The concept of the human self as one of the central phenomena of Social Psychology appears to be complex and multisided. Striking discrepancies might occur between the public presentations and inner processes in human mind. Appearance is always deceptive and attempts to see the private realities of somebody’s self are not always crowned with success. Cognitive dissonance defining the simultaneous co-existence of contradicting ideas takes place in everybody’s inner struggle depends upon the processes of self-monitoring and impressions management and has a significant impact on my attitudes and the process of decision-making.
The process of balancing the cognitive dissonance is complicated with human desire to control and improve the impressions they produce on others. These techniques and well-planned strategies aimed at improving the public opinion of a person are referred to as impressions management. One’s aspiration for making friends and gaining authority in the community is quite natural. Being aware of the behavior that is most likely to be socially appreciated, people try to predict the attitude of the community to their actions and make the appropriate decisions. For example, trying to socialize in a new community, I pay attention to the system of relations adopted by the members of this social group. In case if certain schemes do not coincide with my accustomed beliefs, it may result in cognitive dissonance.
I may have certain doubts, whether it is worth to take the initiative and contribute to the successful work on the project or to be led by others. On the one hand, this uncertainty is caused by self-monitoring trying to detect whether my skills and knowledge are sufficient for taking the lead. On the other hand, as an impressions manager, I have to take into consideration the public opinion of my behavior trying to predict the community’s reaction. At the same time the impressions management techniques might be easily detected by others and have negative effect on their impressions. “High self-monitoring individuals may be especially fond of those who avoid strategic posturing” (Snyder 107). No matter how long the process of making the choice takes, I proceed to actions only after weighing all pros and cons of my decision and estimating possible consequences. Effective self-monitoring and reaching a compromise between inner self and impressions management is required for balancing of the cognitive dissonance and making the appropriate decision suitable for a certain situation within it context.
Besides the strategies aimed at creating the socially appreciated image of one’s self, balancing the contradicting ideas in one’s mind is important for acquiring the appropriate attitudes to the events of the surrounding world and molding the self-concept. For example, when I decide to buy something, I often experience the buyer’s remorse. With the present day level of development of marketing strategies, it is not that easy to resist the temptation of buying certain goods which a person does not actually needs. For example, buying something in a sale and coming home, I may realize that I was persuaded by the salesmen to make the purchase. Recollecting the process of decision making, I make a conclusion that the process of balancing the cognitive dissonance may be influenced by the outer factors, such as marketing efforts of the salesmen, for example.
The process of balancing the cognitive dissonance precedes my every action. It may be influenced by both inner and outer factors always having significant impact on my attitudes to the surrounding world as well as affecting the public opinion of my behavior.
Bibliography
Snyder, Mark. “The Many Me’s of the Self-Monitor”. Psychology Today. 1980: 13. Print.
Students are required to portray the highest degree of honesty in a test as part of their moral obligation. However, some of them fail to meet this expectation by considering cheating in exams. Dishonesty translates to breach or violation of social values, beliefs, attitudes, and/or morals (Leffel, 2008, p.183). In a hypothetical case, John is a student at Stuyvesant high school. His academic profile reflects strong grades in all subjects, including those subjects that his friends consider difficult such as physics. New York students are required to sit for regent tests. John was not an exception. With this test being an important exam based on his past performance, his parents were confident that he would emerge with good grades in the trial. As he walked into the silent exam room, no one suspected that he was about to engage in any form of immoral exam misconduct such as cheating.
John arrived in the exam room before other students. He chose a strategic position where he thought the exam invigilator would not have a glimpse of his intention. Armed with a Smartphone, he was prepared to keep constant communication with his friends by texting them the answers he would obtain from the internet. In particular, John was a good student in physics. He clearly knew that he would excel in this test.
By sending answers to other students outside his school, he was sure he would also get help from them in the subjects that they performed better. Regent exams are administered for three hours. However, students are allowed to break for two hours if they have finished. John’s plan was to use less than two hours in the test with a plan to utilize the rest of the time texting his friends. This plan worked without the slightest suspicion.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory may be used to analyze John’s situation that involved a breach of the moral obligation to portray the utmost honesty in the regent exam.
Although he did not receive answers to the exam from his friends, sending replies translates to a breach of the moral requirement in the administration of tests. Attribution theory provides an explanation of why people portray a specific behavior (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2003, p. 13). According to Heider, who is the first psychologist to propose the theory, attribution theory relates people’s behavior to personality, character, and/or attitude (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2003, p. 25).
People may also behave in specific ways because of particular issues related to their situation (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2003, p. 45). For John’s case, the chief driver of the intention to cheat is not specific. However, his parents have established particular anticipation for John’s performance in school. To keep them pleased, it is desirable for him to seek all possible alternatives that will ensure that he will never breach this anticipation in the quest to save his parents satisfied and/or keep the pride they have in him both presently and in the future.
Choosing a strategic position where the exam invigilator would not detect the foul play that he was about to engage implied that he was aware that cheating in a test was morally wrong. Nevertheless, he had a desire to develop a survival instinct.
Although he could have excelled in the regent exam without even communicating with his friends, he had the perception that he would not perform well in the future in some subjects in which he was not superior. Thus, it was necessary to please his friends so that they could also help him cheat in those subjects. This way, he could save himself from embarrassment arising from his parents for future failure to maintain the established standards and anticipations.
Reference List
Aronson, E., Wilson, D., & Akert, R. (2003). Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Leffel, G. (2008). Who cares? Generativity and the moral emotions, Part 2: A social intuitionist model of moral motivation. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 36(3), 182-201.
The brain is an essential organ of the central nervous system (CNS) that is equipped with specially designed neuronal circuits to execute complex mental challenges. Its role is central in maintaining the cognitive skills which are essential for societal interactions. It is well known that brain’s vitality is always connected with the ability to think, analyze or judge and retain memory. This might depend on the nature of feelings perceived by the individuals. In certain cases, these feelings might get altered or turn uncomfortable resulting in a condition known as cognitive dissonance. This arises when individuals hold two contradictory ideas at the same moment and develop a stressful mental state. However, there are ways to overcome this psychological disturbance and therefore there is a need to cite some examples.
In workplaces, it is obvious that some bosses are stringent and tend to speak in a humiliated manner. In such cases, it is a matter of self-esteem to focus. For job holders maintaining self-esteem is a great task in an atmosphere that is filled with embarrassments and discouragements or biases. Those falling victims to such uncertain conditions may be subjected to cognitive dissonance.
Wood et al. (1994) described that people with low self-esteem (LSE) seem to focus on self-protection than trying to achieve gains for their self-esteem, they try to avoid losses. Therefore it may indicate that people with low self-esteem are reducing the situations that might predispose them to an uncomfortable feeling.
Here, I would like to add that when I was working under my stringent boss I always tried to protect my self-esteem by evaluating my work, thinking positively, and expressing my words clearly.
The result is that there were no esteem-threatening situations. Thus, it made to experience a pleasant feeling in contrast to my initial days when I faced severe mental stress. So, although I had clarity problems that affected my esteem and mental calmness, I was positive enough due to fact that I could evaluate myself and correct. It was reported that people with low self-esteem (LSE) are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those with high-self-esteem (HSE) people. It may indicate that low self-esteem (LSE) need to evaluate their knowledge components of the self (Campbell,1990)
Further, in some cases, there is a need to think about the best choice between high self-esteem (HSEs) and low self-esteem Ss (LSEs). I used to think about switching to high self-esteem (HSE) to prevent any chances of negative feelings or situations in my work atmosphere.
Previous workers described that that high self-esteem Ss (HSEs) would reduce an esteem-threatening decision less than low self-esteem Ss (LSEs), because HSEs presumably had more favorable self-concepts with which to affirm, and thus repair, their overall sense of self-integrity. (Steele et al.1993)
These workers conducted experiments within the “free-choice” dissonance paradigm–one that manipulated self-esteem through personality feedback and the other that varied through a selection of HSEs and LSEs. They have made a significant contribution to the reduction of cognitive dissonance through their support for a resources theory of individual differences in resilience to self-image threats–an extension of self-affirmation theory, their implications for self-esteem functioning, and, their implications for the continuing debate over self-enhancement versus self-consistency motivation.
Therefore from the above report, it can be inferred that cognitive dissonance can be lessened by adopting certain theories linked to self-evaluation.
Very often, I used to get depressed by my performance and struggled to face my boss. I was unable to get sleep even at night. But, one day I slowly began thinking in such a way that I could investigate the matter and sort out the problem. I have made a detailed verification of the work and within no time I improved and hardly committed mistakes. This gave me immense mental relief.
Giesler, Josephs, and Swann (1996) described a theory named self-verification that helps in making a self prediction that depressed individuals seek advice that confirms their negative self-views. They have tested this prediction by classifying the participants based on a structured clinical interview and self-report measures into high-esteem, low self-esteem, and depressed groups. The participants were offered a choice between receiving favorable or unfavorable feedback; 82% of the depressed participants chose the unfavorable feedback, compared to 64% of the low self-esteem participants and 25% of the high self-esteem participants. They described that depressed individuals failed to make use of an opportunity to acquire favorable evaluations that were self-verifying. So, this report has indicated that negative evaluations and failing to seek favorable evaluations may help maintain depression.
Therefore, it may reasonable to infer that depression might contribute to cognitive dissonance. Hence, conditions leading to such an altered mental state need to be carefully evaluated.
Next, as I faced clarity and ambiguity during my earlier job days, I always managed to overcome them by improvements that reduced stress. It was reported that three motives guide self-evaluation (Wayment and Taylor, 1995). They are accuracy, self-enhancement, and self-improvement. To satisfy these motives, self-evaluation may utilize different information sources. Self-esteem may also moderate self-evaluation strategies.
This may further strengthen the need of acquiring self-evaluating tools for the effective management of cognitive dissonance. This study may indicate that adopting the reported motives is essential.
The above description supports a recent report that highlighted that people are motivated to maintain or enhance feelings of self-esteem, continuity, distinctiveness, belonging, efficacy, and meaning in their identities. Here, four studies tested the influence of these motives on identity construction, by using a multilevel regression design. The participants have perceived more central identity elements that provided a greater sense of self-esteem, continuity, distinctiveness, and meaning.
This was found for individual, relational, and group levels of identity, among various populations, and by using a prospective design. The motives for belonging and efficacy have influenced identity definition indirectly through their direct influences on identity enactment and their contributions to self-esteem. Participants were happiest about those identity elements that best satisfied motives for self-esteem and efficacy. These findings indicate the necessity for an integrated theory of identity motivation.
Therefore, it can be inferred that motives are crucial in establishing identity which might help in combating the ill effects of cognitive dissonance
Given the cognitive dissonance may be counteracted by adopting various theories of self-evaluation, esteem and establishing identity through motivation
References
J Pers Soc Psychol. 1994;67(4):713-31.Related Articles, Links Strategies of social comparison among people with low self-esteem: self-protection and self-enhancement.
Wood J V, Giordano-Beech M, Taylor K L, Michela J L, Gaus. “Strategies of social comparison among people with low self-esteem: self-protection and self-enhancement.” J Pers Soc Psychol. 67.4 (1994):53-65.
Campbell J D. “Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept.” J Pers Soc Psychol. 59.3(1990):538-49.
Steele C M, Spencer S J, Lynch M. “Self-image resilience and dissonance: the role of affirmational resources.” J Pers Soc Psychol. 64.6(1993): 885-96.
Giesler R B, Josephs R A, Swann W B Jr. “Self-verification in clinical depression: the desire for negative evaluation.” J Abnorm Psychol 105.3(1996):358-68.
J Pers. 1995;63(4):729-57.Related Articles, Links Self-evaluation processes: motives, information use, and self-esteem.
Wayment H A, Taylor S E. “Self-evaluation processes: motives, information use, and self-esteem.” J Pers.63.4 (1995):729-57.
The cognitive dissonance theory is very useful when predicting human behavior. Cognitive dissonance is a study of how humans adjust their behaviors with the view of attaining internal consistency. Consequently, human beings tend to shun experiences of dissonance because they lead to psychological imbalance.
The need to eliminate cognitive dissonance makes human beings act in a manner that counteracts the disparity in psychological feelings, and this is known as dissonance reduction. Since its premiere, cognitive dissonance has been expounded by various other psychologists. This paper presents research on the topic of cognitive dissonance and dissonance reduction using available and recent literature on this subject.
In the article titled, “A Dynamic Model of Dissonance Reduction in a Modular Mind,” the author sets up an experiment to identify how individuals engage in dissonance reduction (Karagozoglu, 2014). The author of this article is Emin Karagozoglu, a tutor at Bilkent University. The article details a research experiment in which the test subjects were exposed to two dissonant factors. The dissonant factors were expected to trigger dissonance reduction among the test subjects.
The author of the article isolated the element of ‘habituation’ as a major contributor to the manifestation of cognitive reduction. Another article that touches on the topic of cognitive dissonance is the one titled “Dissonance and Prejudice.” The authors of this article are staff members at Saint Louis University’s Department of Psychology. This article touches on the subject of cognitive dissonance in relation to racial prejudice.
In the experiment that was used to unravel the cognitive dissonance factors, white students were requested to come up with a scholarship policy that could counter the attitudes of black students. In addition, the counter-attitude policy came at a cost to the fraternity of the white students. The authors of this article found out that the test subjects were more accommodating to the attitudes of the minority students after the experiment (Eisenstadt, Leippe, Stambush & Rauch, 2009).
The cognitive dissonance of the test subjects made the white students be more accommodative of minority student groups as a means of dissonance reduction. The third article is by David Vaidis and Dominique Oberle, and it is titled “Approaching Opponents and Leaving Supporters” (Vaidis & Oberle, 2014). In this article, the authors set up an experiment where students with opposing viewpoints were asked to set up a meeting and discuss their views.
The experimenters then measured the physical distance between the two students and related it to the level of agreeability between the two students. The results of this experiment indicated that physical proximity was more when students had opposing points of view than when they concurred.
Another article that addresses the topic of cognitive dissonance is the one titled “Reduction in Cognitive Dissonance According to Normative Standards in the Induced Compliance Paradigm” (Voisin & Fointiat, 2013). This article is authored by two French university lecturers and social psychologists Voisin Voisin and Valerie Fointiat. The experiment that is described in the article seeks to establish the various levels of discrepancy when gauging cognitive dissonance.
The authors of the four articles address various aspects of cognitive dissonance with the view of eliminating it. According to the articles, cognitive dissonance can be examined from various angles. The most fundamental principle in cognitive dissonance is that human beings are responsive to the discrepancies between their beliefs and actions. Consequently, human beings have the ability to recognize that they are acting in a manner that goes against their core beliefs, albeit involuntarily.
The behaviors that result from the realization that actions are inconsistent with beliefs are the main points of interest for social psychology researchers. For instance, Emin Karagozoglu sets out to investigate how habituation factors in cognitive dissonance. In her article, the author argues that intrapersonal conflict is a major determinant of the course that is taken by cognitive dissonance and its resulting dissonance reduction.
Consequently, from Karagozoglu’s research, it is clear that personal beliefs are a major source of intrapersonal conflicts. The levels of intrapersonal research influence both the actions of the individual and the direction taken by the aforementioned individual’s dissonance reduction functionalities. In Karagozoglu’s research findings, it is indicated that human beings are sensitive to the conflict that results from the presence of dissonance between actions and beliefs.
The claims that are contained in Karagozoglu’s article are also replicated in Voisin and Fointiat’s article. According to this article, cognitive dissonance can be reduced by the presence of what human beings might consider being normative standards. Human beings act in a manner that disintegrates the element of cognitive dissonance among human beings.
For instance, according to the article on normative standards, when people act in a discrepant manner, they often follow up this act with trivialization (Vaidis & Oberle, 2014). Therefore, trivialization comes from the knowledge that human beings are acting in a manner that contradicts their core beliefs. Karagozoglu, Voisin, and Fointiat all appear to agree that human behaviors are strongly influenced by what they believe to the right course of action.
When human beings realize that there is a discrepancy between their actions and what they believe to be true, they are motivated to adjust their behaviors. This adjustment in behavior is the object of research in the article by Vaidis and Oberle. In this article, the authors set out to investigate how several students adjust their behaviors when they realize that their counterparts do not agree with them (Vaidis & Oberle, 2014).
The findings of the article indicate that the physical proximity between students who agreed with each other was comparably less than that of those who disagreed. The adjustment in the students’ behaviors is an indicator of how individuals can be motivated to act in a certain manner when discrepancies are present. Cognitive dissonance researchers also sought to find out how the feelings towards minorities change in the face of dissonance reduction.
In the article titled “Dissonance and Prejudice,” the authors introduced an independent motivator to the test subjects. When the tests subjects realized that they were going to cater for the costs of an attitude-change in minority students, their feelings towards minorities changed considerably (Eisenstadt et al., 2009).
Cognitive dissonance theory addresses behavioral adjustments from a perspective of how human beings rationalize their behaviors. According to the course materials that have been covered in class so far, dissonance will be manifested in three different ways; change in beliefs, actions, and perceptions. All the articles that have been addressed in this paper conduct experiments in regard to various manifestations of dissonance.
In the first article, Karagozoglu finds out that dissonance can be manifested through a change in the perception of actions. Consequently, Karagozoglu finds out that people might continue to live with conflicting actions whilst trying to change their perceptions of these actions (Karagozoglu, 2014). On the other hand, the article on “Dissonance and Prejudice” shows how students react to dissonance by changing their attitudes towards minorities.
The students’ changing behaviors are a manifestation of the dissonance reduction that occurs when intrapersonal conflict occurs. In Voisin and Fointiat’s article, compliance with dissonance is induced through the introduction of discrepant acts (Voisin & Fointiat, 2013). Consequently, the researchers establish that induced dissonance prompts individuals to change their beliefs. In the experimented scenario, individuals react to dissonance by overestimating the importance of a certain research topic.
In the article that is titled “Approaching Opponents and Leaving Supporters,” the researchers are trying to establish how dissonance reduction can be achieved in a particular scenario (Vaidis & Oberle, 2014). In the article’s findings, the researchers establish that bringing opponents close together can achieve cognitive dissonance. These findings are based on the knowledge that dissonance is manifested through a change in behavior where opposing individuals increase the amount of physical proximity between them.
The chapter on cognitive dissonance provided students with a viable method of exploring their world. Cognitive dissonance also enables individuals to understand their own behaviors and actions with respect to their beliefs. The articles that are explored in this paper provide readers with various dimensions of cognitive dissonance.
In these articles, the researchers set out to establish the manifestations, causes, and effects of cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is responsible for various forms of dissonance reduction, including changes in beliefs, perceptions, and actions. Individuals change their behaviors with the view of balancing the inner conflicts between actions and beliefs. The four research articles are consistent, and they provide a uniform analysis of the theoretical concepts of cognitive dissonance.
References
Eisenstadt, D., Leippe, M. R., Stambush, M. A., & Rauch, S. M. (2009). Dissonance and prejudice: Personal costs, choice, and change in attitudes and racial beliefs following counterattitudinal advocacy that benefits a minority. Basic and applied social psychology, 27(2), 127-141.
Karagozoglu, E. (2014). A dynamic model of dissonance reduction in a modular mind. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 7(1), 15.
Vaidis, D. C., & Oberle, D. (2014). Approaching opponents and leaving supporters: Adjusting physical proximity to reduce cognitive dissonance. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 42(7), 1091-1098.
Voisin, D., & Fointiat, V. (2013). Reduction in cognitive dissonance according to normative standards in the induced compliance paradigm. Social Psychology, 44(3), 191-195.
In her article, Tannen (1998) presents an effective argument that human beings are always engaged in ritual fighting. The article provides several examples to illustrate ritual fighting in political and media institutions. The author succeeds in portraying antagonistic relationships that typify patterns of interaction in a society. Nonetheless, the concept of cognitive dissonance comes out clearly throughout the article. Cognitive dissonance refers to a feeling that people experience because of holding two opposing beliefs (Gawronski & Strack, 2012). In many instances, people make decisions that contravene their values, ideologies and emotional reactions. Consequently, they may feel frustrated, embarrassed, angered and anxious. Tannen (1998) points out that debates and arguments are platforms where feelings of cognitive dissonance become apparent.
For argument sake, Tannen (1998) postulates that people contravene their beliefs and assume positions that predispose them to cognitive dissonance. The reason is that people enter into arguments with the sole objective of winning. They tend to disagree with the opponents even if they are aware that their arguments are correct. As such, the feeling of cognitive dissonance overwhelms them leading to outbursts and amplified emotional reactions (Cooper, 2007). For instance, Tannen (1998) says that she experienced an incidence of cognitive dissonance during a television show that popularized one of her books. Despite the fact that her critic was well aware that her book was well written, he chose to contradict that belief and criticized the book. The man began to shout at her because of the feeling of discomfort he experienced. This illustration explains how cognitive dissonance may lead to heightened emotional reactions and adversarial tendencies.
According to Cooper (2007), people always attempt to reduce incidences that bring about dissonance. By avoiding dissonance, people develop consistent belief and value systems that determine their reactions and positions on various issues. Tannen (1998) asserts that people always engage in ritual fighting in order to assert their dominance. However, aggression and fights lead to a subjective view of social realities. In other words, debates and arguments upon which social issues are centered tend to limit instead of encouraging information sharing (Gawronski & Strack, 2012). The reason is that dissonance creeps in and prevents people from accepting certain information. This is notwithstanding whether the information is right or wrong. It all depends on the side of argument that the individual belongs. Tannen (1998) points out that journalists may end up invading personal privacy to gain information that will put the subject on extreme position of a particular argument.
Cognitive dissonance is an undesirable feeling that human beings tend to avoid. Tannen (1998) argues that some people opt out of debates. The rationale is that they are more afraid of cognitive dissonance than losing an argument. In all arguments, people have a tendency of ignoring information that does not support their perspectives. As such, disregarding some information leads to conflict of ideas, beliefs, values and social cognition (Gawronski & Strack, 2012). It is therefore important to point out that arguments are typical of outbursts, escalated emotions and inability to have an open mind. Nonetheless, debates and battles are key aspects of contemporary societies where all issues invite antagonistic reactions.
In summary, Tannen (1998) convinces readers that people fight about everything compulsively. Although she pinpoints that debates and arguments are platforms for ritual fighting, cognitive dissonance contributes to aggression expressed in emotions.
References
Cooper, J. (2007). Cognitive Dissonance: Fifty Years of a Classic Theory. London: Sage Publishers.
Gawronski, B. & Strack, F. (2012). Cognitive Consistency: A Fundamental Principle in Social Cognition. New York: Guilford Press.
Tannen, D. (1998). For Argument’s Sake; Why Do We Feel Compelled to Fight About Everything? Washington Post, p. 1.
The research paper explores the topic of cognitive dissonance, which in psychology means a state of personal distress caused by the confrontation of conflicting ideas in the human mind. In addition, the explanation of this theory and the reasons for the problem are provided. Accordingly, the main factors include the inconsistency of expectations with the real situation, the inability to make a final choice, and inconsistent beliefs. Moreover, the research paper demonstrates that the influence on the human brain creates reactions in the human physical body. Furthermore, it is difficult for the psyche to be in a state of an anxious discrepancy, which is why cognitive dissonance negatively affects the emotional component of individuals.
Cognitive Dissonance
People are naturally inclined to live in harmony with themselves, with their worldview, beliefs, principles, and philosophy. This allows them to experience a sense of wholeness and satisfaction. However, in their everyday life, one can often encounter such a phenomenon when the minds of people are faced with each other’s contradictory views, reactions, values, and ideas. Thus, it is advisable to examine the state of cognitive dissonance.
The Concept
Cognitive dissonance is an internal conflict that arises in a person when contradictory convictions have collided. The theory of cognitive dissonance was developed by Festinger in 1957 in the period of the formation of cognitive psychology on the grounds of F. Haider’s theory of cognitive (structural) balance (Myers & Dewall, 2016). The basis of the theory of cognitive dissonance is the statement that the occurrence of contradictory relations between separate elements in the system of knowledge causes psychological discomfort (Myers & Dewall, 2016). Hence, cognitive dissonance is a state characterized by the combination of contradictory knowledge, opinions, and behavioral attitudes about some object or phenomenon in a person’s mind. The nature of cognitive dissonance, in Festinger’s view, lies exclusively in human nature itself. In this way, elements of knowledge reflecting some reality form an individual picture of reality (Myers & Dewall, 2016). Nevertheless, these cognitive elements often do not correspond to reality, which is why reality will exert a certain pressure on the individual to bring these cognitive elements to reality.
Causes of Cognitive Dissonance
Moreover, there are various situations that can create conflicts leading to cognitive dissonance. First, there is forced conformity because sometimes, because of external expectations, people may encounter behavior that contradicts their own beliefs. The following reason concerns the fact that people make decisions every day (Harmon-Jones, 2017). Therefore, when faced with two identical choices, they often experience a sense of dissonance because both options are equally attractive. The general strength of dissonance can also be affected by several factors, including the number of dissenting beliefs. Therefore, the more conflicting thoughts a person has, the higher the degree of dissonance (Harmon-Jones, 2017). As a result, cognitive dissonance can even affect the way individuals perceive themselves, leading to negative feelings of self-esteem and self-respect.
Physiological Effects of Cognitive Dissonance
In addition, the impact of the cognitive dissonance on the brain has a significant influence on people’s bodies. To confirm this, an experiment was conducted where a significant number of people were electrocuted. One-half of the participants in the experiment were in a state of severe dissonance: they were persuaded to voluntarily make a heavy commitment to undergo an electric shock with little or no external justification. The other half was weak in dissonance: they had no choice but plenty of external excuses. The results indicated that the first half experienced less pain than the second half (Harmon-Jones, 2017). This was not only about the subjective reports of the subjects; they also measured the physiological effects of pain by the galvanic skin response, and in the case of strong dissonance, this response decreased. Furthermore, pain at high dissonance did not interfere with people’s ability to perform tasks to a lesser degree (Harmon-Jones, 2017). That is, participants in the experiments did not only talk about less distress, but the pain had less effect on their behavior. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that dissonance also affects a person’s physiology.
Emotional Impact of Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance in psychology is an attempt to explain the motivation of human actions, their actions in a variety of life situations. Meanwhile, emotions are the primary motive for the appropriate behavior and actions that people choose. Furthermore, a positive emotional experience arises in a person when their expectations are confirmed, and cognitive ideas are realized (McGrath, 2017). That is when the actual results of activities correspond to the planned ones and are consistent with them. Then the emotional influence of cognitive dissonance decreases, and people’s emotions are normalized. At the same time, negative emotions arise and intensify when there is a discrepancy, inconsistency, or dissonance between the expected and actual results of the activity (McGrath, 2017). Consequently, during the negative emotions, cognitive dissonance increases, which leads to deterioration of emotional state and even psychological problems.
Conclusion
Hence, cognitive dissonance is a state of mental or psychological discomfort caused by the clash of conflicting ideas, actions, beliefs, emotions, or feelings. It occurs when individuals receive unexpected information that differs from their past experiences. It is significant to note that cognitive dissonance theory describes ways to eliminate or mitigate these contradictions and describes how a person does it in typical cases. Simultaneously, cognitive dissonance significantly impacts the emotional component, as it can worsen people’s mental state when negative emotions increase. In addition, cognitive dissonance affects the human body’s physiological aspects because of its effect on the brain.
Dechawatanapaisal, D., & Siengthai, S. (2006). The impact of the cognitive dissonance on learning work behavior. Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(1), 42-54.
The purpose of the study was to identify the factors that impact the learning behavior of individuals in the workplace, with a specific focus on the psychological discomfort caused by the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance.
According to the literature review, learning is an essential component of the contemporary organizational culture. The authors argue that it provides the organizations with means of sustaining their level of proficiency and, by extension, maintaining a competitive advantage. However, the success of a learning process depends on several factors, including employee involvement. By reviewing the available literature on the topic, the authors point to the fact that while the employee perspective is widely covered in the theoretical literature, it lacks sufficient empirical investigation. At the same time, cognitive dissonance in its various manifestations is expected to have a profound effect on workplace behavior, including the efficiency and productivity of learning. At the same time, there are reasons to believe that short-term exposure to cognitive dissonance may yield a positive result of better adaptation to change.
Based on the information derived from the literature, the researchers pose three questions.
How does cognitive dissonance influence learning work behavior?
Do effective HR practices decrease cognitive dissonance?
Do effective HR practices improve learning work behavior?
Three hypotheses were formulated to address the questions above:
H1. “There is an inverted U-shape relationship between cognitive dissonance and learning work behavior” (Dechawatanapaisal & Siengthai, 2006, p. 44).
H2. “The effective HR practices related to staffing, training, and development, performance appraisal, and rewards are inversely related to cognitive dissonance” (Dechawatanapaisal & Siengthai, 2006, p. 46).
H3. “The effective HR practices that are related to staffing, training and development, performance appraisal, and rewards are positively associated with learning work behavior” (Dechawatanapaisal & Siengthai, 2006, p. 46).
The research design chosen by the team was a quantitative analysis of the primary data. The data was obtained by administering a survey based on the semi-structured interview design. The sample consisted of 205 employees from three organizations in Thailand with a recent experience of changing as a result of business reengineering. The sample had a response rate of 79 percent.
The independent variable in the study was the condition of cognitive dissonance. The dependent variables included training and development, performance appraisal, rewards, and learning work behavior.
The seven-point Likert scale was used to collect the data. The regression analysis was used to process the obtained data, and the statistical significance was calculated for the results to determine their reliability. The authors do not provide details on the specific statistical instruments or tools used in the process of statistical analysis.
The findings suggest that cognitive dissonance significantly undermines the effectiveness of workplace learning, but appropriate HR practices can mitigate the effect.
The results imply the wide applicability of HR practices and clarify their effect on the overall productivity of the organization.
The study is primarily valuable because it covers a relatively under-researched area. Another strong point is a framework used by the team that can be applied for further inquiries in the area.
The main limitation of the study is the focus on employee perspective without the confirmation of the factual changes in performance. Furthermore, the difference in changes undergone in three organizations can be considered a confounding variable.
While the study is not directly related to the area of leadership, it provides a basis for inquiry on the effect of cognitive dissonance in the organizational setting. In the literature review, it fits within the organizational context chapter and clarifies the areas of employee behavior likely impacted by inner conflict in leadership. The study can also serve as a connection between the theoretical sources on cognitive dissonance and those dealing with a leader’s role in human resource management in the organization.
Non-Empirical Source
Festinger, L. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
The theory of cognitive dissonance developed by Leon Festinger became one of the most important milestones in the area of social psychology and mechanisms of motivation. The fundamental principles of the theory can be summarized as follows: individuals are predisposed towards organizing their inner beliefs, values, and views in accord and avoid situations that disrupt such an organization, leading to dissonance.
This state of harmony is called cognitive consistency and can be observed whenever the conflicts between cognitions occur (Festinger, 1957). In such a situation, according to the author, after experiencing dissatisfaction with the undesirable state, an affected individual starts seeking a way to bring consistency to a situation (Festinger, 1957). On some occasions, when there is no apparent way of establishing intersection points between the conflicting cognitions, people will seek consistency through irrational and possibly disruptive behavior. The state of tension between the beliefs and views held for a long time and the powerful newly acquired ones is termed cognitive dissonance and is considered emotionally and psychologically unsettling. Thus, it serves as a stimulus for seeking a new equilibrium and restoring harmony (termed “consonance” by the author).
The book has several strengths. First, the theory provided by the author is based on thorough case studies and is backed by a robust theoretical framework. Festinger (1957) based his implications on the observations of groups of people with diverse backgrounds and obtained relatively similar sets of data, which allowed for verification of the results. Another important strength is the flexibility of the model suggested by the author that allows for the application of his model to a wide range of fields of different scope. In the context of the study at hand, it is possible to apply the theory to the workplace setting in general or a specific area of leader’s activity with minor adjustments.
However, several limitations of the source should be recognized. First, it is possible to assert that the strength of the experienced dissonance may be insufficient for motivating the affected individuals. However, because cognitive dissonance is hard to measure, such a situation undermines the testability of the theory, making it hard to falsify and thus undermining its credibility. Second, because of the inability to weight the effect, it is unclear how significant is the effect of cognitive dissonance in comparison to accompanying factors. It is possible, for instance, that stress associated with change influences employee behavior more significantly than the motivation resulting from cognitive dissonance.
Therefore, the theory can be used as a starting point and a part of the theoretical background but needs to be accompanied by alternative frameworks to avoid inconsistencies.
For the literature review, this book serves as one of the most authoritative sources of cognitive dissonance in the academic context. Therefore, it can be used to establish an understanding of the fundamental concepts and provide means for interpretation of the observed actions of leaders in the organizational context. As a result, it will be connected with the sources that suggest alternative explanations of cognitive dissonance and the empirical studies that deal with events which can create it by challenging the established cognitions.
References
Dechawatanapaisal, D., & Siengthai, S. (2006). The impact of cognitive dissonance on learning work behavior. Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(1), 42-54.
Festinger, L. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Since its introduction by Festinger, the concept of cognitive dissonance has received widespread recognition in multiple fields that involve human behavior patterns. Eventually, the concept was applied to organizational studies, where it offered numerous benefits associated with improvements in employee motivation, engagement, and behavioral patterns. Leadership has become an especially promising area for inquiries on cognitive dissonance, both because leaders are highly vulnerable to attaining cognitive dissonance and due to its numerous possible effects on their professional performance (Verma & Anand, 2014).
Nevertheless, despite its obvious relevance to the area of cognitive dissonance in leaders, the issue remains under-researched. Many of the existing studies on the matter deviate significantly from the academic concepts and lack the precision of definitions, which renders the obtained findings unreliable or obsolete (Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser, & Gullifor, 2017). While a recent increase in interest in the topic can be observed among researchers, the available information is insufficient to arrive at a meaningful conclusion. To further complicate the matters, some scholars suggest the possibility of positive effects of cognitive dissonance, which can be considered relevant once their implications are confirmed by valid data (Adams, 2016). To sum up, an exploratory inquiry in the area of cognitive dissonance can produce valuable findings and is necessary to direct further researches and outline potential areas of interest.
Rationale
Modern organizational culture relies heavily on innovation. Properly implemented innovative approaches are known for their ability to facilitate and sustain competitive advantage, increase and maintain the necessary level of productivity, and improve efficiency on both organizational and individual levels. However, the process of innovation is strongly associated with resistance to change and an overall increase in individual stress among employees (Verma & Anand, 2014).
Leaders are not exempt from this effect as the organization changes can conflict with their personal and professional values. Since they are expected to inspire their team to engage in activities that do not necessarily coincide with their beliefs and values, the possibility of developing cognitive dissonance in the process is further increased. According to numerous sources, such a scenario can result in the disruption of organizational performance, decline in individual involvement, loss of motivation within the leader’s team, and increased employee turnover (Wicklund & Brehm, 2013).
Interestingly, some evidence exists that these effects can be minimized through conscious effort on the part of the impacted party. For instance, some experts point out that the effects pertinent to cognitive dissonance can be used to achieve improvement if timely detected and addressed (Adams, 2016). Unfortunately, neither of the suggested effects has been sufficiently studied to be incorporated into practice, and the majority of the existing literature on the matter is only marginally applicable to the area of leadership directly.
Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study that would address the outlined issues directly to improve our understanding of the matter, including the most likely causes of cognitive dissonance, its exact effects on leaders and their teams, and the possible ways to mitigate its adverse effects, if any. Also, the research would allow us to establish the relevance of the existing findings from areas marginally related to the topic, which would allow using them for establishing direction and formulating questions for future studies in the field of leadership.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to establish a connection between inner conflict and cognitive dissonance in leaders, determine its effects on leaders’ teams, and outline approaches that could minimize the effects through conscious effort. A descriptive study was selected as a suitable research design since it allows for relative flexibility of the inquiry process. A qualitative survey was chosen as an instrument for data collection. The survey includes both open-ended and close-ended questions to make sure that the issues overlooked in the design process could be identified during the analysis stage. The study is to be performed via an online tool with basic analytical capabilities, which is expected to decrease the time necessary for analysis without compromising the reliability of the results, provide maximal convenience for the participants, and maintain anonymity and privacy of the data.
The findings of the proposed study are primarily exploratory. Therefore, its main goal is to improve the current understanding of the cognitive dissonance in leaders and its effects on organizational culture on a large scale. By extensions, this would allow future researchers to obtain a clearer direction for their studies and get a clearer picture of the relevance of certain aspects of cognitive dissonance in the workplace. Finally, it is possible that the data analysis would reveal the previously overlooked issues that require closer examination.
Literature Review
The success of leaders in the workplace depends to a certain degree in their emotional state. From the purely psychological perspective, the confidence, involvement, and determination of the individuals depend on their emotions, with negative ones predictably leading to decreased productivity. For the leaders, however, the effect is greater since one of their areas of responsibility requires them to set an example for their team.
Understandably, when leaders are experiencing positive emotions, the resulting improvements are much more visible. Also, the readiness to engage in problem-solving activities and challenging tasks increases in the teams with optimistic leaders and yields better results (Noruzy, Dalfard, Azhdari, Nazari-Shirkouhi, & Rezazadeh, 2013). Finally, the positive attitude transmitted by the leaders boosts trust within the team, minimizes blame culture, and promotes collaboration and openness within a team.
Cognitive dissonance is a known factor that influences the emotional state of individuals. Moreover, for leaders, it also harms the decision-making capacity, both as a result of the undermined confidence and because of the internal conflict of values that disrupt the clarity of decision. Similarly, cognitive dissonance influences the trust between the leader and its team members. On the conscious level, it introduces uncertainty by confusing the communication. On the subconscious level, it can create an impression of insincerity and aggravate or trigger interpersonal issues within the team. Simply put, cognitive dissonance has a profound negative effect on the team entrusted to an impacted leader.
The following literature review explores the current sources to obtain recent information on cognitive dissonance and its characteristics. Next, it provides information on its effects on individuals, groups, and social environments. Finally, it outlines the most likely effects that cognitive dissonance may produce in the workplace.
Cognitive Dissonance
Introduction
Dreaming and high aspirations are an essential component of success in life. Currently, imagination and ambition are promoted in individuals from an early age to ensure that it serves as a source of inspiration and creativity throughout life. At the same time, however, the process of inevitably growing up reshapes the ideas about the desirable results, mainly by introducing previously overseen limitations.
Also, the social component of human activities introduces the determinants of what is considered “appropriate behavior.” As a result, a distinction is formed between dreams and realistic goals, and individuals adapt to the conditions by applying this frame of reference to new ideas and goals. According to Warren and Hale (2016), this is done as a safety measure. More specifically, humans prefer reaching a moderate result without taking risks of failing in the process of gambling and expecting a higher reward. Also, this protects from embarrassment resulting from peers’ reactions to perceiving something that is considered unlikely as a real and feasible opportunity (Lerner, Li, Valdesolo, & Kassam, 2015).
In other words, they practice conformity to ensure that they are accepted in the social environment, where the norm is an important factor. Despite the evident advantages of such an approach, numerous examples exist of people achieving outstanding results despite a widespread belief that their goals are unrealistic and belong to the realm of dreams. In this context, cognitive dissonance serves as a means of retaining inspiration without compromising social status. Thus, understanding cognitive dissonance can reveal not only its adverse qualities but also illustrate the means of coping with them.
Definition
According to the most common definition, cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort that appears when individuals encounter information that contradicts their preconceived beliefs, notions, or values (Festinger, 1957). Importantly, both the initial and the new information needs to be convincing enough for the individual to perceive it as true rather than dismiss it outright. Each time this conflict occurs, the person starts feeling psychological discomfort that goes away once the dissonance is eliminated (Wicklund & Brehm, 2013).
According to Festinger (1957), this feeling of discomfort is a primary motivation that drives the individual’s determination to resolve the conflict. The most recognizable way of doing this is dismissing a dissonant condition. However, it is also achievable through weighting the dissonant cognition and assigning value to them or adding cognitions that strengthen the position of one of the conflicting beliefs to minimize the value of the competing one (Chang, Solomon, & Westerfield, 2016).
The discomfort resulting from cognitive dissonance is observed regardless of the possibility of undesirable consequences. In other words, people are reluctant to engage in unfamiliar or conflicting behavior even when no apparent harm can be expected in the end (Harmon-Jones, Brehm, Greenberg, Simon, & Nelson, 1996). Therefore, the presence of conflicting notions is a sufficient condition for the creation of cognitive dissonance, while the threat of a negative effect is optional.
Foundation of the concept
From the historical perspective, the concept of cognitive dissonance can be traced back to the implications made by Freud. One of the principal assumptions in Freud’s works is the pursuit of personal needs as one of the primary drivers of human behavior, operating primarily on the subconscious level (Weiner, 2013). The impact of unsuccessful fulfillment of needs accumulates in sub-consciousness and continues influencing the lives of the individual without being acknowledged. In many cases, these traumatic experiences obtain significant weight and may become dominant in the decision-making process.
It also implies that the positive resolution is less likely since the driving force is based on avoidance of the negative rather than the pursuit of the positive. In most cases, these unfulfilled needs are undetectable without a designated effort. However, once the individuals become aware of their unfulfilled needs, they can exercise better control and consciously seek improvement by targeting the areas where the said discomfort can be alleviated most effectively.
Internal conflict
Another important addition to the theory of cognitive dissonance is the concept of internal conflict introduced by Festinger (1957). According to Festinger (1957), cognitive dissonance is the unpleasant feeling that arises as a result of conflicting beliefs. Importantly, these beliefs are not directly acknowledged by the individual – instead, they create a dissonance without being critically examined and logically processed, which parallels them to the unfulfilled needs discussed above.
One of the best-recognized sources of internal conflict is the clash between the preconceived notions (often, but not necessarily, acquired early in life) and the newly encountered information that is equally substantiated and/or convincing.
However, it is as likely to occur as a result of socially unacceptable behavior or the violation of socially imposed norms or expectations. The effect of cognitive dissonance is cumulative and depends not only on the significance of any two conflicting notions but also on the number of the conflicts experienced over some time (Gamble & Gamble, 2013). As with the unfulfilled needs described by Freud, the awareness of the internal conflicts provides the person with an opportunity to redirect his or her actions and deliberately address the conflict to improve the emotional state.
From the information above, it becomes apparent that cognitive dissonance is a state rather than a discrete phenomenon and, despite residing in the domain of subconscious, can be successfully addressed through conscious effort. For an individual, in a position of a leader, such possibility becomes an important component of professional practice, in particular, because it has a significant impact on the decision-making process that determines the outcomes for other people.
For instance, some of the internal conflicts may initiate and sustain affirmative behavior, where an ongoing streak of poor decisions or inappropriate actions can add up and eventually obtain a self-fulfilling quality. On the superficial level, the impacted individuals will get consecutive confirmations of their incompetence, lack of proficiency, or “bad luck,” which will eventually take effect of a vicious circle. However, once they acknowledge the existence of unfulfilled needs and internal conflicts, they can address the said conflicts and amend the situation both for themselves, and, in the case of leaders, for their teams. Importantly, the interpretation of the causes of the conflict and the involved factors requires a profound understanding of the matter as the majority of variables differ based on the personal characteristics and individual experiences (Willingham, 2014).
Dissonance reduction
Once the dissonance is acknowledged and sufficiently understood, it can be minimized. According to Festinger (1957), this can be achieved in two general approaches: through the elimination of the behaviors that contradict the established beliefs or through the review and adjustment of beliefs in an attempt to bring them in concordance with the required behavior. The easiest example is a situation where an individual believes in a certain kind of virtue (e.g., the trust among peers) and finds out that this virtue conflicts with the requirements of their workplace environment (e.g., the necessity to report the violation of safety conditions by a co-worker).
In this situation, the person may perceive the report as “snitching,” which is a breach of trust. Thus, two outcomes are possible. The person may review their criteria for trust, contrast them with the rationale behind the practice of reporting the violations, find the latter more reasonable and convincing, find their previously held notions regarding trust as obsolete or incompatible with reality, and embrace the newly introduced behavior of reporting.
This would be an example of adjusting the beliefs to the demanded behavior. Alternatively, the person may find the requirement incompatible with their moral code and, as a result, choose to withhold the information, effectively disobeying the directive but preserving personal integrity. In this scenario, the actions are changed to eliminate the discomfort resulting from the actions that conflict with the values and beliefs held by the subject. Until the resolution is reached, the individual continues to experience discomfort that motivates them to arrive at a meaningful conclusion.
In addition to a conclusive resolution, the dissonance can be minimized through one of the several approaches, including justification and denial. For instance, the people who have a subconscious desire for power may feel frustrated upon discovering their inability to exercise authority over others or reach the social status that provides them with the opportunity to do so. As a result, they can start perceiving power as “corrupting” and not worthy of being pursued. They then start seeking (often subconsciously) information that confirms their belief (Ravven, 2013). At the same time, the evidence to the contrary is either ignored or actively challenged. By doing this, they can avoid the conflict between their unfulfilled needs and reality through denial of the benefits derived from their desired position.
According to Adams (2016), the existence of inner conflicts increases our capacity to resolve problems by prompting us to examine the issue critically. Thus, the suppression or denial of inner conflict is inefficient and usually requires resources that could have been otherwise spent on developing a constructive solution for the problem. Therefore, the discomfort associated with inner conflict should not be dismissed – instead, it must be carefully examined to produce a feasible solution (Adams, 2016).
Research
One of the most recognized case studies of cognitive dissonance is the book “When Prophecy Fails” by Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter (2013). In the book, the author describes the UFO cult led by a leader who prophesized the end of the world and claimed that the membership in the cult could provide the possibility of salvation. The case was especially interesting because the validity of the prophecy could be confirmed through simple observation since it was predicted to occur on December 21, 1954.
After the identified date passed with no observable effects, the group was suggested an explanation by their leader that the spiritual purity of the group was strong enough to prevent the disaster (Festinger et al., 2013). The explanation was immediately and uncritically accepted by the group. From the psychological perspective, the described situation is consistent with the scenario of justification, where the information that challenges the pre-held notion (the absence of the apocalypse) not only failed to undermine the faith but was used to strengthen the beliefs of the members. In other words, the cognitive dissonance was minimized through justification.
Further studies revealed that the effect becomes more prominent when the notion is disclosed publicly before being challenged (Steg, Keizer, Buunk, & Rothengatter, 2017). In other words, the individuals tend to stand by their beliefs and find justification for them more readily when their peers are familiar with their stance. This effect is strong enough to override the conscious effort of suppressing it. That is, the individual tends to seek for ways of decreasing dissonance even after being pointed to the fact of them doing so.
In the context of the organization, it is possible to imagine the situations in which the described effect could result in either positive or negative outcomes, depending on the concordance of values and beliefs held by the leaders and actions required by the organizations.
Organizational Implications
The growing intensity of the contemporary business environment puts forward numerous demands on organizations. Flexibility and adaptability become more important as the dynamics of organizational development become a crucial factor in the light of high competition (Nandakumar, Jharkharia, & Nair, 2014). Another aspect that is uniformly pursued regardless of the industry segment is innovation – the ability to find improvements for existing operations as well as introduce new ones with more value (Anderson, Potočnik, & Zhou, 2014). Naturally, these expectations are equally applicable to the leaders involved with the organizations.
Interestingly, both flexibility and innovation necessitate changes in established behaviors and operations. Therefore, it can be safely assumed that they open up the possibility of inner conflict and, by extension, lead to cognitive bias (Verma & Anand, 2014). Besides, leaders deal with organizational members, each of whom has their own set of values. Thus, in addition to the dissonance created by the organization-wide changes, leaders are exposed to small-scale inner conflicts daily. Finally, it should be acknowledged that dealing with workplace conflicts is often listed among the responsibilities of the leaders, and it is reasonable to expect that such activity further increases the likelihood of inner conflict.
From the organization-wide perspective, cognitive dissonance among leaders presents several possible threats. Most prominently, in the situation where the leaders perceive the direction taken by the company as undesirable, or the new objective looks unrealistic, they might develop an inner conflict. In this situation, a leader might still come up with a viable plan of action but will fail to deliver the desired result.
One of the possible reasons is the fact that on the subconscious level, he or she would seek consonance between the professional values and the demands placed by the company. On the superficial level, the activities of such a leader would be hardly distinguishable from those of a consonant one unless the results are taken into consideration (Wicklund & Brehm, 2013). Most likely, the reluctance to embrace new behavior will be unnoticed by the leader as well unless he or she is familiar with the issue.
From a team-wide perspective, cognitive dissonance can undermine the emotional climate within the team. The easiest example is the situation where the leader is required to choose between options that each has its potential disadvantages for the team. However, once the personal values and beliefs come into play, it becomes possible that the decision would be made in favor of a more appealing alternative rather than the least controversial or the most beneficial one (Weiner, 2013). In this situation, the leader will avoid the unease of making a dissonant decision at the expense of the discomfort and, possibly, the integrity of the team. As with the previous example, such a decision would be subconscious, which excludes the possibility of a reasonable choice. Thus, in both cases, inner conflicts in leaders pose certain risks to the workplace environment and organizational productivity unless addressed properly.
Related Research
Despite the evident importance of the concept of cognitive dissonance in leaders, the topic has not been researched directly. However, numerous studies exist that explore related areas and are thus indirectly connected to the current study. For instance, the effects of the cognitive dissonance on various aspects of the workplace environment are well-represented in the scholarly literature. A review of managerial research conducted by Hinojosa et al. (2017) revealed that the authors of management studies often recognize cognitive dissonance as one of the variables but rarely integrate it consistently into the research design.
As a result, the findings of the researchers usually lack accuracy and often use a distorted or incomplete understanding of the concept. As a result, such studies are only tangentially applicable to the cognitive dissonance theory and its effects. Simply put, the majority of the studies have deviated from the core concept significantly enough to evaluate their contribution and, in some cases, render it useless (Hinojosa et al., 2017).
Of the few researchers that approached the theoretical background of cognitive dissonance responsibly, most have only a marginal connection to the area of leadership. For instance, a study by Dechawatanapaisal and Siengthai (2006) explored the effect of cognitive dissonance in the workplace. Specifically, the researchers studied its effects on learning work behavior. The research team concluded that the psychological discomfort resulting from cognitive dissonance significantly undermines the ability of employees to receive and comprehend new information during the period of transformation in the organization (Dechawatanapaisal & Siengthai, 2006).
Interestingly, effective HR practices were shown to mitigate the effect, both by decreasing discomfort and minimizing the unpleasant emotional states and by enabling employees’ learning behavior. Admittedly, the study is only marginally related to the topic of the current research since the subjects are employees rather than leaders, and, therefore, the obtained results do not describe the transmission of the effects onto the involved teams. Instead, it directly addresses the issue of cognitive dissonance in workers. However, the findings obtained by the researchers correlate with the general implications observed throughout the academic literature.
First, the study confirms the suggestion that inner conflict produces enough negative emotions to hinder organizational performance. Admittedly, the study focuses on learning behavior, so the possibility remains that other workplace activities experience the effect on a different scale. However, it is also reasonable to expect that despite the difference in magnitude, the overall effect of discomfort and psychological agitation remains negative throughout the field. Second, the mitigation achieved through effective HR practices is consistent with the suggestion that the inner conflict can be successfully resolved and its adverse effects mitigated by conscious effort. Thus, despite being of secondary significance to the research at hand, the study by Dechawatanapaisal and Siengthai (2006) confirms the implications made by the research team.
A study by Lopez and Picardi (2017) explored the effect of perceived equity in the workplace on the cognitive dissonance in employees. According to the authors, individuals tend to adjust their workplace behavior following the sense of fairness. Thus, the cognitive dissonance between the requirements of the organization and the perceived inequity leads to discomfort and, by extension, the decline in productivity (Lopez & Picardi, 2017).
Interestingly, from the cognitive dissonance theory standpoint, such a decline in motivation signals the existence of potential motivation. The researchers found a relationship between the reported dissonance and the decline in productivity, with organizational culture being cited as the most common reason behind the perceived inequity (Lopez & Picardi, 2017). These results are also consistent with previous findings highlighted in the literature review. Still, they are only of marginal importance for the current study since they describe the effect of cognitive dissonance on employers. While it is reasonable to expect that inner conflicts in leaders will eventually lead to similar outcomes in their teams, this implication needs to be confirmed separately, and its effects weighed against other probable scenarios. Therefore, the study is to be used to substantiate the significance of the current research and to illustrate the possible sources of cognitive dissonance.
Summary
Since its introduction by Festinger, the concept of cognitive dissonance has become an important part of organizational culture. According to the current understanding, it has a profound effect on the behavior of both leaders and employees within the organization. The current academic consensus holds that the effects of the cognitive dissonance on productivity are generally negative, although its impact can be reduced through acknowledgment and conscious effort.
This fact leads some experts to believe that when addressed properly, the inner conflict can yield positive results in the form of additional motivation and assistance in a critical approach to problems. However, despite the wide recognition of the importance of the concept, the issue of cognitive dissonance in the workplace remains under-researched. Also, certain areas, such as cognitive dissonance in leaders, remain overlooked despite their apparent importance for the organization.
Methodology
Research Questions and Hypotheses
Considering the information gathered in the literature review section, several gaps in current knowledge can be identified that demand a closer examination. Specifically, it is necessary to understand how inner conflict felt by leaders is related to the cognitive dissonance experienced by them, and whether it has an impact on their interaction with workplace teams entrusted to them. The most probable anticipated cause of the adverse impact is the stress and anxiety felt by a leader and the direct and/or indirect projection of stress on team members. The study also aims at outlining the most feasible approaches to addressing the adverse effects of cognitive dissonance through conscious efforts ranging from increased awareness and understanding of the causes of stress to specific reflective practices intended to minimize the possible negative outcome.
Three research questions were formulated to address the identified areas.
Q1. Is there a relationship between inner conflict and the emergence of the cognitive dissonance experienced by leaders in the professional setting?
Q2. Is the experience of cognitive dissonance in leaders reflected in their relationships with teams as a result of projecting their stress?
Q3. Can the adverse effects of cognitive dissonance in leaders be mitigated through conscious efforts?
In correspondence with the research questions above and considering the information obtained from the literature review, three research hypotheses were formulated:
H1. There is a perceived positive relationship between the feeling of inner conflict and the experience of cognitive dissonance, as reported by the leaders.
H2. The experience of cognitive dissonance can be traced to the relationships between leaders and their teams through the projection of stress onto team members.
H3. The adverse effects of cognitive dissonance can be mitigated through conscious efforts (e.g., awareness of the reason behind the discomfort, reflective practices, and willingness to actively address the underlying cause of the issue).
Research Design
The research design chosen for the study was descriptive research conducted in the form of a survey. Such design has several benefits critical for the formulated research question and provides advantages concerning the existing knowledge on the matter. First, it is consistent with the formulation of the research topic based on previous experience. As was detailed in the literature review, the issue of cognitive dissonance as a result of the inner conflict is broadly represented in contemporary literature.
It lacks depth in the form of concrete definitions or substantial findings. While such amount of information does not allow predicting the results with a degree of certainty, it is sufficient for formulating a qualitative research question. Also, the existing studies usually lack the necessary context that would improve our understanding of the issue. The reviewed sources commonly explore a specific area of organizational activity without considering a multitude of possibly relevant factors. Qualitative studies usually have an advantage of broadening the understanding of the concept and possibly revealing previously overlooked details.
Specifically, the current research is expected to outline numerous aspects of inner conflict in leaders. Since no concrete data exists, that would allow weighting the significance of the factors commonly believed to cause cognitive dissonance. It would be reasonable first to obtain an overall picture based on the perspectives of the leaders in the field. Next, the social constructivist perspective common for qualitative research is consistent with the highly personalized nature of cognitive dissonance. As was described above, cognitive dissonance strongly depends on the sets of values and beliefs possessed by each individual.
While some of these can probably be generalized based on social norms and workplace ethics, others will certainly be unique for each individual. Therefore, the social constructivist paradigm, which considers multiple perspectives to conclude, can be used to process the obtained information. Another advantage of the qualitative research design is the possibility to work with the small sample size. First, this complies with the time and resource restrictions characteristic for the project. Second, the lack of a well-established theoretical basis (aside from the extensive information on the theory of cognitive dissonance in general) necessitates the use of open-ended questions that can yield more information but require more time to analyze. In this context, the smaller sample size would mean affordable time spent on the analysis without sacrificing the quality or reliability of data.
The data will be collected by administering an online survey. Since the survey contains both close-ended and open-ended questions, the obtained responses would be analyzed differently. For the close-ended questions, the data will be processed using the functionality of the used software, which would also generate a visual representation of the analysis. The responses to the open-ended question will be reviewed individually to define common themes and areas highlighted by the responses. Once the themes are determined, the responses will be categorized to identify the most common variants. It is expected that certain areas would match those pertinent to the close-ended questions. However, it is reasonable to expect new insights derived from the responses highlighting the overlooked variables.
Given the goal of the research team to explore the area that is insufficiently covered in the existing literature, it is reasonable to typify the study as exploratory. Such type focuses on the discovery of ideas and identification of specific objectives for further studies rather than the generation of the statistically significant data. First, such a research type does not require the availability of robust findings by previous researchers. Second, it provides an opportunity to provide a sense of direction for future studies, which is useful, considering the feasibility of the topic. Finally, while such type of study does not provide statistically measurable results, it can deepen the understanding of the problem by offering richer information from the participants.
Operational Definitions
The formulated hypotheses contain several independent and dependent variables that need to be defined to eliminate ambiguity and streamline the process of analysis.
Independent variables
The two main independent variables involved in the study are inner conflict and cognitive dissonance in leaders. The inner conflict can be defined as the conflict of values experienced at a personal level (Adams, 2016). Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort that appears when individuals encounter information that contradicts their preconceived beliefs, notions, or values (Festinger, 1957). For the third research question, the efforts intended to mitigate the effects of cognitive dissonance are considered an independent variable.
These efforts are defined individually by the respondents and can include any activity that is expected to help the leaders cope with inner conflict effects. Since the study explores the perceived effects of cognitive dissonance as reported by the participants, all variables will be measured based on the assessment of the respondents via a five-point Likert scale and true-false questions. Importantly, the exploratory nature of the study opens up the possibility of identification of the activities overlooked by the researchers (through open-ended questions), in which case the measurement will not be possible.
Dependent variables
The dependent variables relevant for the study include the adverse effects experienced by workplace teams and the mitigation effects of the conscious efforts. The former is an effect that can be conclusively linked to the stress projected by the leader and affecting team performance. The latter is the perceived improvement following the practice that results in the elimination of discomfort and is not achievable otherwise. As with independent variables, these will be measured based on the reports by the respondents and evaluated on the five-point Likert scale.
Participants
The analysis will be based on the primary data obtained directly from the participants. To ensure the relevance of the information, the participants were chosen from the individuals working in management positions. The educational setting was chosen for sampling, with ten schools determined as a source of the sample.
Specific criteria were devised to ensure the suitability of the sample for the study. First, the participants had to be involved in working with teams of employees. As such, the top manager segment was excluded to ensure that the participants were closely interacting with employees daily. Such criterion ensured that their responses covered not only the organizational aspect of the cognitive dissonance but also the team management side. By extension, the results obtained in this way would be applicable to the effects experienced by the team members involved with the leaders who undergo inner conflict.
Next, the participants were required to have at least two years of experience in their current position. Such a condition would increase the likelihood of their exposure to the inner conflict and thus actualize their knowledge on the topic. To further exclude misinterpretation, the participants were briefly interviewed on the matter of their familiarity with the concepts and theories used to construct the survey, and the identified misinterpretations and inconsistencies in knowledge were addressed. In other words, additional measures were incorporated into the sampling procedure to make sure that the participants have sufficient understanding of the issue, and their responses thus have sufficient relevance for the study.
Finally, the sample was retrieved from the organizations that have undergone at least a minor transformation in the period that coincided with the participants’ experience in the managerial position. This condition would increase the likelihood of them dealing with cognitive dissonance. The change in an organization is a massive source of inner conflict both in managers and in employees, so it would be reasonable to expect that such setting would serve as a cause of cognitive dissonance both directly (by introducing the requirements that may conflict with the personal values) and indirectly (by initiating the conflicts in team members).
The recruitment of the sample will be performed by contacting the administration of the chosen schools and explaining the purpose of the study as well as the criteria of the sample. Once the recommendations of the administration are obtained, the managers eligible for participation will be contacted via email and briefed on the purpose and conditions of the study. At this point, personal referrals will be used to increase the sample size and include those overlooked by the administration.
Those who agreed to participate will be contacted on the phone for further clarification on the safety and privacy issues of the study, and their formal consent will be obtained. Once the definitive list of participants is constructed, the surveys will be administered via email, with ten days allocated for completion, after which the number of responses will be verified using the functionality of the online tool to estimate the response rate. The tool gathers data anonymously, so only the percentage of the responses will be derived.
The study requires participation voluntarily, so no compensation will be available for the participants. The candidates will be explicitly notified of this during the initial contact via email. The information will be confirmed in the telephone conversation.
The online tool used for the study incorporates several measures intended to protect the participants’ privacy. While the resource registers the IP address of the participants, this information is used internally to ensure the integrity of data. It is not available to the researchers, participants, or a third party. All of the data is encrypted and transferred through secure channels. The results are properly anonymized. The account is protected with a strong password to exclude the possibility of a leak. The sensitive data gathered during sampling is encrypted and stored using open-source software. This document is handled separately and not used in the analysis of the data to exclude accidental disclosure. The participants are informed about the protective measures as well as the probability of data loss due to the malfunction of the equipment or a deliberate attack.
Instruments and Materials
A survey was developed to establish the existence of a relationship between the inner conflict and cognitive dissonance, identify possible effects of the cognitive dissonance on leaders’ teams, and explore the potential ways of mitigating the effect. The survey consisted of twenty-nine open-ended and close-ended questions and aimed solely at the leaders within the organization. Since the survey was intended for online administration, the questions were intended to be as short as possible without sacrificing the clarity and precision (15 words per question on average). The survey was administered to the participants remotely via email and text messaging.
The number of responses was verified to exclude the possibility of inconsistencies. The combination of open-ended and close-ended questions was chosen following the exploratory nature of the study since it offered a broader overview of the possible use techniques without significantly increasing the time necessary to process the data. The online form of the survey served two purposes. First, it allowed for a more convenient administration and provided the participants with the possibility to choose a suitable schedule. While it also increased the time required for data collection, such drawback was acceptable considering the small sample size.
Second, the data processing capabilities of the online tool minimized the time and resources required for data analysis. While the functionality of the platform is relatively limited, the accuracy of the analysis was acceptable for the exploratory qualitative study.
After the questions had been ready, they were reviewed by a group of peers for clarity of statements and the presence of errors. Several questions were re-written to eliminate possible misreading and multiple interpretations. The questions were also submitted for review by a manager with the relevant experience to verify their applicability for the chosen topic. Once the text was finalized, it was entered into an online tool, after which the survey was administered to three peers to check whether it worked as intended. Once the functionality was confirmed, the collected data was erased to ensure the integrity of the results.
Procedure
The data will be collected remotely by sending a link to the survey via email or the messaging system of the participant’s choice. Ten days will be allocated for participants to leave their responses. The timeframe will be specified before the data collection and included in the reminder accompanying the link. After ten days, the survey results will be locked so that no further responses could be added. The number of returns will be matched to the initial participants to establish a response rate. The data on responses to closed-ended questions is expected to be available instantly via the tool’s analytical tools. The responses to open-ended questions will be handled separately by grouping them into meaningful categories and assigning representative codes. The coded responses will then be quantified and included in the final results.
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It is hard to disagree that there are many daily situations when a person may feel inconsistency in their thoughts, principles, beliefs, and actions. According to psychology theorists, such an experience is known as cognitive dissonance, and this mental state brings unease and discomfort to the person (Kassin et al., 2019). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the results of an exercise conducted on another individual and offer strategies for reducing dissonance.
Describing the Results
The simple experiment actually appeared to be quite effective in helping understand the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance. In the first part of the exercise, the participant answered positively to all four statements, and their responses on a scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree were only (4) and (5). The participant even highlighted that there are unlikely those who can disagree with these opinions. However, in the second part of the experiment, the individual replied ‘yes’ only to the question relating to conserving water. Consequently, it is possible to observe cognitive dissonance because the participant’s principles and ideas conflict with their regular behavior (B2Bwhiteboard, 2012). For instance, they believe that all people should vote but do not personally take part in electing governmental figures because they lack confidence in their honesty.
The Participant’s Attitude
It is interesting to notice that the inconsistencies I highlighted when the exercise was over caused varied feelings in the person. First, they laughed due to the irony of the situation: after mentioning that everyone probably agrees with the four statements, the participant realized that their own agreement is meaningless because of the absence of actual efforts. Further, this conflict made them feel uncomfortable, confused, and even embarrassed, as highlighted by researchers (Cherry, 2022). The person tried to justify their lack of actions and deny the need for them in the first place (Bentley Jones, 2010). Finally, they managed to accept the truth and agree to reconsider their involvement in the listed behaviors.
Dissonance Reduction Strategies
In order for people to feel more comfortable, it is essential to reduce dissonance, and the decision made by the participant is one of the strategies to do that. At the same time, this is one of the most challenging and thus avoided steps, meaning that most people prefer other strategies to stop experiencing cognitive dissonance. According to Cherry (2022), when one learns new information that highlights the wrongfulness or negativity of their everyday actions, they may want to find opposing facts.
The latter would refute this information, thus justifying the behavior one does not want to change. Further, individuals can start denying their responsibility (like the participant did) to persuade themselves and others. Third, it is also effective to reduce the importance of the conflicting belief (Cancino-Montecinos et al., 2020). For instance, the participant may notice that they perform other actions aimed at saving the planet’s resources, which allows them to waste water instead. Finally, admitting the dissonance and improving either behavior or beliefs in a reasonable manner required enormous efforts, which is why this is the rarest option for people to select.
Conclusion
To draw a conclusion, one may state that it is indeed quite unpleasant and uncomfortable to experience such a phenomenon. The exercise demonstrates that cognitive dissonance can be felt in global matters like voting or preserving water, but it can also appear in less major situations. Numerous strategies help reduce dissonance and avoid feelings of embarrassment, guilt, and unease, but most of them aim to deny one’s responsibility or shift focus. However, people should remember that it is always better to be honest with themselves.
Cognitive dissonance is an internal conflict that arises in a person when conflicting beliefs clash. This dissonance causes tension; a person experiences unpleasant emotions: anxiety, anger, shame, guilt–and will seek to get rid of the discomfort in a variety of ways. The most important lessons from situations arising from cognitive conflict were the idea that conflict must be resolved through rationalization and the application of critical thinking.
Discussion
The most striking manifestation of dissonance recently was when I was standing on the street and saw two people, a solid man, and a vagrant. I had a clear idea of each of them at the time: the respectable man seemed intelligent, well-mannered, and a gentleman, while the tramp was more like the opposite of him. The nice man’s phone rings; he answers it and starts talking loudly, using a lot of foul language, spitting on the sidewalk, and completely ignoring those around him. At the same time, the tramp came up to me and, in an intelligent manner, asked me what time it was and how to get to this address.
I was surprised and discouraged by this state of affairs-opposite perceptions and beliefs had just collided in your mind. In analyzing this story, I realize that, first of all, I tried to rationalize the situation, trying to justify the behavior of a well-looking person, realizing that there are many situations that can provoke uncontrollable emotions. It became clear to me that this strategy allows people to get rid of my negative attitude toward unfamiliar passersby (Myers & DeWall, 2020). Then critical thinking started its work, which helped to understand that any person, regardless of appearance, is worthy of relying on the help of another.
Conclusion
Thus, a recent situation that caused cognitive dissonance allowed me to gain insight into what thinking strategies could solve the problem. Rationalization allows a person to find a way to explain an unpopular point of view. Critical thinking promotes deep self-reflection as well as getting rid of the existing stereotypes that caused the contradiction. The lesson from this situation was that the two strategies combined can help one overcome dissonance and find an appropriate decision.
Reference
Myers, D. G., & DeWall, N. C. (2020). Psychology. Worth Publishers.