Category: Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget is a well-known psychologist. He gained popularity and recognition for setting up a theory of stages of cognitive development. The first stage of cognitive development is a sensorimotor stage that lasts from birth till approximately two years. During this stage, the child does not recognize the ideas that are too abstract such as that something is cold or the idea of falling. Generally speaking, at this age, kids do not grasp the idea of fear.

This stage is followed by a preoperational stage that lasts till approximately seven years old. It is characterized by the start of recognizing the symbols and putting them together to represent the things that surround them. The third stage is known as the concrete operational stage. Covering a period of 7 to 12 years, it is the stage of cognitive development during which the kids “comprehend ideas like weight, amount, and speed … [and] understand causal relationships, though not necessarily explain the reasoning behind them” (Sharp par. 7-8). Finally, there is the formal operative stage that comes after the kid is approximately 12 years of age, and this is when the child is considered to think logically and recognize abstract ideas (Feldman 184).

The stage of cognitive development we are interested in is the concrete operational stage. I am lucky to have a nephew that is why finding a kid for experiments was not a complicated task. My nephew, let us call him Ronny, is seven years old. He lives with his parents and an elder sister who is 12 years old. Ronny is an active little boy interested in gaining new knowledge so that it was an easy task to talk him into the experiments. It was even easier to have Ronny’s parents’ permission as I tempted them with an evening free from kids.

I decided to get started with the traditional Piaget’s experiment with two glasses of liquid. I decided to take orange juice to draw my nephew’s attention. As required by the classical experiment, I took two glasses, low and thick, and poured exactly the same amount of juice to each of them. I assured Ronny that the glasses and the amount of liquid in them were equal (“The Conservation Experiments” par. 2-3). Then, I took another glass, high and narrow, and emptied one of the first ones into it. When I asked my nephew what glass contained more juice, he pointed to the taller one and explained his decision by the higher level of juice in it.

The second classical Piagetian test is the experiment with two rows of coins. In the first case, I made to equal rows of coins. As they consisted of the identical number of coins, Ronny easily named the right answer. For the second part of the experiment, I spread one row and asked my nephew in which row there were more coins. This time, Ronny as well answered correctly.

Because my nephew made a mistake in the first experiment, I thought that I should conduct one more test so that I have the most relevant information about the achievement of concrete operations. I decided to test Ronny’s ability to think logically. I started with telling him that if I hit the glass with the hammer, I would break. Then I asked him what would happen to the glass if his father hit it with the hammer. Ronny answered me that it would break but when I asked him to explain why he shrugged in response. The next question was asking my nephew what would happen to the glass if his mother hit it with a sheet of paper. The answer was the same as Ronny believed that hitting a glass with anything would lead to its breaking.

Bearing in mind the results of the experiment, what I can tell about my nephew’s ability to achieve concrete operations is that he was right in 50 percent of the cases. It means that he is not a concrete operations child yet, but such an outcome can be explained by his age, as he is only seven years old. The test with the glasses of juice, it demonstrated the lack of knowledge about the concept of conservation, i.e. “two equal quantities remain equal even if the appearance of one is changed, as long as nothing is added or subtracted” (Hockenbury and Hockenbury 11).

In the case of coins, my nephew demonstrated the ability to focus on one thing, the number of coins in the rows, and ignore others, space between the coins (McLeod par. 4). In the third experiment, Ronny showed the lack of ability to reason the things behind particular events even though he tried to think logically (Asokan et al. 293). When I explained to my nephew where he was wrong he assured me that he understood his mistakes, nevertheless, I would like to conduct similar tests in some time so that I am sure that he did.

What I have learned from this test is that there is a certain logic in the Piagetian experiments and dividing development into stages. Together with that, I am strongly inclined to believe that if I ask Ronny to take a similar test in few years when he turns 9 or 10, he will answer most of my questions correct especially given that I explained to him where he made mistakes.

Works Cited

Asokan, Sharath, Sharmila Surendran, Sureetha Asokan and Sivakumar Nuvvula. ”Relevance of Piaget’s Cognitive Principles Among 4-7 Years Old Children: A Descriptive Cross-Sectional Study.” Journal of the Indian Society of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry 32.4 (2014): 292-6. Print.

Feldman, David Henry. “Piaget’s Stages: The Unfinished Symphony of Cognitive Development.” New Ideas in Psychology 22.3 (2004): 175-231. Print.

Hockenbury, Don and Sandra Hockenbury. Psychology. 2nd ed. 2000. New York, United States: Worth Publishers. Print.

McLeod, Saul. Preoperational Stage. 2015. Web.

Sharp, Gwen. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Experiments with Kids. 2009. Web.

The Conservation Experiments. n.d. Web.

Physical Developmental Domain

As it was mentioned in the case description, M.’s overall physical development is within the norm, and so is his physical health. The only area of growth on which M. and special education practitioners have yet to embark is enhancing patient’s fine motoric skills. Well-developed fine motoric skills allow for a refined use of the small muscles in control of the leading hand, especially the thumb and the pointing finger (Libertus and Hauf 301).

It is not possible to dismiss the importance of having control over one’s hands’ motions: once a child improves motoric skills, he or she can learn to draw, write, feed himself or herself, and change clothes. Thus, by expanding and developing the said set of skills, individuals become more independent and self-reliant. Furthermore, they get a better grasp of how their bodies function and how they can have an impact on the outside world through their actions.

M. still has a hard time controlling his emotional outbursts, and it is only logical that whenever he is frustrated with challenging tasks – for instance, to write something neatly – he becomes angry. One of the ways to find a compromise between the necessity of developing motoric skills and fostering M.’s autonomy is to teach him motoric skills in a playful way. M. might find finger painting a fun activity, and his educators might use it as an outlet for his emotions. Another idea is letting him draw with small crayons, pencils, and pieces of chalk, which would put more strain on his hand muscles.

Communication Domain

M. is verbal and responsive when he is with his family; however, once he finds himself surrounded by people who are not close to him, he tends to shut down. Now, going to school involves a great deal of day-to-day communication, and even though M. expresses an interest in certain subjects, academic success is only achievable if he can explain himself. In this developmental domain, the educators’ first goal would be to help M. interact with other children. The second goal would be for M. to overcome his speech blocks.

A great strategy to adopt in this situation would be to foster his involvement in normal everyday situations. Ideally, a classroom should be designed and equipped in a way that it is safe and encourages communication (Gargiulo and Kilgo 160). A teacher should not be a focal point, and M. should be able to see other children’s faces at all times. If he is silent during class, it is unreasonable to expect him to rush into conversations during breaks.

Educators should come up with games that get each child to participate and help M. understand that he can feel free during this activity as no one grades or judges him. A game should have verbal elements: it may include a song, nursery rhymes, or an expression that everyone should repeat throughout the process. Thus, when done properly, involving M. in such an activity will help achieve both communication goals – interaction and verbality.

Works Cited

Gargiulo, Richard, and Jennifer L. Kilgo. An Introduction to Young Children with Special Needs: Birth through Age Eight. Nelson Education, 2010.

Libertus, Klaus, and Petra Hauf. “Motor Skills and Their Foundational Role for Perceptual, Social, and Cognitive Development.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 8, 2017, p. 301.

Preoperational Stage

In the video Interview with a 4 year old mother interviews her 4-year-old son Jaden, who answers the questions, ranging from concrete and personal to more abstract and impersonal. When the mother makes an introduction explaining the context of the video, the child loses interest and concentration and looks bored until he is spoken to. In the last part of the video, the child himself talks about what he is interested in, while his mother participates in the conversation but almost does not direct him with questions.

According to Piaget’s theory, the child is in the preoperational stage of cognitive development, typical for ages 2 to 7. At this stage, a new ability of self-representation develops and interweaves with previously developed sensorimotor structures (Wadsworth & Piaget, 1979). When Jaden’s mother asks him if he is excited about being a big brother, he shows her excitement by a cheerful dance and bouncing up and down (MarieJEdwards, 2016). When his mother asks him to name a favorite song, Jaden starts singing and swinging to the sides instead of calling it (MarieJEdwards, 2016). Thus, the child connects the verbally designated situation with its sensorimotor representation.

Jaden does not ask how and why something happens but answers the mother’s questions regarding the logic of processes with simple, often magical concepts. His development corresponds to the symbolic function substage of the preoperational stage because he does not demonstrate the desire to know how the world works (Wadsworth & Piaget, 1979). For instance, Jaden several times chooses God and authorities as an explanation for different processes and things in the outer world, such as babies’ appearance or Jaden’s hair (MarieJEdwards, 2016). Preoperational thought does not follow the laws of logic or physical causation but is instead limited to associations.

In the conversation, Jaden demonstrates the ability to listen, share the events of his life, and capacity for self-control and patience. He does not interrupt his mother during the introduction even if he is bored and listens to the questions. His behavior is still essentially egocentric, which is typical for this stage of a child’s development (Wadsworth & Piaget, 1979). For example, Jaden turns back to his wish to exercise during the conversation multiple times even though his mother does not engage in discussing this topic (MarieJEdwards, 2016). The child quickly forgets matters that do not concern him directly; questions abstracted from his person do not interest him.

Jaden is in a positive mood; he is comfortable because his mother is conducting the interview. The child demonstrates two bright bursts of emotions in the video – joy, and resentment. He actively rejoices at the imminent appearance of his sister, accompanying this with a smile, dance, bouncing, and active gestures (MarieJEdwards, 2016). When Jayden accidentally hits his head against a wall, he expresses resentment at the wall, hitting it back with an offended and bitter expression on his face (MarieJEdwards, 2016). The child uses vocalizations, gestures, and demonstrative facial expressions when manifesting strong emotions.

Sensorimotor Stage

In the video Typical 2 year old play development mother films how two children of different ages and different stages of cognitive development play and interact with each other. The older girl Kaylee plays and interacts with her younger brother Colin, to whom she gives a cup of imaginary tea at her mother’s request (Krista Murphy, 2011). Colin reacts to his mother and sister, takes the items offered to him, shakes, and chews them.

The older girl is in the preoperational stage because she demonstrates “pretend play” and uses toy items for their symbolic purpose. The 2-year-old boy shows a sensorimotor game and does not distinguish the symbolic meaning of a cup of imaginary tea given to him by his sister. Colin is more interested in chewing a cup, tasting it, and twisting it in his hands (Krista Murphy, 2011). In the sensorimotor stage, the child develops its senses in combination with physical capabilities (Wadsworth & Piaget, 1979). Colin is focused on coordinating his movements, which still takes a lot of his attention.

The boy does not yet exhibit a significant range of social skills. He responds when his mother talks to him, takes the object from Kaylee’s hands and accepts affection from his older sister. In addition, Colin pays attention to the sister’s irritation and monitors her actions. For example, he understands that she wants to kiss him and exposes his face for a kiss (Krista Murphy, 2011). In the sensorimotor stage, children start combining sensory experience with appropriate motor reactions (Wadsworth & Piaget, 1979). The record demonstrates Colin can coordinate what he sees and hears with his actions.

During the video, the boy participates in sensorimotor play quite calmly, except for several situations of discomfort because of balance issues and his sister hindering him from holding the cup as he wants. When Colin slightly loses his balance, he opens his eyes widely and has a surprised facial expression (Krista Murphy, 2011). When his sister hinders him from playing, he uses vocalization to manifest his annoyancee (Krista Murphy, 2011). Colin demonstrates an adequate emotional response to external stimuli and other people.

References

Wadsworth, B. J., & Piaget, J. (1979). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Longman.

Krista Murphy. (2011). Typical 2 year old play development [Video]. YouTube. Web.

MarieJEdwards. (2016). Interview with a 4 year old [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Introduction

The period from 8 to 11 years of age for children is associated with rapid physiological changes that have a direct impact on learning ability. First of all, at this age, muscle development is observed, which is also associated with better coordination, balance, and strength (Hoffnung, 2016; McDevitt et al., 2013; Payne & Isaacs, 1995). During this period, children also experience increased activity and the presence of excess energy. Additionally, the approach of puberty is characterized by differences in the rate of development of boys and girls, which manifest themselves in this period (Hoffnung, 2016; Payne & Isaacs, 1995). Within classroom implications, these changes are associated with a decrease in the ability to concentrate for a long time, as well as an improvement in motor skills, in particular handwriting (Hoffnung, 2016; Payne & Isaacs, 1995). Thus, children in this period need activities that involve active movement. It is also important to include a variety of diverse activities that allow students to switch the focus of attention. The initial signs of differences between the rates of development of boys and girls require educators to also exclude the possibility of competition between genders within the classroom.

Cognitive Domain

The rapid increase in physical activity is also associated with changes in the cognitive abilities of students. These changes create a need for a more diverse and broad range of activities within the classroom, as well as a focus on student hobbies. During this period, the cognitive abilities of students vary and depend on the individual (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016). Children during this period also have an increased attention span, but also often change the focus of attention. The judgments of students of this age are categorical, which does not include the presence of a middle ground (Hoffnung, 2016; McDevitt et al., 2013). Additionally, children actively begin to show interest in different hobbies and collections (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016). Despite the development of cognitive abilities, children in this period also prefer practical tasks more, which should determine classroom activity. The increased interest in various hobbies characterizes the need for the formation of interest clubs, within which students can exchange ideas and opinions. The constant change in the interests of children also requires educators to pay increased attention to the variety of classroom activities, as well as a constant change of focus.

Social Domain

The period from 8 to 11 years is also characterized by the transformation of ideas about social interaction in children. Students at this age tend to show more respect for authority, which involves following the rules set by adults. Additionally, children become more loyal to disparate groups and communities and tend to be grouped by gender. Students also show a desire for collaboration, as well as solving problems through negotiations and compromises (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016; McDevitt et al., 2013). The increased interest in the use of various passwords and codes for communication and participation is also relevant. Thus, within classroom educators, it is necessary to plan activities with a focus on peer interaction within the same gender groups (Lally, 2018; Slee, 1993). During this period, the most important thing for children is participation in group practical tasks, as well as solving various problems involving collaboration and communication (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016; Woolfolk, 2018). It is also important to take into account that authority is especially important for students, which allows educators to set certain limits for them when planning activities. Educators can pay more attention to the formation of a sense of social responsibility and subordination, which is becoming extremely relevant in this period.

Emotional Domain

The age of 8 to 11 years is characterized by an increase in involvement in social and individual interaction, which becomes the direction for the formation of classroom activities. In particular, children in this period tend to expand their ability to decision-making, which makes them question authority more often. Additionally, they show increased respect for older peers, which also often leads them to mimic the behavior of the group (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2019). Increased animation of children at this age to the opinions of others leads to the need to provide correction one-on-one to eliminate unpleasant social emotions (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016; Lally, 2018; O’Donnell et al., 2012; Woolfolk, 2018). Growing respect for adults and authority involves increasing the importance of positive feedback and noticing student success (Duchesne, 2021; Hoffnung, 2016). This period requires the educator to actively participate in group activities, but also be careful not to put pressure on students (Hyde, 2018; Lally, 2018; O’Donnell et al., 2012). The educator should also set permanent behavioral limits for children that will shape their classroom activities. Finally, the critique of authority and the expansion of decision-making suggest a need for individual rather than general praise.

Pedagogical Strategies

Physical Domain

The increased need for physical activity suggests the need for the development of a pedagogical strategy that integrates learning and movement. At the same time, the period from 8 to 11 years is characterized by growing differences in the height and weight of children, which makes classical sports difficult to integrate all the students. Thus, the most relevant pedagogical strategy is outdoor learning which involves the integration of movement and learning (McCormick & Scherer, 2018). Moreover, children can show their tendency to communicate in a group, which also has a positive effect on the results of the learning process. For successful outdoor learning, field trips are most suitable, which can be carried out within the framework of a specific topic studied in the course. The most relevant are activities involving the solution of specific problems and the involvement of motor skills. Thus, the educator, when forming a pedagogical strategy, can pay attention to outdoor activities that require the collection of materials or the use of tools.

Cognitive Domain

Children between the ages of 8 and 11 need to be involved in more diverse activities that would emphasize the individual inclinations of the students. In this regard, the most relevant pedagogical strategy is inquiry-based learning. This strategy involves the involvement of students in the research of certain phenomena and the search for answers to specific questions through experience. This classroom approach can meet the student’s need for a shift in focus as research involves a series of different tasks. Educators should use the guided discovery technique to shape the educational process and provide independence to students. It is also important that within the framework of this strategy, the educator can integrate various technical means, which will provide the necessary diversity of activities (McCormick & Scherer, 2018). Additionally, this approach allows students to engage in more practice-oriented activities that also meet their cognitive needs. It is important that inquiry-based learning involves interaction with various objects, which further integrates the motor functions of children. Providing the opportunity to work in a team or group is also possible within the framework of this strategy, which is an additional advantage for its use.

Social Domain

In this period of development of children, it is necessary to address their social needs, which consist of an increased need for collaboration. As part of the pedagogical strategy, it is necessary to use cooperative and collaborative learning, which involves solving educational problems in the framework of group interaction. The most relevant approach, in this case, is the integration of inquiry-based learning and the group project that forms the basis of this strategy (Ashman, 2014). In particular, students can prepare group projects based on the knowledge gained in the course of research, and later present them to other peers. In this case, the participation of the educator as a guide and a colleague is important for shaping the activities of students. It is also important within the framework of this strategy to provide children with the opportunity to interact with other groups as part of the discussion of the presented projects.

Emotional Domain

The growing respect for authority, as well as the increased need for group activities and discussions, requires educators to pay attention to social interaction in the formation of strategy. The most relevant pedagogical strategy, in this case, is the initiation of guided group discussions, as they allow you to set the limits of the educational process, integrate interaction in groups, and also involve the educator in the discussion and its formation. This approach requires the educator to provide students with a clear topic for discussion and guidance on how to interact. As part of the group discussion, the educator also needs to give ongoing recommendations for its conduct, as well as ask relevant questions for better disclosure of the topic. Within the framework of this strategy, various tasks can also be issued that require joint work to find a solution, which will satisfy the need for negotiations for students. To keep all students involved and create an inclusive environment, it is also important to rotate groups so that their members can interact with all peers.

References

Ashman, A. (2014). Education for inclusion and diversity. P.Ed Australia.

Duchesne, S. (2021). Educational psycholgy for learning and teaching. Cengage Learning.

Hoffnung, M. (2016). Lifespan development. John Wiley & Sons.

Hyde, M., Carpenter, L., & Dole, S. (2018). Diversity, inclusion and engagement (3^rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Lally, M. (2019). Lifespan development: A psychological perspective. College of Lake County.

McCormick, C. B., & Scherer, D. G. (2018). Child and adolescent development for educators (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.

McDevitt, T., & Ormrod, J. (2019). Child development and education (7^th ed.). Pearson.

McDevitt, T., Ormrod, J., Cupit, G., & Chandler, M. (2013). Child development and education. Pearson.

O’Donnell, A. M., Dobozy, E., Bartlett, B., Bryer, F., Reeve, J., & Smith, J. K. (2012). Educational psychology. John Wiley & Sons.

Payne, G. V., & Isaacs, L. D. (1995). Human motor development: A lifespan approach (3^rd ed.). Mayfield Pub Co.

Slee, P. T. (1993). Child, adolescent and family development. Harcourt Brace & Co.

Woolfolk, A. (2018). Educational psychology (14^th ed.). Pearson.

Development of a child from the time of birth to a two-year-old is an important stage in their history. This stage involves setting basic sense and knowledge of their being in the world and their surrounding environment. It is milestone growth of a child. Children at different ages perceive differently situations with complex reactions. These is because, their brains tend to understand things is varied ways depending on their age.

The experiment done involved four children and hiding a toy from them. The first cluster involve a boy who was of age six months and a girl who was of age ten months. When the toy was dropped on the floor, both babies went for it. When the toy was covered with a blanket, the ten-month-old baby removes the blanket and took the toy. The six-month-old baby did not show any signs of existence of the toy. The nine-month-old baby show existence of toy even though she could not see it. The next research involved a boy who was eleven months old and a girl of ten months old. The toy was placed in front of each and moved a shorter distance away from them. Both of the children went for the toy. The toy was then covered with the blanket and both went and uncovered the toy from the blanket.

Depending on the age a child, they show different responses and understanding of existence of object. Within a certain category of age such as between ten months and one year a child show presents of object no matter their physical absents (Babakr et al., 2019). In the research conducted, a boy of age eleven months and a girl of age ten months and nine months responded to the absent of the toy. They uncovered the blanket but the other of age six months presumed it and also look jumbled. With the understanding of object permanence and infants working memory, the three responded but the other did not (Pacheco & Herrera, 2021). Their memory and response to working environment have not form mental representation of surrounding objects.

Within the sensorimotor stage (birth – 2 years), children’s behavior produces specific effect. According to current literature about stage object permanence, children between the ages of nine months to a year old are able to search for objects (Bjorklund, 2022). They are able to solve the problem of the absent of some objects but below they are not able. They become more physically proficient and able to explore many things at a greater complexity. They are curious to know their immediate vicinity. This category of children is also able to understand variance between animate and inanimate items physically. The mental processes and perceptual have develop mental representation in their brain (Babakr et al., 2019). Also, this process upon repetition causes novel effects in the child’s brain.

In conclusion, the sensorimotor stage about the object permanence aligns with current literature. Based on our finding, a child at the age of nine to one year old is able to sense the absent of object no matter the gender. Children below nine years of age cannot show any cognitive understanding of an object. Children at age of five to around seven months are only able to look at things surrounding them. The absent of this object have no effect on their being they feel satisfied within their vicinity.

References

Babakr, Z., Mohamedamin, P., & Kakamad, K. (2019). Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory: Critical review.Education Quarterly Reviews, 2(3), 113-167.

Bjorklund, D. F. (2022). Children′ s thinking: Cognitive development and individual differences. Sage publications.

Pacheco, C. S., & Herrera, C. I. (2021). A conceptual proposal and operational definitions of the cognitive processes of complex thinking. Thinking skills and creativity, 39(6), 100794.

Introduction

Personality is an individual’s particular combination of behavioral, attitudinal and emotional response patterns. Intellect is the ability of the mind to solve problems and analyze decisions as to what is right, true, wrong and real. All these involve the mental abilities of an individual. The mental abilities of humans evidently change as they get older. An individual’s decline in cognitive functions, attention span and memory are all likely to be age-related.

Personality and Intellectual Development in Adults

Personality is shaped by personality traits which reflect the constant individual characteristics that set them apart from others. This stability occurs at the stage of maturity. Maturity is the process of personal growth where the individual becomes creative, productive, decisive, and less rigid (Caspi, Roberts & Shiner, 2005). This occurs mostly during adulthood. This allows for personality stability during early adulthood. Adults at this stage are emotionally stable, functionally mature, conscious and agreeable. However, environmental and genetic factors influence this stability with change in age of these individuals. As they grow older, environmental influences include subjection to challenging lifestyle of sometimes getting sick, overworked and stressed (Pearson, 1995). This contributes to a decline in their working memory and cognitive function as adults. It leads to personality instability and change.

Personality and intellectual development in adults is the ability to acquire, construct and use this acquired knowledge, memory and cognitive functions in their decision making processes throughout their life. The acquisition and retention of this knowledge is paramount to their personality and intellectual development during adulthood (Annenberg, 2012).

Spiritual and moral development plays a major role in shaping personality. Young adults often question their religious beliefs and lessen their religious participation. This leads them to question their belief systems and make decisions to adopt different personality traits which influence personality development. However, in their mid adulthood, some of them often make some changes and adjusts to become stable in marriage, work and religious activities (Annenberg, 2012).They become more religious and thus religious beliefs influences their world view and decision making processes. The religious processes shapes their personality

Gender difference is of concern in adult personality and intellectual development. Women in their early adulthood seem to be more participatory in social institution activities that shape good personality and high intellectual development. They are more inclined to religious beliefs that influence their decision making positively. This boosts their competence and self- esteem (Caspi et al., 2005). On the other hand, men in their adulthood tend not to involve themselves with religious activities. This may make them acquire traits which negatively influence their personality and intellectual development at this stage.

As individuals grow older, their mental capacities and abilities decline. Changes in brain functionality and structure occur with age. Their memory, attention span and cognitive abilities decline; they become forgetful and less attentive. This affects their ability to remember and make decisions thus negatively influencing their personality and intellectual development. Eating a healthy diet, staying physically fit, partaking in new experiences, and staying socially active can help improve attention, memory, concentration span, and intellectual development.

Conclusion

Personality development in adults occurs through social interactions with other individuals in relation to the environment. Change in personality is influenced by how these adults derive meaning out of their experiences, how they adjust to their social roles during adulthood, how they incorporate religious beliefs in their lifestyle as well as how they maintain their positive personality traits over time. It encompasses changes in behavior, feelings and thinking. There is therefore the need for continued learning during adulthood. Learning will enable them improve their experience, wisdom and perspective.

References

Annenberg, F. (2012). Growing old in a new age. Web.

Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. New York: Free Press.

Pearson, P. (1995). The journey of adulthood. 7^th ed. New York: Free Press.

Introduction

Cognitive development in human beings almost starts once a baby is born. But in the case of babies, the behaviour is more reflective in nature. This ability that is inborn in human beings (and other animals) develops more and more as the child grows older. According to research this ability peaks during the adolescent age when new abilities like analytical and initiative thoughts begin to converge. In other words, the child uses both these capabilities to come to decisions and to act or not act in a particular way. This paper will discuss the harmonious combination between analytical thought and initiative thought which can help children during their adolescence. Jean Piaget, who incidentally was a biologist by qualification, is considered to be the greatest authority in the field of cognitive development.

Analytical thought

Analysis is when then child begins to ask questions (first to self and then to others if he does not get the answer) about what her perceives in the world around him. There are five levels of analytical thought. They are the questions what is it, how does it work, how well does it work, what should be or should not be done about it, and how do we know. (Five Levels of Analytic Thought). These would be the thought that come in the mind of a normal child. The levels of each of the questions will vary depending on the cognitive ability of each child apart from the many factors that affect child development. This will be the stage when the child begins to understand that some things may not be good for him. When the analytical ability begins to develop the child will be full of questions and will usually pester the parent, teacher or other family members with a stream of questions.

Initiative thought

Like analytical thought, initiative thought also varies between individual children. Though age is a factor in its development, other factors with regard to child development will also play a part in the level of initiative shown by the child. For example, if a child has been brought up in a repressive of environment the level of initiative could be very low.

Ideal harmony between the two thoughts

Even though these two thoughts begin to develop in children more during the adolescence, there need not be a positive correlation between the two. In other words, a child may have excellent analytical skills, but may lack the initiative to act on his or her analysis. On the other hand there will be some children who will lack analytical thought but will show high initiative in doing things. This could be dangerous for the child because he will initiate a particular action without thinking about the pros and cons of the act. Such children could be very destructive and naughty. They will also do dangerous things like climbing up difficult spaces or play with fire. If the child lacks both initiative and analytical thought, he may become a very unsuccessful person in life.

The ideal harmony in the adolescence’s life would be right balance between analytical and initiative thinking. A child should show initiative, but should also be able to analyse the consequences of the actions that come from his initiatives. In other words a child with high initiative thinking should also develop matching analytical thinking. Otherwise it may be dangerous for the child as well as those associated with him or her. But for a child with low initiative, either high or low analytical thinking will not pose much of a problem for others. Only his personal life may be unsuccessful. For example, a person with low initiative and low analytical ability may not be able to achieve anything in life. He may not pose a danger to the society as in the case of a child with high initiative, but low analytical thinking.

Works Cited

Five Levels of Analytic Thought. 2008. Web.

Introduction

Some of the most interesting aspects of child development are the biosocial, cognitive and psychological development.Reading these aspects can be interesting, especially if you have a child who is still developing. In order to understand these aspects fully, scientists have come up with numerous theories to explain the development stages right from birth to adulthood.

Although some people have widely criticized some of the theories, the truth of the matter is they address the various development stages we take the general based model to address the biosocial, cognitive, and psychological development of a six-year-old child. In trying to address these three paramount issues, the paper takes note of the extensive variations in what very many child development experts consider as “normal”.

Some of the factors behind child development include family, cognitive, educational, and genetic. Depending on the suitability of these factors, children will reach certain stages at different times. However, this paper discusses development stages of a normal six-year-old child. This is simply because every child is unique and therefore, the development stages can vary with time and other factors (Rollercoaster, 2012, p.1).

Six-year-old child

In very many developed countries, six-year-old kids are conversant with school and kindergarten related activities. In other words, a child develops aggression towards independence in this year. However, the idea to separate from their parents is not something that they are in apposition to do no matter how independent they want to be. These kids are taking steps towards discovering the world they found themselves in some years ago. The truth of the matter is that not all six-year-old children share similar abilities and development traits.

They can actually vary form one child to another due to their uniqueness. At this age, the kids have different preferences, experiences, and each one of them is capable of things in certain ways. This is the reason why their abilities are not the same. Although each kid is unique, we assume a general milestone in addressing the similarities in the development stages of all six-year-old kids (Ruben, Fein & Vandenberg, 1983, pp. 690-698).

As seen above, one of the most significant things to note about six-year-old kids id their increased aggression towards routines and independence.

This does not necessarily mean that they want to leave their parents and become independent. In most cases, these kids spend most of their time in school, and away from their parents. In school, these kids participate in various activities, sometimes on their own. Sometimes, they can form groups and play together, or attend parties of their friends. Six-year-old kids also experience physical development.

For instance, the motor skills and the coordination are likely to develop as compared to the rest. Additionally, this is the age when most children develop athletic abilities. You will find many of them playing or running around. The growth rate will vary form one child to another, and that is the main reason why their heights will vary to a certain extent.

Experts also argue that six-year-old children always feel insecure when they are far away from the parents or their homes. They therefore crave for relieve and security either at home or from their parents. Other theories also depict that six-year-old children tend to experience an incredible learning augmentation once they enter kindergarten and start handling intricate materials. This is the period they start learning how to read, and some basic math, art, science and history solving skills will start develop (Higgins & Parsons, 1983, pp.15-66).

Biosocial development

The biosocial development of a six-year-old child is also active at this particular age. In most cases, the child starts to develop interaction and other social skills.

Friends

It is quite amusing to note that these kids tend to emphasis relationships with people outside their homes, for example, teachers and pupils. Even as their aggression towards independence continues, these kids also tend to focus in other areas like forming very many fiends comprising of peers, teachers, and maybe other parents. As time goes by, they find that social interactions with the peers, friends or other people outside the family are complex.

Nevertheless, this does not stop them from interacting, as they become increasingly aware on what to do with such friendships. Another positive thing to note about these kids is that at this age, they understand rules better, and majority of them want to make sure that their friends follow the rules. For instance, if they are playing, they aggravate for organized games, which are devoid of controversy. You will find them forming teams to play each other a soccer match. Gender is also important here.

Those of the same gender would always want to play together, and one kid would choose another as the “best friend”. However, it is imperative for parents to watch the biosocial developments of the six-year-old child lest they develop abnormal behaviors such as hounding, cliques, and banishing others. Otherwise, this is the age when a kid navigates from one relationship to another hoping to find security and comfort (Ruben, Fein & Vandenberg, 1983, pp. 702-734).

Morals and rules

At six years of age, a child becomes increasingly aware of what is right and wrong. You will find many of them reporting or even summoning those who are not doing the right thing. At this age, break-ups among close friends are so common, but the goodness is they do not last for long, and you will find them becoming friends almost immediately.

Giving, Sharing and Empathy

Having acquired a good number of friends and now playing together, six-year-old kids always like sharing some of the things they own for example, snacks and toys. The truth of the matter is that there is rivalry and scuffling towards picking the best-looking toy or taking many snacks, but as we have seen above, they forget their differences easily.

In fact, they can work out their conflicts without the involvement of a teacher or a parent. Perhaps one major thing to note about six-year-old kids is that they are too egotistical, and therefore they need tender support for them to learn the other side of life (Parten, 1932, pp. 243-269).

Cognitive development

As we have seen above, six-year-old children have developed learning skills and therefore they are now reedy to enter school. At this age, they could be in kindergarten or in a nursery school. In school, they find a new world that is much different from that in their homes. Story telling, allotment, practical activities, and designing become so common, even as they embark on a journey of discovering what is in the books.

They are now ready to learn new skills such as decoding words due to the developed phonemic awareness. Their attention span begins to lengthen, and they become familiar with intricate projects and assignments assigned to them both at schools and home (Parkhurst & Asher, 1992, pp. 231-241).

Reading and Writing

This is the right age when children start learning how to read. In some cases, majority of the children of this age even begin to read on their own. Amazingly, some of them can even begin to write short stories (one paragraph) about their family, friends, or vacations. They are able to identify some words and with time, they break their sound.

Since they are still developing cognitively, with time, they become conversant with many vocabularies, and they can spell some words correctly. Children of this age can also identify punctuation marks, and apply capitalization in the sentences they construct. They also like reading simple stories about animals and monsters. Notably, after reading the story, they can re-tell it.

Numbers and Math

Six-year-old kids can count numbers much easier than they were in a year or two ago. Even as their cognitive skills increase, they will start mastering even higher numbers. Using sticks or other materials, they can add and subtract numbers in a given problem. They enjoy solving puzzles as well (Hagen, (1972, pp.66-78).

Concepts

Six-year-old kids are good in mastering concepts. For example, they can read the time, and tell all days of the week. By this age, they can say more about the world, name some towns, and even state the day’s weather conditions. We can say that at this age, they are able to differentiate between real and imaginary things.

Psychological Development

Six-year-old children are also developing psychologically. However, this type of development is in most cases characterized by contradictions. For instance, although they want to be independent, they also feel insecure and would always want to be at home with their parents.

Emotional Awareness

At this age, this kids experience emotions. Although they are a bit conversant on what to say, they are able to read the emotions of other people. They also remain careful in uttering some critical words so that they do not offend others.

Confidence and Insecurity

Since they are involved in various activities both at home and school, they always crave for recognition and praise. In a way, this boosts their confidence. Parents should also be instrumental in teaching them the lines of confidence. When they feel insecure, they should be encouraged, and it is paramount to mention that these kids dislike criticisms and other negative admonishments. All they need is reaffirming assurance and understanding on the part of friends and parents.

Inflexibility and Preferences

Six-year-old kids always prefer to do things according to their way. If this does not happen, then they feel dejected. To them some things are good and some are bad. However, parents can educate them on what is good and bad (Rollercoaster, 2012, p.1).

Privacy

At six years of age, children crave for some form of privacy. For instance, when they are dressing, they hide and they do not want anybody to see them. They also discourage the idea of bathing in front of their parents as well. Astonishingly, these children are also curious, as they want to discover their gender and sex. They may also start questioning their parents the origin of babies.

Reference List

Hagen, J. W. (1972). Strategies for remembering. New York: Academic Press.

Higgins, E.T. & Parsons, J.E. (1983). Social cognition and the social life of the child: Stages as sub-cultures. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Parkhurst, J.T. & Asher, S.R. (1992).Peer rejection in middle school: Subgroup differences in behavior, loneliness, and interpersonal concerns. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 231–241.

Parten, M. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243–269.

Rollercoaster. (2012). Stages of Development. Web.

Ruben, K. H., Fein, G. G., & Vandenberg, B. (1983). Socialization, personality, and social development. (4th ed.). New York: Wiley and Sons.

The cognitive development of a child depends on different aspects and types of interaction of an individual with the world. Depending on different theories of cognitive development, it is possible to choose the effective approach for addressing the behavioral goal for a person while integrating this approach in the educational setting. In this context, it is necessary to refer to Jerome Bruner’s theory of cognitive development in order to change specific aspects in Rad’s behavior (Slee, Campbell, & Spears, 2012, p. 172). The paper aims to demonstrate how Bruner’s theory of cognitive development can be used in the educational setting in order to affect the student’s behavior.

The Behavioral Goal for Rad

The behavior of Rad does not address the criteria for the behavior of students who participate in classroom discussions and group activities. Thus, Rad demonstrates the lack of attention to students’ answers, and he prefers to make inappropriate comments when other students speak. Furthermore, Rad lacks attention to the teacher’s questions, and he does not demonstrate willingness to answer these questions.

In addition, Rad often interrupts the studying process and rejects to participate in group activities as well as to cooperate with other students. Therefore, the general behavioral goal for Rad is to improve participation in the classroom activities with the focus on the increased attention to other students during discussions, to the teacher, and to the members of the group during cooperation. Specific behavioral goals include the following ones: by the end of a three-month period, Rad will listen attentively to the students’ answers, react to four out of five answers, and increase his cooperation with students in groups by 30%; by the end of a four-month period, Rad will participate in class discussions and answer the teacher’s questions in a respectful manner in three out of five cases.

Jerome Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jerome Bruner developed his theory of cognitive development in the 1950s. This theory is based on the idea that persons learn and develop their thinking abilities as a result of the interaction with the society. Furthermore, they form their vision of the world depending on such three modes of thinking as the enactive mode, the iconic mode, and the symbolic mode. These modes are determined with references to the types of the knowledge representation (Schwartz, Chase, Oppezzo, & Chin, 2011, p. 760).

In spite of the fact that individuals develop different types of thinking successively, certain modes can dominate the way of thinking when persons completed the enactive and iconic stages and learnt the basics of using words and other symbols. Therefore, while teaching a student, it is important to pay attention to his dominant mode that can differ from the stage of his development (Uttal, O’Doherty, Newland, Hand, & DeLoache, 2009, p. 160). Bruner also focused on the role of the language in the person’s cognitive development. Thus, teachers need to concentrate on developing the symbolic mode of thinking in students in order to make their social interactions easier.

The other important notion developed by Bruner is the idea of discovery learning. According to Bruner, students need to learn symbols in order to categorize the knowledge and then to code it according to their visions and needs. The first step is the teacher’s guidance and the next step is the student’s work with the information to discover and organize it in the most appropriate way (Wecker & Fischer, 2011, p. 750). The result of such learning is the autonomy of a student and his ability to construct the knowledge according to the personal needs.

Application of the Theory According to the Behavioral Goal

In order to start applying Bruner’s theory to the realization of Rad’s behavioral goal, it is necessary to assess what mode of representation is dominant in case of Rad at the current stage of his development. Assessment and observation can demonstrate that Rad prefers working with images while learning and he also likes to act during lessons instead of writing, reading, or speaking. Thus, the prevalent modes of representation for Rad are enactive and iconic ones. The symbolic mode is not developed effectively, and this fact causes problems with participating in class discussions.

Referring to the received information, it is possible to develop the program of improving the behavior for Rad according to the previously set goal. The first step is demonstration of a model that can explain how to listen to the classmates’ answers and react to them. Referring to Rad’s dominant iconic mode of thinking, it is necessary to propose the model in the form of a diagram and pictures to demonstrate the principles and advantages of the desired behavior.

The second step is the organization of the consultation for Rad to help him in preparing for the lessons to guarantee the participation in class discussions and question-answer sessions. The Instructor needs to apply the principles of Bruner’s discovery learning and propose Rad to organize the learning material in tables. Furthermore, to develop the symbolic mode of thinking, it is necessary to assist Rad in organizing his vocabulary for answering the Instructor’s questions. It is important to determine what aspects of the language are difficult for Rad, why he has barriers in understanding the other students’ answers, what words are frequently used by Rad while speaking at lessons. The vocabulary hints for the homework can also be presented in the iconic form. The next step is the organization of group interactions based on games that require movement and actions (Wecker & Fischer, 2011, p. 751).

The development of the symbolic thinking can also be integrated in the form of the game, when Rad is asked to manipulate cards with words, definitions, phrases, and quotes or when Rad is allowed to jump or dance if he answers the questions correctly.

The impact of using the principles of Bruner’s theory of cognitive development on Rad is expected to be positive because the integration of the ideas on thinking modes and discovery learning into the completion of Rad’s behavioral goal can lead to high results. The reason is that it is possible to change Rad’s behavior with the focus on his dominant mode of thinking, while developing the other modes simultaneously.

Furthermore, following the principles of discovery learning, it is possible to make Rad be attentive at lessons and more organized because of using the coding system that is appropriate for him to understand the material and develop the behavioral strategy while participating in discussions or cooperating with the other students. The impact of the theory application on the Instructor is the improvement of approaches to determining the students’ individual dominant modes of representation in order to address their needs with the help of focusing on discovery learning.

Conclusion

References to Bruner’s theory of cognitive development are important to change the student’s behavior while organizing the learning according to the mode of representation and principles of discovery learning. The reason is the focus on the student’s way of thinking and coding system to make the process comfortable for them.

References

Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., Oppezzo, M. A., & Chin, D. B. (2011). Practicing versus inventing with contrasting cases: The effects of telling first on learning a transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 759-775.

Slee, P., Campbell, M., & Spears, B. (2012). Child, adolescent and family development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Uttal, D. H., O’Doherty, K., Newland, R., Hand, L. L., & DeLoache, J. S. (2009). Dual representation and the linking of concrete and symbolic representations. Child Development Perspectives, 3(2), 156-159.

Wecker, C., & Fischer, F. (2011). From guided to self-regulated performance of domain-general skills: The role of peer monitoring during the fading of instructional scripts. Learning and Instruction, 21(1), 746-775.

Description of Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development explains how human intelligence develops. The theory has four major stages. These are the sensorimotor period, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.

Sensorimotor period

This stage starts when a child is born till he or she is two years old. During this stage, newborns develop an understanding of their environment by matching up their experiences to physical and mental actions. The intelligence of newborns starts with impulsive and intuitive actions at birth and develops to figurative thoughts during the last stages. The sensorimotor period is divided into six substages. The first substage is a simple reaction that takes place between conception and the first six weeks. During this period, an infant co-ordinates his or her senses and acts through reflexive conducts. The second substage is the first to conduct and principal circular responses. The substage begins from 6 weeks to 4 months.

During this phase, the submissive reactions of infants are noticeable. Another substage is the secondary circular responses, which take place from four months to eight months. This stage is linked with habit development. The fourth stage is the synchronization of subordinate circular responses. It starts when a child is four months old and lasts to twelve months. During this phase, a child develops logic and co-ordinates between actions and results. The next developmental substage is the tertiary circular responses, originality, and attentiveness. Primarily, the substage is characterized by discovering new ways of achieving goals and it takes place between twelve months to eighteen months. The last substage is the internalization of systems. It is linked to the start of insight and real imagination (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). It starts from 18 months and stays up to the 24th month.

Preoperational stage

This stage occurs when a child is between two years to 6 years old. It is characterized by self-centered thoughts. During this stage, kids cannot embrace alternate perspectives. They do not consider another individual’s viewpoint. Piaget divides the stage into two phases. The first one is the ‘symbolic function substage’, which takes place between two and four years of age. Kids are not able to manipulate and convert the information in a reasonable way, though they can think in imageries and signs. The second phase is ‘the intuitive thought substage’, which occurs between four and six years. During this phase, children become so inquisitive since they want to know how and why things happen the way they do (Sutherland, 1992).

Concrete operational stage

This stage occurs between six and ten years of age. Children tend to use logic properly and they can adopt other people’s views. Thinking of children advances and becomes more mature.

Formal operational stage

According to Piaget’s theory, this is the last developmental stage. It occurs from twelve years of onwards. During this stage, children’s reasoning is mature and they can reason theoretically and rationally.

Ainsworth and Bowlby’s theory of attachment

According to Bowlby’s theory, there are three assumptions about attachment. First, he believed that when kids are brought up with confidence, most likely they will have more confidence than kids brought up without much conviction. Also, he assumed that this confidence is developed during a crucial phase of growth and the anticipations created stay unaffected for the entire life of an individual. Lastly, he believed that these convictions are directly attached to real experiences. According to Bowlby, the responsibility of a caregiver is to provide the specific desires of the attached kid during the entire development period. The role changes with time as the child grows. Initially, the major role of the mother is attachment and to give the necessary support and safety to the child. Later, the duty of the caregiver shifts to being available when the kid requires periodic assistance as they explore the outside world.

Ainsworth’s research and theories were developed from Bowlby’s concepts of attachment. She studied children aged between twelve to eighteen months who have been left alone shortly then reunified with their mom. Based on these studies, she suggested that there are 3 main systems of attachment. These are avoidant-insecure, secure, and ambivalent-insecure attachments. Research shows that these first attachment systems can aid in predicting an individual’s character later in life (Simpson, 1998). Secure attachment is characterized by misery when detached from the caregiver and happiness with the caregiver’s comeback. Children feel protected by their care provider for support. Children with an avoidant-insecure attachment develop a habit of avoiding their mothers or caregivers. These children will not show any preference of the mother to a stranger. According to Ainsworth, this kind of attachment may develop due to abusive or negligent care providers. In ambivalent-insecure attachments, children tend to be distressed when their caregivers are away. Studies show that this attachment is caused by poor parental availability. Children with ambivalent-insecure attachments cannot rely on their care providers to be available when in need. Later in life, the child may not need to depend on his or her caregiver.

References

Shaffer, R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Simpson, A. (1998). Attachment theory and close relationships. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive development today: Piaget and his critics. London: Chapman.