Category: Clothes

First impressions last and clothing is a statement, presenting the wearer of the garment to the world as a person defined by their appearance and taste. Clothing and style have always been a factor in one’s identity. The length of one’s skirt is seen as a reflection of the wearer’s degree of modesty. The color represents what they identify as, having blue as an indicator of masculinity and pink for femininity. The way one dresses up reflects their lifestyle and interests. In this binary world where man is placed in a mold that dictates man’s preferences and lifestyle, to deviate from such norms and to wear clothes that are not usually specified and directed towards one’s perceived identity sparks question and curiosity towards their gender identity. Gender expression is the display of one’s chosen identity through the use of displays such as clothing and appearance. The role of clothing on the gender identity and expression of a person can either be a tool used to help clarify their expression or a hindrance to their freedom and lifestyle.

Before one can understand the relationship between these two ideas, it is best to clarify the concept of gender. Since the beginning of Western dominance and bias in the field of thought, gender has been a binary, branching off into two classifications: the male and the female. This idea, however, cannot be equated yet can be linked to sex, which is anchored on sciences and biology, or to sexuality, which is the preference of a person towards the other. Gender is a manmade construct which, according to Østergaard (1992), heavily depends on human connections and interactions (p. 6). Gender, thus, consists of tangible or intangible characteristics that encompass a person’s culture which is set upon a spectrum that ranges from masculinity to femininity. Currently, there are three major kinds of gender that can be derived from the numerous identities: the cisgender or the gender dictated upon them since birth; transgender, wherein the person belongs to the gender that was not assigned to them at birth; and lastly, the genderqueer or the midpoint of the spectrum, the classification that consists of those who identify as neither male nor female (Adams, 2017). The non-binary community is a complex structure that branches off into multiple subgroups. Its line breaches the borders of the transgender community as the non-binary, too, can identify as such, considering the discourse on cross-dressers, the intersex, and transsexuals (Doan, 2016). Still, both communities have a shared struggle in gender expression, especially with the increasing enforcement of the gender binary to the point that violence and injustice may arise. This binary, stated by Rahilly (2015), works under a “truth regime” or an ideology wherein the idea is already ingrained into one’s thoughts since their early development stages. A child is educated on the gender binary in order to decrease the possibility of them deviating from their biological sex and dictated gender. Through this enforcement of ideology, the gender binary continues to grow stronger. However, Rahilly (2015) adds that even if one attempts to educate or enforce a child or an individual on remaining true to their initial gender and sex, deviance will eventually still occur naturally in society.

With the emergence of the concept of the non-binary blurring the lines between the once-strictly enforced ideas of masculinity and femininity, the non-binary creates ambiguity in the construction of gender identity and expression. The non-binary choose to deviate from the idea of women having to be feminine and men having to be masculine at all times. This deviation could be seen in their gender expression or in the way they present themselves to society. Commonly, this is seen in the way a non-binary person chooses to dress. However, one’s appearance does not necessarily and automatically give off the person’s identity. In the paper written by Lucal (1999), one has three different identities: the self-identity, the presented identity, and the perceived identity, each kind differing on who the observer is (p. 784). While it is clear that self-identity is what somebody chooses to identify as the self-identity could be projected and perceived in different manners. A person can present to society their desired gender through their actions and appearances. However, as mentioned before, gender is perceived and dictated by society. What the other may view may not be equivalent to the self-identity and chosen or assigned gender of a person. This confusion, this misgendering caused by society towards a person, is a struggle that is being faced by both the genderqueer community and the cisgender and the clothing choices of a person manage to find themselves as a major factor to how one’s perceived or presented identity is taken by both the wearer and the observer.

Clothing and gender go hand in hand. Felshin (1995) writes that the discussion on clothing and identity has focused on the mutual relationship between the two and how customs play a heavy role in the two concepts, unlike the traditional mindset, wherein identity was simply viewed as something biological and predetermined (p. 20). The discourse on clothing choices, fashion, and style does not dismiss the role of gender identity for like art, fashion is a reflection of reality.

The way clothing is constructed is a factor in gender expression. Ruffles and billowing fabrics are seen to be expressions and displays of femininity and shoulder pads, popularized in the 1980s, worn by women emphasized strength yet still drew itself back to its masculine origins. According to Aspers and Godart (2013), style is created by long-term customs and norms, stretching itself out into clothing and fashion (p.174). Through these styles emerges a binary that strictly separates and dictates humans to display their identity to the public. Clothing is one of the many visual forms of gender display or a way one presents their identity to the public through means like cosmetics, behavior, and mannerisms (Lucal, 1999, p.784). Gender is an important factor in design as clothes express masculinity and femininity through patterns such as florals, fabrics like silk and velour, and colors like pink and blue. Historically speaking, pink and blue as identifiers of femininity and masculinity respectively only began in the early 20th century, the same period when adult fashion trends were enforced on children, thus making the wall between the two ends of the spectrum even higher (Paoletti, 1987, p. 136-137). Seeing the dynamics between society and their perception of gender identity, clothing becomes an indicator and a norm to what defines a certain group of people. Yet as mentioned before, the wider range and more open-minded view on gender breaks this wall clothing has created in between the gender spectrum. Since clothing and style have always been open to interpretation and in constant change, the use of clothing as a means to express one’s gender, too, is in a state of fluctuating uncertainty (Aspers and Godart, 2013, p. 185). The rise of a more masculine approach in women’s fashion abolishes the concept of femininity being a combination of flowery silk shirts and form-fitting dresses. The more accessible these designs are to certain genders promotes a wider range of gender expression and comfort within one’s own body yet can create a detrimental effect to a person’s gender expression as parts of society continue to remain unadjusted to the current openness towards those who choose neither end of the gender spectrum.

Not everybody finds clothing as a carrier of ease and convenience. With gender expression often being interpreted by not the wearer of the garment themselves, misinterpretations may arise and one may be perceived to belong to the gender they do not actually identify with. Misgendering is a situation wherein a person is mistaken to be of the wrong gender. This could happen by using the wrong pronouns, whether intentionally or not. In relation to clothing, misgendering happens when a person is perceived to be of a different gender due to their appearance. A woman may prefer to be clad in a style usually worn by those who identify as males and thus may have a chance of experiencing being identified as such. Local (1999) narrates in her research her experience as a woman who was constantly thought of as a man due to how she dressed up in public and how misgendering became troublesome for her everyday life, from being barred from restrooms to having to undergo long lines, questioning, and clarifications when availing for public services. Misgendering is an inconvenience as it hinders people from having the lifestyle they wish to have. Even if one chooses not to identify with a specific gender, society continues to dictate their gender expression due to the displays being projected and the norms being created. In addition, deviating from the norm and expressing one’s self-identity to the public poses a high risk of being subjected to oppression and inequalities. Common gender displays and the gender binary imposes people to dress and appear to be the gender they are not, thus creating an inequality between genders forced and expected by the normative force or in this case, the heterosexual community (Brower, 2013, p. 496-499). The continuing imposition of the norm and the binary through the strict enforcement of assigning clothes to a specific gender ensures the strength of the common ideology of gender as a binary.

As the strict enforcement of clothing customs and cultures invades the lifestyle of each individual, the non-cisgender community relies heavily on clothing in order to identify with the gender they lean more toward. From years of experiencing discomfort within one’s own body, clothing serves as a way for one to formulate their own identity and be comfortable with their own body. In the case of gender-neutral, clothing becomes a symbol of defiance and deviation from the norms society and those in power, such as the patriarchy, have accustomed us to follow. As stated by Stachowiak (2013), the gender binary is broken by the gender expression of the genderqueer (p.118). This idea of empowerment through comfort isn’t just an idea experienced by the LGBT but by those who choose to wear clothes that are usually designated for the opposite gender, breaking down the concept of masculinity and femininity. As times progress, fashion slowly stops becoming a set of rules and standards yet a choice one can make. With changing styles and trends, clothing becomes a more inclusive product that accommodates all gender identities and responds to the growing needs of the non-binary.

Looking at how clothing and gender interact with one another, it is seen that gender expression and identity heavily rely on one’s external appearance and on the perception of society on the person who knowingly or unknowingly chooses to deviate from society’s standards of fashion and expression. As stated in the research written by Stachowiak (2013), “Clothes make the queer (p. 162).” To deviate from the norm can pose a benefit to the wearer as it strengthens their pride and reinforces their identity in a community they chose to be a part of. However, due to the truth regime and ideology of the gender binary, deviation may lead to violence or insecurity and struggle within one’s own body. As stated by Lucal (1999), the dominant gender and power, which is heterosexuality and the patriarchy, is the center of the creation and the enforcement of the binary and the rules surrounding gender expression and identity (p. 794). Seeing this situation, these norms enforced onto society by fragile masculinity and the patriarchy continue to slow down the progression of society and the hopes of a gender deviant to find comfort within and without.

References:

1. Adams, C. (2017, March 24). The gender identity terms you need to know. CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transgender-gender-identity-terms-glossary/
2. Aspers, P., & Godart, F. (2013). Sociology of fashion: Order and change. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 171-192. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/43049631
3. Brower, T. (2013). What’s in the closet: Dress and appearance codes and lessons from sexual orientation. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32(5), 491-502. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/10.1108/EDI-02-2013-0006
4. Doan, P. L. (2016). To count or not to count: Queering measurement and the transgender community. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 89-110. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/10.1353/wsq.2016.0037
5. Felshin, N. (1995). Clothing as Subject. Art Journal, 54(1), 20-29. doi:10.2307/777502
6. Lucal, B. (1999). What it means to be gendered me: Life on the boundaries of a dichotomous gender system. Gender and Society, 13(6), 781-797. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/190440
7. Østergaard, L. (1992). Gender and development: a practical guide. London: Routledge.
8. Paoletti, J. (1987). Clothing and gender in America: children’s fashions, 1890-1920. Signs, 13(1), 136-143. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/3174031
9. Rahilly, E. (2015). The gender binary meets the gender-variant child: Parents’ negotiations with childhood gender variance. Gender and Society, 29(3), 338-361. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/43669975
10. Stachowiak, D. M. (2013). Queer(ing) gender: A critical analysis of thinking, embodying, and living genderqueer (Order No. 3592838). Available from ProQuest Central. (1436287532). Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/docview/1436287532?accountid=47253

First impressions last and clothing is a statement, presenting the wearer of the garment to the world as a person defined by their appearance and taste. Clothing and style have always been a factor in one’s identity. The length of one’s skirt is seen as a reflection of the wearer’s degree of modesty. The color represents what they identify as, having blue as an indicator of masculinity and pink for femininity. The way one dresses up reflects their lifestyle and interests. In this binary world where man is placed in a mold that dictates man’s preferences and lifestyle, to deviate from such norms and to wear clothes that are not usually specified and directed towards one’s perceived identity sparks question and curiosity towards their gender identity. Gender expression is the display of one’s chosen identity through the use of displays such as clothing and appearance. The role of clothing on the gender identity and expression of a person can either be a tool used to help clarify their expression or a hindrance to their freedom and lifestyle.

Before one can understand the relationship between these two ideas, it is best to clarify the concept of gender. Since the beginning of Western dominance and bias in the field of thought, gender has been a binary, branching off into two classifications: the male and the female. This idea, however, cannot be equated yet can be linked to sex, which is anchored on sciences and biology, or to sexuality, which is the preference of a person towards the other. Gender is a manmade construct which, according to Østergaard (1992), heavily depends on human connections and interactions (p. 6). Gender, thus, consists of tangible or intangible characteristics that encompass a person’s culture which is set upon a spectrum that ranges from masculinity to femininity. Currently, there are three major kinds of gender that can be derived from the numerous identities: the cisgender or the gender dictated upon them since birth; transgender, wherein the person belongs to the gender that was not assigned to them at birth; and lastly, the genderqueer or the midpoint of the spectrum, the classification that consists of those who identify as neither male nor female (Adams, 2017). The non-binary community is a complex structure that branches off into multiple subgroups. Its line breaches the borders of the transgender community as the non-binary, too, can identify as such, considering the discourse on cross-dressers, the intersex, and transsexuals (Doan, 2016). Still, both communities have a shared struggle in gender expression, especially with the increasing enforcement of the gender binary to the point that violence and injustice may arise. This binary, stated by Rahilly (2015), works under a “truth regime” or an ideology wherein the idea is already ingrained into one’s thoughts since their early development stages. A child is educated on the gender binary in order to decrease the possibility of them deviating from their biological sex and dictated gender. Through this enforcement of ideology, the gender binary continues to grow stronger. However, Rahilly (2015) adds that even if one attempts to educate or enforce a child or an individual on remaining true to their initial gender and sex, deviance will eventually still occur naturally in society.

With the emergence of the concept of the non-binary blurring the lines between the once-strictly enforced ideas of masculinity and femininity, the non-binary creates ambiguity in the construction of gender identity and expression. The non-binary choose to deviate from the idea of women having to be feminine and men having to be masculine at all times. This deviation could be seen in their gender expression or in the way they present themselves to society. Commonly, this is seen in the way a non-binary person chooses to dress. However, one’s appearance does not necessarily and automatically give off the person’s identity. In the paper written by Lucal (1999), one has three different identities: the self-identity, the presented identity, and the perceived identity, each kind differing on who the observer is (p. 784). While it is clear that self-identity is what somebody chooses to identify as the self-identity could be projected and perceived in different manners. A person can present to society their desired gender through their actions and appearances. However, as mentioned before, gender is perceived and dictated by society. What the other may view may not be equivalent to the self-identity and chosen or assigned gender of a person. This confusion, this misgendering caused by society towards a person, is a struggle that is being faced by both the genderqueer community and the cisgender and the clothing choices of a person manage to find themselves as a major factor to how one’s perceived or presented identity is taken by both the wearer and the observer.

Clothing and gender go hand in hand. Felshin (1995) writes that the discussion on clothing and identity has focused on the mutual relationship between the two and how customs play a heavy role in the two concepts, unlike the traditional mindset, wherein identity was simply viewed as something biological and predetermined (p. 20). The discourse on clothing choices, fashion, and style does not dismiss the role of gender identity for like art, fashion is a reflection of reality.

The way clothing is constructed is a factor in gender expression. Ruffles and billowing fabrics are seen to be expressions and displays of femininity and shoulder pads, popularized in the 1980s, worn by women emphasized strength yet still drew itself back to its masculine origins. According to Aspers and Godart (2013), style is created by long-term customs and norms, stretching itself out into clothing and fashion (p.174). Through these styles emerges a binary that strictly separates and dictates humans to display their identity to the public. Clothing is one of the many visual forms of gender display or a way one presents their identity to the public through means like cosmetics, behavior, and mannerisms (Lucal, 1999, p.784). Gender is an important factor in design as clothes express masculinity and femininity through patterns such as florals, fabrics like silk and velour, and colors like pink and blue. Historically speaking, pink and blue as identifiers of femininity and masculinity respectively only began in the early 20th century, the same period when adult fashion trends were enforced on children, thus making the wall between the two ends of the spectrum even higher (Paoletti, 1987, p. 136-137). Seeing the dynamics between society and their perception of gender identity, clothing becomes an indicator and a norm to what defines a certain group of people. Yet as mentioned before, the wider range and more open-minded view on gender breaks this wall clothing has created in between the gender spectrum. Since clothing and style have always been open to interpretation and in constant change, the use of clothing as a means to express one’s gender, too, is in a state of fluctuating uncertainty (Aspers and Godart, 2013, p. 185). The rise of a more masculine approach in women’s fashion abolishes the concept of femininity being a combination of flowery silk shirts and form-fitting dresses. The more accessible these designs are to certain genders promotes a wider range of gender expression and comfort within one’s own body yet can create a detrimental effect to a person’s gender expression as parts of society continue to remain unadjusted to the current openness towards those who choose neither end of the gender spectrum.

Not everybody finds clothing as a carrier of ease and convenience. With gender expression often being interpreted by not the wearer of the garment themselves, misinterpretations may arise and one may be perceived to belong to the gender they do not actually identify with. Misgendering is a situation wherein a person is mistaken to be of the wrong gender. This could happen by using the wrong pronouns, whether intentionally or not. In relation to clothing, misgendering happens when a person is perceived to be of a different gender due to their appearance. A woman may prefer to be clad in a style usually worn by those who identify as males and thus may have a chance of experiencing being identified as such. Local (1999) narrates in her research her experience as a woman who was constantly thought of as a man due to how she dressed up in public and how misgendering became troublesome for her everyday life, from being barred from restrooms to having to undergo long lines, questioning, and clarifications when availing for public services. Misgendering is an inconvenience as it hinders people from having the lifestyle they wish to have. Even if one chooses not to identify with a specific gender, society continues to dictate their gender expression due to the displays being projected and the norms being created. In addition, deviating from the norm and expressing one’s self-identity to the public poses a high risk of being subjected to oppression and inequalities. Common gender displays and the gender binary imposes people to dress and appear to be the gender they are not, thus creating an inequality between genders forced and expected by the normative force or in this case, the heterosexual community (Brower, 2013, p. 496-499). The continuing imposition of the norm and the binary through the strict enforcement of assigning clothes to a specific gender ensures the strength of the common ideology of gender as a binary.

As the strict enforcement of clothing customs and cultures invades the lifestyle of each individual, the non-cisgender community relies heavily on clothing in order to identify with the gender they lean more toward. From years of experiencing discomfort within one’s own body, clothing serves as a way for one to formulate their own identity and be comfortable with their own body. In the case of gender-neutral, clothing becomes a symbol of defiance and deviation from the norms society and those in power, such as the patriarchy, have accustomed us to follow. As stated by Stachowiak (2013), the gender binary is broken by the gender expression of the genderqueer (p.118). This idea of empowerment through comfort isn’t just an idea experienced by the LGBT but by those who choose to wear clothes that are usually designated for the opposite gender, breaking down the concept of masculinity and femininity. As times progress, fashion slowly stops becoming a set of rules and standards yet a choice one can make. With changing styles and trends, clothing becomes a more inclusive product that accommodates all gender identities and responds to the growing needs of the non-binary.

Looking at how clothing and gender interact with one another, it is seen that gender expression and identity heavily rely on one’s external appearance and on the perception of society on the person who knowingly or unknowingly chooses to deviate from society’s standards of fashion and expression. As stated in the research written by Stachowiak (2013), “Clothes make the queer (p. 162).” To deviate from the norm can pose a benefit to the wearer as it strengthens their pride and reinforces their identity in a community they chose to be a part of. However, due to the truth regime and ideology of the gender binary, deviation may lead to violence or insecurity and struggle within one’s own body. As stated by Lucal (1999), the dominant gender and power, which is heterosexuality and the patriarchy, is the center of the creation and the enforcement of the binary and the rules surrounding gender expression and identity (p. 794). Seeing this situation, these norms enforced onto society by fragile masculinity and the patriarchy continue to slow down the progression of society and the hopes of a gender deviant to find comfort within and without.

References:

1. Adams, C. (2017, March 24). The gender identity terms you need to know. CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transgender-gender-identity-terms-glossary/
2. Aspers, P., & Godart, F. (2013). Sociology of fashion: Order and change. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 171-192. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/43049631
3. Brower, T. (2013). What’s in the closet: Dress and appearance codes and lessons from sexual orientation. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32(5), 491-502. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/10.1108/EDI-02-2013-0006
4. Doan, P. L. (2016). To count or not to count: Queering measurement and the transgender community. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 89-110. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/10.1353/wsq.2016.0037
5. Felshin, N. (1995). Clothing as Subject. Art Journal, 54(1), 20-29. doi:10.2307/777502
6. Lucal, B. (1999). What it means to be gendered me: Life on the boundaries of a dichotomous gender system. Gender and Society, 13(6), 781-797. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/190440
7. Østergaard, L. (1992). Gender and development: a practical guide. London: Routledge.
8. Paoletti, J. (1987). Clothing and gender in America: children’s fashions, 1890-1920. Signs, 13(1), 136-143. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/3174031
9. Rahilly, E. (2015). The gender binary meets the gender-variant child: Parents’ negotiations with childhood gender variance. Gender and Society, 29(3), 338-361. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/stable/43669975
10. Stachowiak, D. M. (2013). Queer(ing) gender: A critical analysis of thinking, embodying, and living genderqueer (Order No. 3592838). Available from ProQuest Central. (1436287532). Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.engglib.upd.edu.ph/docview/1436287532?accountid=47253

Talking about clothing and ethical issues within the fashion industry. Evidence of clothing can be found and dated back all the way to prehistoric time periods. Some of the first humans to have ever walked the earth used animal skins as clothing with the purpose of protection from weather conditions. Whether it be because of “​the influence of climate, fashion, religion, [or the] ecosystem,” ​as time went on variations in clothing began and continued to appear. One example is the evolution from Greek and Roman unsewn fabrics to the intricate clothing designs in northern Europe during the Iron Age ​(​History of Clothing). Today, however, because everyone wants to look good and feel good, there is higher consumer demand for clothing than ever before, thus, making fashion one of the most important and influential aspects of everyday life.

Rather than being a necessary object used for protection, clothing is now seen as a luxury. It is used as a form of expression on a day-to-day basis. In addition, clothing is used as a way for people to show off their social and economic status within a society. These changing patterns of consumption have led people’s desires to change and cultures to evolve, therefore, leading to higher consumer demand for the product. Additionally, when considering fashion, most people fail to give thought to where and how the garments that they purchase were made. Most consumers only look at the price of a garment without considering the circumstances under which it was produced. These changes, the ever-increasing consumer demand for new clothing, and consumer ignorance of garment production have all brought about major problems and have contributed to the ever-increasing problems with the clothing industry.

Many manufacturers “produce[ing] garments very quickly, in small batches, at low cost to the producer” (​Global Shift, ​2014, ​pg. 455). This trend is known as “fast fashion” and in order for manufacturers to produce clothing at low costs to appeal to consumers they often “utilize dubious labor practices” (​Global Shift, ​2014, ​pg. 455). These practices include worker and environmental mistreatment, more specifically, low wages, child labor, health risks, and environmental degradation. It is evident that these unethical labor practices continue to persist because “domestic sourcing of clothing has virtually disappeared,” which is due to the fact that in order for producers to manufacture garments at the lowest cost possible they outsource their product production to other countries where production costs are much lower (​Global Shift, ​2014, ​pg. 463).

Because most manual labor for production is done in underdeveloped and developing countries, laws and regulations are not as strict and enforced as they would be in a developed country. These underdeveloped and developing countries will do whatever is necessary in order to improve the economic standing and standard of living within the country. Therefore, worker mistreatment is not uncommon, and “sweatshop conditions are almost the industry standard,” thus, making worker mistreatment and lack of safety precautions one of the main issues in this industry (​Global Shift, ​2014, ​pg. 459). In addition to this, most of the laborers who work in these sweatshops are women and children who have little to no protection, can be hired and fired easily, and are paid very low wages.

Although “a factory job does provide otherwise unattainable income and some degree of individual freedom,” workers should not be mistreated, overlooked, or underpaid, children should not be carrying the family pressure of a job, and workers’ safety and health should not be compromised by sweatshop factory conditions (​Global Shift, ​2014, ​pg. 460). This argument is too often used by buyers and retailers as an excuse to avoid responsibility for these conditions, however, it is necessary that both consumers and producers, especially, are held accountable and responsible for events such as the ​building collapse at the Rana Plaza complex in the Savar district of Greater Dhaka in 2013, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of 1911, and long term health issues that workers face (Hobson, 2013).

Bangladesh is one of the world’s largest clothing manufacturing countries today. The government admitted that over 90 percent of the buildings in Dhaka are not built correctly. The collapse of the Rana Complex is clearly evidence of worker mistreatment and lack of attention toward the health and safety of the factory’s workers because the building was not built to code and had obvious signs of structural unsafety. In addition to this, factory fires are not uncommon in Bangladesh, proving that there is a need for input of safety precautions. Other than factory issues, workers in the clothing industry are also put in compromising positions because of their exposure to harmful materials and chemicals that can be detrimental to their health. Polyester production can be detrimental to laborers’ health because it can cause respiratory disease. ​This is because the manufacturing of polyester requires ​“large amounts of crude oil and releas[es] emissions” (Luz, 2007).

Another problem with the clothing industry is its toll on the environment. The increase in consumer demand and retailer production of clothing has led to economic growth dependent “on continued marketing of new products and disposal of old ones that are thrown away simply because stylistic norms promote their obsolescence” (Luz, 2007). According to ​International Retail Marketing, ​“across nearly every apparel category, consumers keep clothing items about half as long as they did 15 years ago.” This is evidence of how wasteful people have become and how fashion products have become so cheap that buyers can purchase many products that they will only wear several times and then dispose of. This post-consumer waste enters directly into the global waste stream, thus, contributing to the growing global problem of pollution and waste collection issues. Another way that “fast fashion” negatively impacts the environment is through its factories and production techniques. Wastes and chemicals from factories often runoff into nearby water sources. All in all, whether it be the outcome of the industry or the process of production, the “fast fashion” industry is very harmful to the environment.

To conclude, the harmful and negative outcomes of the clothing industry and its growth greatly outweigh the positive outcomes. C​consumers and producers must ask themselves: Is this ethical? Is it socially acceptable for children to be working, for women to be overworked and underpaid, and for lives to be put at risk just so that a low wage can be made in a foreign country and a garment can be purchased at a lower price in a developed country? Whether it be poor labor conditions and treatment, or environmental degradation, the corporations in this industry need to take responsibility for their actions immediately. If responsibility is not taken in order to solve these extensive problems, worker mistreatment and environmental degradation will continue to persist and grow proportionally as the consumer demand for more clothing increases.

Bibliography

1. Global Shift, Seventh Edition: Mapping the Changing Contours of the World Economy​, Guilford Publications, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ufl/detail.action?docID=1760738
2. “History of Clothing – History of the Wearing of Clothing.” ​History of Clothing – History of Fabrics and Textiles, ​www.historyofclothing.com/.
3. Claudio, Luz. “Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 115, no. 9, 2007, doi:10.1289/ehp.115-a449.
4. John Hobson, To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion, ​Occupational Medicine​, Volume 63, Issue 5, July 2013, Pages 317–319, https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079
5. Shaw, Dierdre, and Dominique A.C. Tomolillo. “Chapter 8 Undressing the Ethical Issues in Fashion: a Consumer Perspective.” ​International Retail Marketing, by Christopher Moore, Routledge, 2015, pp. 141–147.
6. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ufl/detail.action?docID=1760738
7. http://www.historyofclothing.com/
8. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079

People with a compelling need for uniqueness uncovered that non-traditional consumer choices, like purchases of apparel on second-hand chains rather than conventional ones, were much more likely to demonstrate their individuality. The interest in collecting and wearing vintage because of its unique qualities, according to Palmer (2005), is increasing. Special product characteristics, such as unique textiles, a certain style, or hue, also enticed consumers to buy second-hand clothing.

Studies on second-hand buying were related mainly to clothes and regarded motives of that behavior. Xu et al. (2014) discovered that social norms influence customers’ SHB behavior Among many motivators, environmental concerns also appeared. Nowadays, consumers want to have an impact on overproduction.

In the study conducted by Hobbs (2016), he concluded that consumers who are socially influenced are more likely to shop on popular second-hand websites, identify branded clothing as best for them, and engage in social media while shopping on the internet.

Notice a strong trend towards higher social influence as second-hand apparel shopping online is perceived as environmentally friendly. People who spend more time online in their free time are more inclined to shop on socially popular sites and buy brand-name apparel. A clear pattern shows that shopping for value increases the enjoyable aspects of buying second-hand clothes. Overall, a general trend of price comparison to save money and finding the best value while being financially savvy is evident.

Additionally, the more shoppers view second-hand items as higher quality, the more they prefer the environmental and clothing origin benefits. It appears that increased environmental and ethical interest decreases shopper risk aversion and increases impulse buying. Those with shorter lengths of residence time, search more for fashion items that are useful and reasonably priced. Those who watch their expenditures moderately correlate with more time spent online in their free time.

Williams (2003) examined reasons for consumers participating in alternative retail channels, second-hand being one of them. For the lower-income populace, participation in alternative retail channels is a necessity due to low income. On the contrary, for people with a higher income it is a choice and about the search for fun, sociality, distinction, distinction, and display.

Second-hand clothes are becoming increasingly fashionable these days. Second-hand clothes could take part partially (substitute) in dressing. With second-hand, we can save resources and reduce the number of residues. I think that second-hand might be some kind of interpretation of sustainable consumption.

According to Slotterback (2007), the 1990s marked the start of a new age in the consumption of second-hand clothing. Second-hand clothing trading became common in the 1990s. Almost every country has taken note of it. Becoming deeply interested in second-hand clothing around the world traders or customers in the industry.

Today, second-hand clothing is no longer seen as a low-level fashion brand but as a global brand with customers from different backgrounds, and it offers something of value to everyone. The number of used merchandise retail establishments has increased at a rate that is approximately ten times that of other stores (Solomon and Rabolt, 2004). Clothing continues to be a key commodity in second-order marketing schemes, despite the large variety of products available (O’Reilly et al., 1984). Instead of buying new branded clothes, for the most part, the use of second-hand clothing is considered to be a sustainable alternative to minimize the production of new ones (Sing et al., p.25).

As stated by Watson et al. (2016) in their analysis of the used clothing industry in Nordic countries, second-hand clothes provide environmental and socioeconomic benefits to global society. Second-hand clothing benefits the environment by saving 18 billion gallons of water and approximately 200,000 tons of CO2 per year by offsetting the use of new textile materials.

In summary, using of second-hand clothes is a simple method of reusing to stop the overproduction and minimize textile waste. Since garments are more durable in which it is usually thrown up, reusing them instead of producing new ones to prevent the waste of the textile. Famous brands like H&M group, Zara, Levi’s, Madewell, etc. launched programs as their contribution to environmental causes involve the collection of used clothes for reuse. Second-hand clothes save money, offer unique, rare, and vintage products, and give people a stylish appearance and higher self-image.

Clothing is a basic need for all humans. We wear clothes every day. As it is so important why isn’t shopping for clothes as easy as walking into a shop, buying some clothes and leaving in a matter of seconds? One main factor of this is because of sizing. It is near to impossible for someone to be the same size in two different shops. This proves that we need to take action on our clothing guides, placing stricter guidelines to have a women’s size 8 set as a specific size across every store in the United Kingdom followed by every other size. If we do this shopping could be done with ease and without stress and would get rid of UK wide changing rooms of people endlessly queuing to try on the same item in multiple sizes. We also need to tackle another problem within clothing sizes and that is how everyone desires to be labelled as ‘skinny’ rather than just average, which can damage our mental health.

It is well accepted that popular high street brands are labelling their clothing with differing sizing guides causing confusion amongst shoppers. However, they are doing nothing wrong as there are no official sizing guidelines for clothes in the United Kingdom so all the major clothing brands across our nation think it is just fine to size this clothing as they please; with no regard to their loyal customers. Brands are always changing sizes as they please: since 1958 what would have been a women’s size 12 is labelled as a size 6 in the day and age. One of Arcadias best-selling brands – Topshop, a store we all love, has a women’s size eight waist measurement of 64.2cm. Now compare this with the second biggest market shareholder Next with their size eight waist being an astonishing 3cms more at 67.5cm even though the label tells customers these are the same size – an 8. Much frustration is suffered by consumers when buying clothes. This is felt twice fold when shopping online even if you buy your usual size, it may not be similar in real centimeters from an online brand; resulting in it having to be returned and a new size being delivered, and we all know this is never quick or painless. Surely, we need laws immediately to save ourselves.

To save ourselves is exactly what I mean – it is our fault that we desire to fit into smaller sized clothes. Unrealistic mannequin sizing and models have been promoting an unhealthy body image. According to Victoria’s Secret supermodel Adriana Lima, she had to go on a liquid diet for nine days as ‘she needed to lose weight’ after having her first child. Liquid diets can be unhealthy as replacing your meals can cause you to miss out on vital proteins only found in food. Dietitian George Moore says that carrying out a liquid diet can cause the body to ‘go into ketosis’ which is when a person’s organs start to fail due to a lack of carbohydrates. I can assure it is simply not worth risking your life for ten minutes of fame. This proves in itself that we must stop being paranoid over what size we are labelled as and learn to be confident within that size. Models constantly have to wear high heels usually ones with a five-inch heel. It has been said from a study by the Journal of Orthopaedic Research that wearing high heels over three and a half inches tall can cause osteoarthritis, an incurable disease which is the highest cause of disability in women. All of this goes to show that Victoria’s Secret needs to be stopped as they are using stick-thin models to make even the average-sized woman feel self-conscious about their size and confuse them when buying clothes from brands that only promote models in sizes are vastly lower to their own. Mannequins are also being used to display the same toxic body traits as models. Mannequins have one job – to display clothes for people to buy but how can they be displaying them for real people when some shops have their mannequins so ridiculously skinny. Researchers from the University of Liverpool stated after looking through fashion displays in shops in different cities they were able to say that not even one store had a female mannequin with a ‘normal’ body size. These kinds of displays with the apparent ‘ideal weight’ can be a cause of eating disorders such as body dysmorphia. Clothing sizes have been said by people who suffer from body dysmorphia to cause anxiety and this can be due to seeing tiny figures everywhere when they may be shopping for larger sizes. This all proves that both mannequins and models should all be changed to being of varied, more realistic body sizes so that we can learn that we do not need to be stick thin to be the ‘perfect’ body shape and size.

Many companies have been undermining normal woman by branding average sizes as extra-large. Clothing brand ASOS, which stands for ‘As Seen on Screen’, was criticized on Twitter by a customer for branding a size fourteen as an ‘extra-large’ causing outrage against the brand. The average size of a woman in the United Kingdom is a size sixteen so by the logic of ASOS’s branding they would rule this as an extra, extra-large which is absolutely ridiculous! A 16 should be at least a medium being average, but the best solution would be for the brand to just get rid of small, medium, large altogether. Another brand abusing clothing sizes is the American brand Abercrombie and Fitch who have a size zero available in their U.K. stores, a giant eight times less than the average size. It is unbelievable that this is legally allowed to happen, especially after the ban on size four United Kingdom models due to the tragic death of young model Luisel Ramos, who died after eating only lettuce for months to achieve that tiny look. This highlights that laws need to be put in place to stop more terrible events, like this one from happening.

It may be true that some people aren’t that affected by both unrealistic models and mannequins as well as the confusing sizing difference from shop to shop because they can deal with it. However, we should not be simply having to deal with this easily solved problem. The solution is simple, we just need stores to have the same size of clothing as well as making their models more realistic. This could also mean brands like Victoria’s Secret can lay off their models allowing them to live normal live alongside their job not constantly training themselves and fixing their looks. These laws could make life just that little bit easier for everyone.

Overall, it has been made clear that there are no rules in the world of clothes and this has to be dealt with for the sake of the customers. Incredibly, this is still a problem regarding how far the human race has come. We all need to fight against this problem and take control of our clothes.