receives dividends from them (Mercer, 2013). Although America lost approximately thirty-three thousand its citizens during the Korean War, this event influenced the building of multiple American military bases in Asia.
There were many social, political, and economic changes in the Civil Rights movement during the Cold War. For instance, the minimum wages in America reached their highest peak in the sixties, whereas various racial minorities were neglected and persecuted (Sandler, 2015). The USA implemented such policies as spreading its forces all over the world during the Cold War to show its powerfulness and greatness to the potential opponents.
Conclusion
As it is possible to witness, the USA’s policies and actions during the Cold War were intended to form its future because the country became great due to its efficient strategies and moves. Although this period is considered as a repression time in America because of multiple major changes in its economic system and citizens’ mentality, it made the USA the greatest country in the entire world. The American government started supporting South Korea, which influenced the building of the country’s settlements in different territories of other countries.
References
Mercer, J. (2013). Emotion and strategy in the Korean War. International Organization, 67(02), 221-252. Web.
Sandler, S. (2015). The Korean War: No victors, no vanquished. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky.
Firefighting has a relatively long and complex history in the United States. From the end of World War II, the position and development of American firefighting have been impacted by a variety of social, political, and economic changes. However, the Cold War and the Civil Rights movement had the most profound impact on the development of this profession. This essay aims to outline how the social and political events had impacted the lives of firefighters in the times of Cold War and the Civil Rights movement, as well as to explore the current opportunities and challenges faced by American firefighters.
The Cold War
The Cold War was a significant period in the history of United States. The threat of a new world war prompted the government to undertake preventive efforts to ensure the country’s readiness for a significant military conflict. The Cold War propaganda affected all citizens. For instance, according to Rawnsley (2016), many families were enrolled in survival training, which provided people with first aid, firefighting, and rescue skills, thus preparing them for a possible attack.
The militarization was at the core of the United States’ civil defense strategy, which affected people from a wide variety of occupations. For the firefighters, militarization has led to a shift in working demographic: “By 1960, over 60 percent of the nation’s firefighters were veterans of the military, creating greater cohesiveness in firefighters’ occupation and binding work groups to work more tightly together” (Tebeau, 2012, p. 337).
Civil Rights Movement and Affirmative Action
The Civil Rights movement created yet another significant demographic shift in the profession, as African American workers gained access to employment in municipal offices; by 1990s, over 13 percent of firefighters were African Americans (Tebeau, 2012). Changes in the demographics of fire departments raised many issues, including discrimination and impaired cohesiveness of working groups.
This led to some important fire department cases that affected the image of the profession on a national level. For instance, the controversy over the New Heaven fire department affirmative action was largely covered in the news and other media. The case of Ricci vs. DeStefano was initiated after the New Heaven fire department discarded the results of a written promotion test that had disproportionately excluded black firefighters (Sarat, 2014).
Affirmative action was taken by the fire department to avoid discrimination claims from African American applicants; however, white firefighters who could have received a promotion applied to the court, arguing that the withdrawal of the test was unfair and violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (Sarat, 2014). The case received national attention and sparked similar issues in other areas of the country.
Conclusion: Current Challenges
The two main issues that affect the work of firefighters in the contemporary world are terrorism and technological development. After the 9/11 terror attacks on the World Trade Center, the role of firefighters in counterterrorism efforts has changed. The search and rescue efforts that followed the attack required the cooperation of all available responders, including paramedics, law enforcement, and firefighters. Being equipped with crucial knowledge and skills, firefighters of many US fire departments are now expected to participate in relief efforts following both natural and human-made disasters, including terrorism.
The technological development also affects the role of firefighters. New technologies that assist in fire-fighting, for example, are likely to require training and expertise, whereas new building technologies and materials can either reduce or increase the number of house fires. Overall, there are many factors that influenced the development of firefighting over time, and the profession will most likely develop further due to the current trends and challenges.
References
Rawnsley, G. D. (2016). Cold-War propaganda in the 1950s. New York, NY: Springer.
Sarat, A. (Ed.). (2014). Civil rights in American law, history, and politics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Tebeau, M. (2012). Eating smoke: Fire in urban America, 1800–1950. Baltimore, MD: JHU Press.
Since the end cold war politics, there has been a growth in the Muslim population not only in the United States but also in other parts of the world. In the USA, the population of Muslims has increased in an unprecedented way owing to many factors. In Europe, France has seen the number of Muslims increase largely. This paper explores various factors that have led to the increase of Muslims and the spread of Islam, especially after the cold war.
Although the increase of Muslim population has been impressive, it is imperative to mention that the growth has been modest. The rationale is that it remains a minority religion in many parts of the Western world. Also, the paper will highlight the reasons that have hampered the spread of Islam in the US and in the modern world.
Factors leading to the increase of Islam
In the United States, the increase in the Muslim population has been modest. According to various religious analysts, Islam grew by 109% from 1990 to 2000 (Curtis 117). Although this percentage may seem staggering, it is imperative to highlight that Islam is not the fastest-growing religion in the US. This is contrary to numerous notions and perspectives that attempt to project the religion as the most attractive.
For instance, the growth of Hinduism was higher than that of Islam within the same period. Many factors have led to the increase of Islam in the US as well as other parts of the world. At the outset, the culture of Islam has allowed an increase of Muslim population. Demographically, many Muslims are within the childbearing age (Ahmed 61). This implies that religion is poised to increase in all parts of the world as the global population continues to grow.
Besides, Islam allows followers to engage in polygamy. This implies that an average Muslim household has many members than any Christian household. As such, children born in Muslim households are likely to follow Islamic teachings due to the influence of the socialization process (Ahmed 63). This implies that the Muslim population enjoys higher fertility rates not only in the US but also in other parts of the world.
Further, Islam has experienced increased growth in parts of Europe. In particular, France has one of the largest Muslim populations in Europe. The rationale is that Islam has been one of the major religions in France since the end of the cold war. Besides, France has allowed numerous immigrants from the West of Africa to work and live in the country (Curtis 132). Undoubtedly, the dominant religion in Western Africa is Islam.
As such, numerous immigrants do not abandon their religion leading to a surge in the Muslim population in many parts of France. Although the increase of Islam in France has been outstanding, it has grown slowly owing to other factors (Pauly 59). Also, it is important to point out that democracy and enshrinement of fundamental human rights have allowed the religion to grow in an unsurpassed way since the end of the cold war.
The justification is that every member of the society has a right to religion and no person should suffer discrimination on the grounds of religious affiliation. In the United States, over 60% of immigrants allowed to live and work in the country come from Islamic nations (Pauly 62). Immigration is, therefore, a major cause of the rise of the Muslim population in the US.
Another factor that has allowed the increase of Islam in the Western world is the ‘anti-western rhetoric’ projected by various Islamic sects. As such, many people who believe that the Western countries have marginalized Islam and demeaned its teachings tend to convert to Islam. For instance, the war on terror that President Bush started allowed the religion to thrive and grow in a manner not witnessed before.
This is because many people who believed that the war was unjustified joined Islam as a way of showing sympathy (Pauly 43). This did not only happen in the US but also many parts of the world.
This has led to an increase in the number of people who sympathize with innocent people caught in the middle of the war on terror. According to Pauly, powerless people who do not support the Western attacks on Islamic countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq opt to convert to Islam as a way of expressing their dissatisfaction and displeasure (42).
Pauly says that Islam has continued to teach strict doctrines that restrict followers from converting to other religions (57). With the secularization of Christianity and Hinduism in the modern world, Islam has promised an alternative religion that does not allow secular teachings. For instance, many Christians profess their faith in different ways than the majority of Muslims.
Hence, many people in search of spiritual fulfillment find solace in Islam. Besides, the increase of immorality within the larger Christian community has played a big role in diluting the religion to the advantage of Islam. For the last few decades, cases of pedophile and gay priests typified the media, especially in the United States.
This has left many Christians with reservations about their religion. To this end, the increase in the cases of immorality that have continued to mar many Christian denominations has played a supportive role for Muslims leading to the high number of people joining Islam.
Finally, Islam is a monotheistic religion that allows all people from across the world to practice its teaching. This has demystified the notion that Islam belongs to a particular race. It has also encouraged many people who do not come from Muslim nations to convert to Islam as opposed to other religions. In particular, many financial institutions across the world have embraced Islam banking.
This service allows the followers to enjoy banking services that are in line with the teachings of Muhammad (Ahmed 72). Also, there has been an effort to dissociate Islam from violence.
Many people in the contemporary world have understood that Islam is a peaceful religion that values humanity and human rights. To this end, the religious clash that existed has reduced substantially. This has allowed Islam to spread in many parts of the Western countries especially the USA and France.
Factors That Impede Growth of Islam since the End Cold War
Although the rise of Islam and the increase of Muslim population have been impressive, it has remained at the periphery in many countries in the West. Many factors have hampered the growth of Islam in the United States and France. At the outset, Islam as a religion has been associated with violence and terrorism. As President Bush pointed out, not all Muslims are terrorists, but the majority of terrorists happen to be Muslims (Ahmed 78).
The stereotype and prejudice have made many people hold reservations about Islam. Also, the rise of radical Muslims in the Middle East and parts of Africa (Al Shabab and Boko Haram) has played a negative role in promoting religion in many parts of the world. According to many theologians, people fear religious profiling and as such, decide to remain in other religions.
For instance, there has been a widespread outcry in the manner through which American antiterrorism agencies gather intelligence. The rationale is that Muslims, especially in the US, live under the scrutiny of intelligence officers due to their religious affiliation. To this end, the association of Islam with violence and radicalism has hindered the growth of the Muslim population.
Also, the association of Islam with violence has substantial justifications. First, the teachings of Islam allow the followers to revenge through ‘holy war’ (Jihad). This does not only limit the penetration of Islam in many parts of the world, but it also scares away potential converts. Besides, many theologians agree that the strict punitive measures that the religion advocates have made people be wary of the religion (Ahmed 82).
For instance, the religion prescribes the death sentence to a woman found engaging in adulterous activities. This is a violation of human rights. Such violations have made Islam to become an unattractive religion for people who would like to join it. Stringent measures and unreasonable pressure placed on the followers have hampered the increase of Islam in the world. It is worth mentioning that many countries have gone contrary to the teachings of Islam.
For instance, France was among the first countries in Western Europe to ban women from wearing veils (hijab) as a way of professing their religion.
Second, the processes of globalization and westernization have played major roles in hampering the growth of Islam. On the one hand, the process of globalization has led to the convergence of many cultures of the world implies that the world is headed for a singular and uniform culture. This has also affected religious cultures not only in the West but also in the Muslim nations.
The rationale is that globalization leads to the secularization of religions and cultures. As such, many people who migrate to the US from Muslim nations end up abandoning the religion (Ahmed 82). This is an attempt to be integrated into American society.
To this end, scholars pinpoint that over 60% of Muslims who migrate to the United States annually, only about half of them remain Muslims (Ahmed 78). This is because of the process of globalization. On the other hand, the process of westernization has brought new principles to the entire world. For instance, democracy and enshrinement of human rights are major principles that many countries have adopted from the West through the process.
These principles have contradicted the teachings of Islam despite their noble intentions. As such, many people have failed to embrace Islam due to its apparent abuse and violation of human rights. Besides, the Sharia law has undermined the democratic principles largely. As such, Muslims who embrace democracy end up joining other religions (Ahmed 82). Westernization process has also empowered women across all nations.
This has allowed women in predominantly Muslim nations to embrace such services as family planning and birth control. The net effect is a reduced number of people in households leading to a marginal percentage of people joining Islam. It is therefore clear that globalization and westernization processes have led to the unattractiveness of Islamic doctrines.
To end with, Ahmed points out that the role of religion in supporting societal structures has declined across the world (89). In fact, modern societies emphasize strong political and economic institutions across the world.
This has left religious institutions at the periphery. With the growth of atheistic sects, such religions as Christianity and Islam have suffered from a reduced number of people who incline to them.
Undoubtedly, despite the increase in the global population, there has been a significant decline in the percentage number of Christians as well as Muslims. To this end, it is apparent that the importance of religion as a social institution has reduced remarkably over the last two decades.
Conclusion
In sum, Islam has experienced growth in France and the United States since the end of cold war politics. Although the growth has been impressive, it is important to point out that the percentage growth of the Muslim population has been modest. Various factors have enhanced the growth of Islam in France and the US. They include immigration, Islamic culture and doctrines, democracy and anti-western rhetoric.
Nonetheless, the growth of Islam has not been outstanding. The reasons include the association of the religion with terrorism, westernization, globalization and a general decline in the importance of religion across the world. These factors have made Islam an unattractive religion after the end of the cold war (Curtis 141).
Works Cited
Ahmed, Akbar. Journey into America: The Challenge of Islam, New York: McGraw Hill Publishers, 2010. Print.
Curtis, Edward. Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
Pauly, Robert. Islam in Europe: Integration or Marginalization, California: Sage Publishers, 2013. Print.
1968 was a year that changed the American political and technology scene. There were changes in how the American troops stopped meddling in other people’s business, and political positions. Nonetheless, the African Americans were devastated by the death of their civil rights activist, Martin Luther King, who led them in fighting for equal rights. It was a turning point for the black community where they stood for their place in Olympics. Typically, when African Americans win for their country, they are considered Americans, but they are seen as less American when they are at fault. Therefore, 1968 was a year of the end of America’s involvement in the Vietnam War, the end of spying, Martin Luther King Jr’s assassination, racial protest in the Olympics, and the start of space exploration.
Early that year, on January 23, 1968, the North Korean troops captured an American ship and killed some American crew members making America withdraw from spying in North Korean territory. The seizure of the USS Pueblo by North Korea ignited an 11-month dilemma that threatened to exacerbate already high Cold War tensions in the area (Brown, 2019). The Pueblo was the source of the problem. The Korean War between US-led troops and the North had lasted nearly 15 years. From the Tsushima Strait, a maritime corridor separating Korea and Japan, the Navy Seal ship kept an eye on North Korea. Both parties have different versions of what transpired. An exchange of gunfire occurred eventually. Duane Hodges, a US crew member, was killed. The remaining crew members of the Pueblo alleged that they were mistreated and malnourished while in detention. Following months of discussions, North Korea decided to release the crew members after the US admitted to eavesdropping on the Pueblo and committed not to spy again. The crew was permitted to return to South Korean territory on December 23 safely.
Additionally, in January of that year, North Vietnam sent the Tat Offensive to the United States of America and South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The Tet Offensive marked the start of the end of the United States’ engagement in the Vietnam War. More than 80,000 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese soldiers launched a planned assault on 36 major cities and villages in South Vietnam (Brown, 2019). It took the US-led forces off guard. The villages lost during Tet were built again by US and South Vietnamese forces. Nonetheless, it served as a reminder for Americans in the United States to cease their involvement as it began to lose support for the war. Therefore, this year marked the end of the United States of America’s involvement in other people’s political unrests.
Nonetheless, on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. He was a pioneering civil rights activist during the Civil Rights Era. He preached on resorting to peaceful tactics while demanding equal rights for the black community. At 6:01 p.m., Martin Luther King Jr. was shot at Lorraine Motel. Martin Luther King Jr. was rushed to neighbouring St. Joseph’s Hospital but did not survive (Brown, 2019). At 7:05 p.m., he was confirmed dead. His fellow civil rights leaders publicly called for a peaceful protest to honor King’s memory. However, riots erupted in over 100 places throughout the country. James Earl Ray was apprehended at London’s Heathrow Airport two months later. Ray was tied to the crime by fingerprints tracked back to him. He admitted it but later tried to retract it. The black community lost an essential part of their movement for racial equality in 1968.
A few months after Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination, another great political leader was shot dead. Bobby Kennedy was shot inside the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California, on June 5, 1968, shortly after declaring victory in the California primary. At the time of his killing, Robert “Bobby” F. Kennedy, the brother of John F. Kennedy, was a serving part of the United States Senate and a presidential contender. He died within 26 hours of attempting treatment and could not survive due to the severe impact of the gun wounds. Sirhan, a Palestinian Jordanian citizen, was apprehended and accused of assassinating Kennedy. One of Kennedy’s most important legacies was his recognition of the rights of the black population and the necessity to treat them as equals in the country. He took after his brother’s lifelong dream of having a liberating future.
Nevertheless, on October 16, 1968, two black athletes participated in a quiet protest against racial injustice in the United States during the 1968 World Olympics in Mexico City. The International Olympic Committee condemned the American medalists Tommie Smith and John Carlos for their rebellious conduct of lifting their fists during the National Anthem (Brown, 2019). Many people were shocked by their protest, which they believed harmed the Olympic spirit and inappropriately incorporated politics into the competition. Smith and Carlos bent their heads in which they were wearing black gloves to receive gold and bronze medals for their efforts in the 200-meter event. Their fists were not the end of the demonstration. They wore badges to honor the Olympic Project for Human Rights, an organization devoted to ending racial segregation and prejudice in sports. An Australian medalist, Peter Norman, wore the patch in solidarity with Smith and Carlos. Carlos, who had raised his left hand, explained that the gesture represented black solidarity and that their fists had formed an arch of unity and strength. The two medalists wanted to emphasize the need for racial equality and identification in the Olympics.
Moreover, in the same year, three astronauts circled the moon ten times on December 24, making groundbreaking discoveries for space exploration. The first humans to visit the moon were Jim Lovell, Bill Anders, and Frank Borman. Apollo 8 was a mission to be the first in various junctures and launched from the Kennedy Space Center (Brown, 2019). The Apollo 8 sought to have the first human-taken images of Earth from deep space. Apollo 8 made it possible for the first live telecast of the lunar surface. They were also the first to journey to the moon’s far side. A Space Race competition with the Soviet Union spurred the weeklong mission and had the nation’s ambition to fulfill President John F. Kennedy’s aspirations to land on the moon before the decade ended. Space exploration made it possible for Americans to support science and develop technologies for further exploration.
Many parents dream of having their children study in the best schools and the best environment. The book, Gilded Cage, Gilded Cage by Leslie Chang highlights how Bella’s parents recognized the United States of America as the best place for their daughter to pursue further studies. Bella’s parents incorporated the American lifestyle into Bella, such as making her eat in fast food places familiar in the United States like KFC and Pizza Hut. They would sew her hair into piggy-tails as seen on American girls. The parents ensured she went to the best schools in Shanghai so that she would have a reputable transcript that would give Bella a high chance to go to the USA. However, older people and newspapers reported how appalling it is for parents to lose their Chinese lifestyle and make their children act like Americans. Bella, too did not like America. This case portrays how the Cold War took place in 1947 when the United States feared its people adapting to the Communist’s life, and there was tension between the two powers.
One of the causes of the Cold War between the Soviets and the United States of America was the fear of communism. Relating to Bella’s case, the older people saw how the generation of Bella’s parents was adapting to the American lifestyle, and they were against it. The older people acknowledged how the parents let their children disrespect them and go without punishment, only a warning or light punishment. Nonetheless, media outlets such as “Xinmin Evening News” showed how children did not eat well because they wanted to maintain a lean figure, an American body standard (Chang, 2010). They believed that the American lifestyle would ruin the Chinese culture in children. Similarly, during the Civil War, the American media primarily focused on showing how the Soviets mistreated its people and how the Communists would ruthlessly rule America if people accommodated them. The speculations caused tension which caused most Americans to be wary of the Communist Party’s involvement with their country.
Additionally, America’s meddling in other countries’ affairs was part of the cause of the Cold War. In Chang’s story, Bella hates America because she learns through her textbooks how America unnecessarily involves itself in other countries’ affairs (Chang, 2012). True to her sentiments, the Soviet Union started supporting North Korea during the Cold War in 1949. The United States of America felt threatened by this move and sought territory in South Korea, which started the Korean War that happened until 1953. The war would not have started if America had let the Soviets have an influence on North Korea and not been a competitor with the Soviets. Furthermore, the American involvement in South Korea stirred more tension between North Korea and South Korea which made the Korean War. Bella’s thoughts on America are well portrayed in the Cold War competition of territory between the Soviets and America and involvement with other countries.
The Cold War reflects some sentiments in Leslie Chang’s book, Gilded Cage, Gilded Cage where there is fear of losing one’s culture and abhorring another country due to their unnecessary interference. In the primary source, the Chinese feared the effects of the American culture on their children due to the media’s and the elderly’s influence. The same propaganda happened to the Soviets, where the American media hyper-focused on stories that made the Soviets look like a villain causing Americans to fear the Soviet’s influence on them. Additionally, America meddled in the Korean War because it competed for Korean territory with the Soviets, which aggravated the Korean War and Cold War. Leslie Chang’s book on the assimilation of the American culture in a young Chinese girl’s life relates to the power struggle between the Soviets and the United States of America in the Cold War of 1947.
This book entails the private lives of families during the Cold War. Homeward Bound has not only been responsible for altering the common consideration of the Cold War in America but it also compels historians and readers like me to reassess the association between the public and private lives of American families after the Cold War. Elaine Tyler May through this book raises a question upon the political ideology by researching that the Atomic Age and the Cold War were not the only objectives to be studied by those who make the public policy. We all know that the Cold War era released tensions and pressures as such that made a heavy impact on American life at every level for the reason that the declared foreign strategy of containment in the direction of the Soviet Union had a familial consequence. The apparent threats of this era were a nuclear war, consumerism, collectivism, women’s liberation, and sexual testing which were shown to be contained in the family itself.
In my view, I believe that the thesis May argues on somewhat portrays “cold war ideology and the domestic revival as two sides of the same coin” (p. 10). At the same time, I read this to be a reflection of the scrupulous fears and anxiety as well as the ambitions and expectations for the period.
I read Elaine Tyler May’s study, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era, and found out that the theme of her work is inspired by the much talked about settlement of the families away from the city after the war. We all have read in miscellaneous Cold War accounts that these families were abnormally big and it was difficult for them to dwell. However, very few works reflected the account of abnormal increase in the rate of birth after the war which was surely a demographic abnormality. This increase in birthrate was seen last in late 1800s after which the birthrate had started to fall. This rise in the birthrate been noted as return to customary traditions and family values which have been made probable by the wartime affluence which followed fatalities caused by the Depression. May convinces the reader at this point that these outsized middle-class families belonging to the towns were not a foreseeable come back to a former model but a new model of a family which resulted in the framework of a particular communal and political culture after the war. I perceive, May’s thesis is aiming to map out the edifice of this new image of family life as it resounded throughout the newly formed culture and became a basis of developing the foundation of societal approaches and strategy formulations in the community.
In my opinion May’s book is a significant study of the development of meticulous philosophies of the standard family and for the clear links it discloses between life of families, public and political philosophies in this era. To study the familial structures existing in the postwar era, this book would prove to be the only such account of history that will answer all your questions. May signifies that the postwar family would be the stronghold to defend its members from the fears of the atomic times, the interior risks of communist sedition, the enticements of greed and materialism. Barbecues in the courtyard and huge bedrooms and living Family rooms and backyard barbecues were a provision of a warm home setting that would lead to fulfilling all the ” personal need through an energized and expressive personal life” (11).
Elaine Tyler May’s Homeward Bound intertwines two customary accounts from the 1950s, one was the domesticity in the suburbs and the other was an uncontrolled anticommunism. What was very strong about this intertwining, in my opinion was that this resulted in a forceful chronological argument. Aiming to determine why, “postwar Americans turned to marriage and parenthood with such enthusiasm and commitment,” (5-6) May tries to tell us that this was a resultant of “postwar Americans’ intense need to feel liberated from the past and secure in the future” (10). In my view, domestic containment was a result of the insecurities and ambitions that were the outcome of the war – and that is exactly what May argues, that it started inside the homes, “potentially dangerous social forces of the new age might be tamed, where they could contribute to the secure and fulfilling life to which postwar women and men aspired” (14). We will see that May begins her argument by looking at the origin of this domestic containment in the 1930’s and 1940’s. Throughout the Depression, she mentions, that two dissimilar observations of the family contended, that was between the breadwinners who shared other tasks and the other with spouses whose roles were stridently distinguished.
During WWII, the vision of both the men and women working to be breadwinners was held back. As May mentions, “women entered war production, but they did not give up on reproduction…Economic hardship was no longer a barrier to marriage, as it had been in the 1930s, and dependents’ allowances eased the burdens of families if the breadwinners were drafted. But perhaps most important was the desire to solidify relationships and establish connections to the future when war made life so uncertain” (59-60).
Even the popular culture defined in the book before the war respected woman to work; it also made sure that women return to their domestic life after the war ends. These trends were aggravated by the rioting of the atomic bomb. In this context, May states that “As the cold war took hold of the nation’s consciousness domestic containment mushroomed into a full-blown ideology that hovered over the cultural landscape for two decades” (91). It is in this part of her book that I saw her trying to make some very interesting claims. May tries to explain how the homes of the suburban families were used for dangerous atomic bombs and at the same time used for domestication of the females. May carries on till the end of the book to clarify how the habitats of these people turned into a redeemer and a jail for Cold War families in the 1950s. While sex inside these homes was being promoted by the popular culture, everything combined to form sexual dissatisfaction, complexity, and irritation.
For American women and men during Cold War Era a successful family life was a major personal goal. They wanted to build a home with all the security and accomplishments and happiness for their families and at the same time also secure them from the bitterness of the Cold War. As seen above, the birthrate was very high during this settlement period. The reason for this outrage in child birth was the same idea of the couples in the U.S.A. identified having a lot of children with sense of steadiness and safety. At the same time, the women’s position in the social order was altered as well. The accepted thought of a perfect housewife replicates spectacular change toward traditional and customary gender roles. Culture prevailing in America during the 1950s and 1960s gave much respect to women workers and since men were positively to go for education in colleges and focus on their careers. Also, the social order was fearful with the idea of a nuclear attack. The stable training for atomic war and the significance of the family show the important force of the events taking place on the political front during the Cold War on many part of the American style of living.
We all know that the Cold War had left many adverse affects on the American families in miscellaneous ways. Women and men in America were hoping positively that family life after the war would be much happier and secure and fruitful so they may free themselves of the hardships they went through in the past. They believed that wealth; commodities, pleasing sexual activities, and kids would make their families stronger, thus making them able to maneuver themselves out of the possible disturbances. American at that particular time wanted good career based jobs, a secure home for themselves and their families and long term committed marriages.
The form of American life was idealized all over the world giving vigilance to the distinct ethnic and racial assemblies, organizing themselves for any likelihood atomic conflict (with a protected guard in their home) or any kind of communal problem. Their family functions would counteract any danger. Good fathers and powerful, healthy mothers would inspire standards in their young children so they could bypass lesson disorder for demonstration all kinds of deviancy. There was powerful force to conform to the perfect of the heterosexual atomic family to bypass difficulties, which were markers of a need of loyal asset. Those were very powerful notes at a time when anti-communism was adhered to any kind of communal rebel.
One of the truths of postwar American heritage is that the perfect of humanity regardless of the class, where just about everyone dwelled a middle-class life — isn’t true. Though it became likely, particularly for veterans’ families, to move into snug suburban dwellings, it was much less factual for persons of hue, and even for Jews in some situations, to move into those communities.
While I was reading the book what I found to be the most interesting and evident aspect of May’s work is the inclusion of the Kelly Longitudinal Study (KLS) which comprised of over 600 participants’ wide answers to queries posed to them as married couples during the 1930s and 1955. This allows the reader and somewhat allowed May as well to conclude her main proof as to how these policies governing public along with the well-liked society formulations resounded through peoples’ life. Mostly the survey participants include white, middle-class, mainly Protestant couples who were called after they renounced their weddings in local newspapers of New England and retorted to questionnaires sent to them after every specific number of years. The results of the KLS questionnaires reveal the respondents’ profound obligation to the new familial model. When asked to look into their homes and respond their main focus or sense of achievement lied in the security and predictability of their family. Women were very committed their domestic life but many were found to be having problems with frustration and monotony that many were exposed to. Because of premarital sex among these respondents, it was discovered that actually after marriage their level of dissatisfaction had increased in the wake of which they had to lower their expectations.
These families were however very pleased with the large number of offspring that they had and were of a notion that the sign of a happy family and successful marriage was actually in these children. The KLS questionnaires were a good source of ideas that were put forward by May, however there is still a heavy research to be carried out which explores these issues further and not limited due to class and ethnic limitations.
I believe May’s book, appeals to the idealistic spatial circumstances of settling down away from the city and America’s leading inhabited typology. Despite its incidental righteousness, however, the use of home provokes the home balance and sentimental domestication intending to benefit power of the nation-state and analytically shapes benefits into local and international scales. Elaine May’s examination of the symbiotic relationship among the civilization of the Cold War and the home revitalization of the 1950s majorly points out towards the containment of home held out with the assurance of safety in an unconfident world. The nuclear family was a creation of the nuclear age, and then existent homeland’s family revivalism is edifying upon the Cold War’s discursive bequest.
The final argument presented by May insisted that the cold war domestic accord was traditionally constructed and that it had begun to loosen in the dissimilar chronological situation when the baby boom occurred in the 1960s. May suggests, in an epilogue that a great amount of achievable motives were the reason for which the domestic ideology had begun to fall apart.
I believe that May’s Domestic ideology was built on the premises of particular accounts of femininity and masculinity, but what remains untold is how were these further prejudiced by racial and ethnic issues? How did the yearnings moved by the 1950s’ account of the high-quality life influence people who couldn’t contribute in it, those who couldn’t pay for a house in the suburbs, or those whose wherewithal were so completely exhausted by the home that they couldn’t pay for? What was the force of the family agreement on those disqualified from it in terms of class, race, or sexual fondness? How did familial suppression function to conceal deficiency; ethnic, racial, and sexual dissimilarity; urban downfall; and class dissimilarities from observation?
Works Cited
May, Tyler Elaine. Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era. New York: Basic Books, 1988.
The cold war orthodoxy that defined the American foreign policy proved wrong according Robert McNamara who was the secretary of defense during the Vietnam War. The US policy makers relied on their own assumptions and values. The US policy makers lacked knowledge and information about Vietnam, though this is just a scapegoat reason for the failure, the real reason lies on the fact that the US policy makers were glued to the cold war orthodoxy, the America cold war orthodoxy dismisses any critics of war that US is a party, and based on misguided assumptions and fueled by ignorance and inability to admit error.
Main Body
The realization of the American citizens that there was a distance between the thoughts of the policy makers and the realities on the battlefield led to an intensified opposition to the war. The Vietnam War made the Americans appear skeptical about the role of America in protecting their interests and also in policing the world; the war also made Americans believe that any engagement that might be quick and driven by ignorance and indecisiveness can be extremely dangerous. Another fundamental lesson that Americans learned from the Vietnam War was that national interest was considered prime over foreign policy debates.
The anti-Vietnam war movements had the role of creating awareness and sensitizing the other citizens by telling the other side of the war story which was not made popular and public by the government or the media. This attracted popular dissent by the US citizens who had been kept in the dark about the war. The war movements led to the institutionalization of anti-war cause.
Conclusion
There was a wide gap between the American citizens and the policy makers. This was exhibited in the plan for the Vietnam War where the ordinary Americans were fed with lies that were only meant to satisfy their conviction and the factual policies and ideas obscured from them. The reasons the Americans citizens were given composed of lies and myths and the updates they received about the progress of the war were mere falsehoods aimed at curbing any opposition towards the war (Appy and Bloom 1).
Works Cited
Appy, Christian and Bloom, Alexander. Vietnam War mythology and the rise of public cynicism. New York, NY: Cengage Learning, n.d. Print.
The history of mankind is rich in events that have become a point of no return for the entire public and the world. Of particular importance in this process were the wars and the next moments that followed them. Hence, since 1945, one of the brightest turning points in history has been the invasion of the Middle East by America and the USSR in the end of the 20th century. The result of these actions was the emergence of such a historiographic intervention as the refugee crisis, which increased concern about the problem of terrorism and the victimization of refugees. These two aspects will be studied in this paper and analyzed with the help of scholarly sources that assisted in shaping the arguments.
The Cold War in the World History
It is worth noting that when analyzing primary sources, the current study concluded that they had undergone some changes. Therefore, the more scientific works moved away from the actual time of the events that were analyzed and described, the more detailed they became. Perhaps this is due to the fact that over time, restrictions on what could be said about the problem under discussion were removed. Hence, a more significant number of points of view of historical figures and people who were direct participants in the events began to appear.
Thus, one of the main events that became the subject of public discussion and concern of the world community was the actions of the United States of America and Russia in relation to the Middle East. Many viewed this as a Cold War between rival countries, which entailed destabilized the regions that were affected by the powers. The ideologies of Russia and America played a unique role in this process, which formed the characteristics of the interventions being conducted. Sources note, “During the Cold War, American symbols– the free market, anti-communism, fear of state power, faith in technology – had teleological functions: what is America today will be the world tomorrow”1. At the same time, it is emphasized that at that time, the United States perceived its foreign policy based on the belief in the essential role of its democratic republic in influencing the world.
On the other hand, the leading player in this process was Russia, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which was also characterized by its own particular ideology. Thus, “Soviet elites denied the market,” “communism was the higher stage of modernity,” and they “placed the liberation of the productive potential of the people at the core of the political process”2. As America, this country puts the welfare of humanity in the top place while neglecting the concepts of identity and nation. Therefore, the clash of interests and worldviews of countries and the attitude towards the introduction of their forces into the Third World entailed severe consequences.
Thus, the strained relations between the countries and the desire to master the Third World countries have caused such phenomena as Islamic defiance, the Iranian Revolution, and interventions in Afghanistan. This was influenced by the spread of Islamism in both Iran and Afghanistan, which “helped to destroy the modernization enterprises of the regimes”3. Representatives of this movement engaged in the establishment of a caliphate to replace that which had been destroyed by Western imperialism. Due to the constant opposition from the USSR and the United States, which tried to bring their ideology to the mentioned lands, Islamism turned into a kind of left-wing revolutionism, becoming an underground organization for the fight against countries.
Moreover, the Cold War between the two powers resulted in the Iranian Revolution, which contributed to the refugee crisis in Europe that happened latter. Unwilling to submit to Russia and America, people held demonstrations and staged violent riots, which had severe consequences4. Moreover, these circumstances contributed to the further spread and strengthening of Islamism. In addition, the Soviet Union intervened in support of the communist Afghanistan government and clashed with Muslim guerrillas, whose resentment of USSR land and social reforms5. All these events caused civil war, economic hardship, and the repressive Islamist regime.
USSR had several negative consequences for both sides. Thus, it has suffered significant financial and resource losses. The current situation in the country affected the fall of the Soviet Union. In turn, the United States began to pay more attention to nuclear weapons and tried to limit the protests and unrest that arose6. One of the severe consequences was the spread of terrorism, which posed a danger to the community.
During all these events, the phenomenon of migration of people to the United States of America and European countries from oppressed countries became relevant. Thus, the concept of the refugee crisis appeared, and nationalist and white supremacy sentiments in society began to spread7. The influx of people who wanted to leave their homes for a better life was not positively assessed by all Americans and Europeans. Furthermore, the result was a change in the representation and vision of people, especially from countries such as Afghanistan or Iraq. Thus, the media narrative involved hydrophobic metaphors of floods and waves of immigrants that pose economic, social, & security threats to developed countries8. On the other hand, more radical residents viewed the flow of refugees as potential terrorists or victims of a brutal regime.
The changes that have taken place in the world have led to a reshaping of the understanding of what refugees are. Thus, more and more people viewed them as “not villains, not victims, but full-fledged, autonomous individuals that shouldn’t be boiled down to a single stereotype”9. In the future, the prejudice about their insecurity and unreliability will be fixed for people moving to European countries and American states. On the other hand, many people feel sorry for these people and only want to help.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this work considered how historical events that have occurred in the world can negatively affect society. Thus, the Cold War and the confrontation of the United States of America against the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to exert more significant influence on the Middle East became the cause of the refugee crisis. This phenomenon occurred due to the fact that in countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq, people were not satisfied with the situation and the desired the powers to instill their own faith and order in their territory. This circumstance led to a civil war and multiple confrontations. Therefore, people began to leave their homes and move to America and Europe, which was not always met positively. The spread of migrants influenced the reshaping of understanding and understanding of what the refugees were.
References
Menashri, D. (2019). The Iranian revolution and the Muslim world. Routledge.
Siddiqui, A. J., & Butt, D. K. M. (2020). Afghanistan-Soviet relations during the Cold War: a threat for South Asian peace. South Asian Studies, 29(2).
Smets, K., Mazzocchetti, J., Gerstmans, L., & Mostmans, L. (2019). Beyond victimhood: Reflecting on migrant-victim representations with Afghan, Iraqi, and Syrian asylum seekers and refugees in Belgium. Images of Immigrants and Refugees in Western Europe, 177-198.
Westad, O.A. (2005). The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times. Cambridge University Press.
Footnotes
Westad, O.A. (2005). The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times. Cambridge University Press.
Westad, O.A. (2005). The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times. Cambridge University Press.
Westad, O.A. (2005). The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times. Cambridge University Press.
Menashri, D. (2019). The Iranian revolution and the Muslim world. Routledge.
Siddiqui, A. J., & Butt, D. K. M. (2020). Afghanistan-Soviet relations during the Cold War: a threat for South Asian peace. South Asian Studies, 29(2).
Siracusa, J. (2020). Nuclear weapons: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Smets, K., Mazzocchetti, J., Gerstmans, L., & Mostmans, L. (2019). Beyond victimhood: Reflecting on migrant-victim representations with Afghan, Iraqi, and Syrian asylum seekers and refugees in Belgium. Images of Immigrants and Refugees in Western Europe, 177-198.
Taylor, I. (2012). The struggle for modern Nigeria: The Biafran War 1967-1970. The Round Table, 101, 381 – 383.
Smets, K., Mazzocchetti, J., Gerstmans, L., & Mostmans, L. (2019). Beyond victimhood: Reflecting on migrant-victim representations with Afghan, Iraqi, and Syrian asylum seekers and refugees in Belgium. Images of Immigrants and Refugees in Western Europe, 177-198.
In the book “The Global Cold War” by Westad, the author seeks to understand why the cold war took longer and also the reason it became global. The book provides and deeper interrogation into the topic by presenting how the cold war became a global issue. The author holds that the cold war took longer because it involved many countries and that it entailed ideological differences and the desire to control markets and natural resources. Westad’s theoretical framework states that the cold war did not only happen in Europe but worldwide and resulted in severe consequences that are still experienced today. Westad focuses on the causes and consequences of the cold war and its reasons for spreading globally.
The key question the author asks is why the Cold War lasted longer, and what the author seeks to understand is how the Cold War became global. The Cold War was a decades-long struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union for supremacy in world affairs. It began immediately after World War II and lasted until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The main reason it lasted so long is that each side had a lot to lose1. The United States was afraid that if the Soviet Union became too strong, it would eventually become a threat to their security. On the contrary, the Soviet Union was afraid that if they were not able to keep up with the United States militarily, they would eventually be overthrown by their own people.
Westad provides a nuanced and detailed interrogation of how the Cold War became a global conflict. He offers readers a unique perspective on the many different ways the Cold War played out worldwide. By situating the Cold War within the larger context of global history, Westad assists readers in better understanding its causes and consequences. One of the most interesting aspects of Westad’s book is his discussion of how different countries experienced the Cold War. For example, he discusses how Third World countries were often caught in between the two superpowers and how they sometimes used the Cold War to further their own agendas.
The author’s key argument is that the Cold War lasted for so long and grew global because it was a struggle between two ideologies, capitalism and communism. These two ideologies were very different, and neither side was willing to compromise. The United States was for capitalism, and the Soviet Union was for communism. Each side wanted to prove that their way of life and ideologies were superior, and they were willing to go to great lengths to win against their opponents. The Cold War turned into a race to build up military power and gain allies, and it became a conflict that affected the whole world.
Westad argues that the Cold War was primarily a struggle between two global political and economic systems. He bases this argument on the following pieces of evidence. Firstly, he cites the increasing number of countries that aligned with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War period. This suggests that the conflict was between two individual powers and two global ideologies2. On one side was the Soviet Union, which espoused communism and believed in a centrally planned economy. On the other side was the United States, which championed capitalism and democracy. Secondly, Westad argues that the Cold War was also a struggle for control of natural resources and markets. The superpower competition for influence in developing nations led to an intensification of proxy wars and military aid programs.
According to “The Global Cold War,” the author’s theoretical framework is that the Cold War was a global phenomenon, not just limited to Europe. He takes for granted that the Cold War affected countries all over the world and that its impact is still felt today. However, some critics have accused Westad of oversimplifying the complex geopolitical realities of the time. The book provides a comprehensive overview of the origins, development, and conclusion of the Cold War and its various legacies.
The book has an important addition to the field of international relations because it provides a comprehensive view of the Cold War that goes beyond the binary East-West perspective. By looking at the conflict from a global perspective, Westad shows how different regions were affected by the Cold War in unique ways. Westad’s book is significant because it helps historians to understand the Cold War in a new way. He argues that the Cold War was not just a rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union but a global conflict involving many different countries and regions3. This argument changes our thinking about the Cold War and provides us with a complete picture of this complex period in history.
The key arguments in the book excerpt fit into the larger themes of the course by providing a historical perspective on the development of the Cold War. In particular, the excerpt discusses how the Cold War developed as a result of ideological differences between the Soviet Union and the United States. By understanding how these ideological differences played out in history, students can better understand how current events might be related to the Cold War. In conclusion, the Cold War lasted for nearly half a century and became a global conflict, the US and its allies against the Soviet Union and its allies. The main reason for the start of the Cold War was the differing ideologies of capitalism and communism.
Bibliography
Kadir, Jawad, and Majida Jawad. “Politics and the Family: Rethinking the India–Pakistan Two-Nations Theory Through the Familial Construction of Political Ideas.” India Review 19, no. 3 (2020): 223-253.
Westad, Odd Arne. The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Zamindar, Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali. The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories. Columbia University Press, 2007.
Footnotes
Westad, Odd Arne. The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times. Cambridge University Press, 2005, 245.
The Cold War was a continuous struggle between two powers that had formed after World War II: the Western camp headed by the USA included the Western capitalistic developed countries; the Eastern block headed by the USSR consisted of the countries which “professed” communism and had command economy.
This was a strong political confrontation based on a fundamental mutual ideological rejection; despite the two blocks did not carry out direct military operations, they nevertheless were involved in a perpetual arms race, which led to the substantial increase of their military potential and a huge breakthrough in the field of weapon and military technology. Despite the war is called “cold” considering absence of the explicit military confrontations, this struggle had been “incandescing” the political environment in the World for a long time.
When analyzing the causes of the capitalistic camp’s victory in the Cold War, it is hardly possible to limit the discussion by one certain reason; the explanation of the struggle’s outcome lies in both theoretical and historical dimensions, and it is necessary to consider them both. As for the historical context, after the War the USA had rather a beneficial position which helped the country to revive quickly and set the economical and political domination: the Marshall Plan, which seemed to be aimed at Europe’s economical rehabilitation, served for the benefit of the United States, as it brought the international dominance of the dollar and provided the country with a huge international market (McMahon 2003). At the same time, the USSR had been ruined substantially by the 4-year warfare and had no support “from outside”; it recovered not “by means of”, but “in defiance of”.
The theoretical aspect of the analysis concerns the essence of two opposite economical systems, which are capitalism and planned economy. The first system is based on competition and private property; correspondingly, the second one rejects private property, and the volume of production is defined not by the demand, but by the governmental planning. Thus, capitalism has a strong advantage: it stimulates progress in production and mass consumption, which are the pillars of economical growth. The absence of these factors is the planned economy’s biggest weakness (Painter 1999).
Therefore, it would be perfunctorily to state that the Eastern camp’s defeat was caused only by the pressure of the external factors; as well, the whole economical system of the USSR seems to have “putrefied” from insight. The main problem with the planned economy is that to make the system work it is necessary to plan precisely and farsightedly; however, for the USSR it was an impracticable task: first of all, the country was huge, and the central organs of government were not able to observe the needs of every region; secondly, the political system of the country was in a perpetual condition of stagnation: nepotism and lobbying flourished, and the decisions taken by the government were often not for the benefit of the population (Hanhimaki and Westad 2003).
Finally, it is possible to assume that improper planning was a tool that helped to suppress and constrain the nation. As a result, people experienced a strong shortage of first-necessity goods, their salaries lost their value. Besides, the absence of competition did not stimulate consumption and progress in production technology. Thus, the country had neither international trade, nor an effective inner market, and the economy collapsed; after the disintegration of the USSR, the whole communistic block stopped its existence.
Nevertheless, it is difficult to talk about the defeat in the Cold War: its outcome looks like a win-win situation. After 1990, Russia had a hard transition period, but at the moment this country is increasing its economical and innovative potential and participates actively in the international trade; the benefit for the USA and the Western developed countries consists in extended foreign market and absence of necessity to waste their economic potential to the arms race. The realities of the modern world have shown that economic competition and international trade are much more effective than political confrontation, as they serve for the benefit of all the participants.
Reference List
Hanhimaki, Jussi M., and Odd A. Westad. 2003. The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McMahon, Robert J. 2003. The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press.
Painter, David. 1999. The Cold War: An International History (The Making of the Contemporary World). 1st ed. USA, Canada: Routledge.
The Cold War was unprecedented in world history when countries competed to accumulate military and political power. Groups that shared a common ideological orientation and claimed world supremacy was actively formed. Ideology was seen primarily as a distinguishing mark and a way to characterize the boundaries of influence. The Third World project in this context is of particular interest since this concept united countries that previously did not have a common denominator besides the colonialist past. This paper aims to discuss the conceptual positioning of Latin America in the context of the Global Cold War as the heart of the Third World.
Latin America in the Context of the Cold War
Bissio described interesting elements in the formation of the Third World concept. According to the author, the third world was seen as a neutralist space that had local features of radical non-alignment. This world was viewed by Western countries as “a structure created by political elites to achieve political goals” and also as “a doctrine of a pragmatic and practical foreign policy, not limited by geography.”1 The author also proposed the perspective of the Third World as a rebellious and neutral space that was using the echoes of the Cold War rivalry for political and economic benefits.
In other words, the author defined the actual role of Latin America in the global context as a group of countries united by the ideas of political neutrality. Equally important, the author noted the consolidation of the third world based on “the inclusive ideological lines of worldwide anti-imperialism, and not solely on racial lines.”2 More importantly, this quote implies the importance of the inclusive ideology that has united the states of Latin America.
In contrast to Western concepts, Chinese and Soviet perspectives were based on a racial and geographic definition of the Third World and did not resonate with the elites in North Africa and Latin America. Interestingly, countries with a socialist political order were called the Second World. At the same time, the Third World was considered politically neutral and began to be perceived as such with the beginning of a policy of cautious diplomatic neutrality in the 1940s.
Grandin highlights the important role of Latin America as a formative force and a new global player.3 He sees race and language as both opportunities and obstacles for anti-imperialist solidarity. The scholar also examines the intellectual acceptance of Latin American anti-imperialism by the Soviet Union in the 1920s and during the Cold War, noting the appeal to a common denominator of anti-American politics.
The role of Mexico was important in the formation of conceptual ideological forms. Brazinsky notes that Mexico and Latin America had a common reading of decades of anti-imperialist politico-economic practices and global post-colonial struggles against economic dependence and exploitation.4 In other words, the author adds to the global picture of countries united by the ideas of independence and anti-imperialism, characteristic of the period during and after the Cold War.
Conclusion
Thus, the conceptual positioning of Latin America in the context of the Global Cold War was discussed. The United States and Europe viewed the countries of Latin America more in terms of their unifying ideas of political neutrality, radical movements towards independence, and a basic, somewhat outdated concept of anti-imperialism. Notably, attempts by the Soviet Union and China to introduce elements of racial or geographical concepts as distinctive met with strong opposition among the elites, emphasizing the importance of ideology as a binding political force.
Bibliography
Bissio, Beatriz. “Bandung, the non-Aligned and the Media: The Role of the Journal “Third World” in South-South Dialogue.” AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations 4, no. 8 (2015).
Brazinsky, Gregg. Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry during the Cold War. Chapel Hill: the University of North Carolina Press, 2017.
Grandin, Greg. The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
Footnotes
Beatriz Bissio. “Bandung, the non-Aligned and the Media: The Role of the Journal “Third World” in South-South Dialogue.” AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations 4, no. 8 (2015).
Beatriz Bissio. “Bandung, the non-Aligned and the Media” AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations 4, no. 8 (2015).
Greg Grandin. The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
Gregg Brazinsky. Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry during the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.