It is no doubt that the world’s climate has been changing in past and will continue to do so in the future. Climate has been thought of as the average weather condition over a long period of time.
Weather is the present atmospheric condition which includes temperature, precipitation, wind as well as humidity of a given geographical location. In the past, determining changes in climate was achieved by paleoclimatoligists through various ways such as analyzing tree rings, using clues from beneath the waters, studying underwater ‘cities’ as well as unlocking secrets in the ancient ice.
The former will be of interest in this paper. An adverse climatic change brings issues such as drought resulting to dire consequences. For instance in 1587 July 22, colonists from England who came to Roanoke the present Carolina disappeared. (D’alto 25). Efforts to try to establish their where about were futile. It was till 1998 that some dendrologists studying tree rings came up with a possible explanation.
According to D’alto 24 tree rings not only offer scientists with the opportunity to establish the age of a tree but also give insights on secrets of past climatic trends. Trees such as redwood, giant sequoias and some species of pine in Carolina have been used. Rings are added annually and the age can be determined by counting the number of rings. It has been found that trees can live to hundred or some thousands years.
The base line in determining climatic changes by using tree rings is by correlating the outer rings spacing of a tree and the National Weather Service records. A mathematical model is then created to help in calibration. Analyzing this data yields Palmer Hydrological Drought Indices. An analysis of tree rings reveals a lot regarding climatic conditions. Thick rings depict that the climatic condition were favorable characterized with abundant rainfall, optimum temperature and generally good condition that fostered healthy growth.
On the other hand, when the rings are thin; this clearly shows that the conditions for tree growth were poor; characterized with lack of rainfall. According to Stahle and his collaborators, the rings of cypress are easily visible with naked eyes. However, the rings of some cypress back in 1587 were not present in some, while slimed down to some thousandth of a millimeter in others (D’alto 24). This thus seemed to be what sealed the fate of the colonialist arriving from England at the time.
To accomplish the analysis, small portion of dead trees are sliced to provide samples for the study. For living tree, an increment borer is used to drill a thin hole into the trunk of the tree. After this a core sample a size of a straw is obtained with the help of a special spoon. It is worth noting that such drilling does not affect the growth of the tree in anyway. Once in the laboratory the exposed bands are polished and measured to 1/100mm by use of a calibrated microscope.
Then the widths are compared (D’alto 26). Patterns from various tree species are then correlated which help in creating an understanding of climatic changes. However there are other factors that affect this which include pest and diseases. The massive data is then summarized in a bar graph.
This then is “assigns an absolute value to the narrowest band in each sample where the narrowest represents the driest period” (D’alto 27). From the review of establishing climatic changes by studying tree rings, it offers scientist with a glimpse of what might have happened in the past.
Work Cited
D’alto, Nick. “Rings of Truth: Evidence of Weather Disasters found in Tree Rings Offers Clues to Historical Mysteries” Weatherwise, 1(5): 2005, 23-27. Print.
The following is an annotated bibliography of some books and articles regarding respiration and evaporation in plants. In the paper, contribution of the said is discussed and how it affects climate of an area looked at.
After approximately 4 million years of existence, the world’s water supplies are not near depletion as Bendtner (2007) says. The hydrological cycle responsible for recycling of water has been shown to keep water, as an essential product for all organisms, be it plants or animals available for use. The hydrological cycle draws its strength from the various elements of weather in the cycle such as such rainfall and other form of precipitation. At the center of this cycle is also evaporation of water from the ground and from plants hereby called transpiration. These two processes are responsible for impacting the climatic globally and from region to region. Apart from this aspect, the existence of plants by the mere fact that they respire has its own way of contributing to climatic change indirectly.
According to a 2006 United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) report, human or anthropogenic activities have continued to interrupt with ecological balance, which has impacted in various ways to the climate. In realization of this, man is trying to make all possible efforts in reversing the situation as research has shown that such prolonged harmful activities will make the earth inhabitable due to intolerable climatic conditions. As a result, a lot of research has been extended in this direction with a lot of very positive results. The role-played by plants and vegetation cover has been identified with particular concern on evaporation process on earth and transpiration process in plants taking center stage. To fully understand the role these processes play, this paper discusses the roles played by evaporation and transpiration impacting or influencing climate directly and indirectly.
Evaporation and transpiration have been, as said above responsible for keeping water within the reach to all organisms and a major component in climate. Due to their similar roles, we have evapotranspiration. The word in coined from combining evaporation and transpiration to make it the process unique to the evaporation resulting from plants (Dmitri, 2006). The process revolves around the absorption of water and minerals from the soil by plants through their roots and through the photosynthesis process breakdown carbons to produce oxygen as a byproduct. In the absence of light the process is somehow reversed with oxygen being taken in from the atmosphere and carbon dioxide released back into the atmosphere.
Moisture in form of water vapor is lost by plants through their stomata (small openings) found on their leaves. The rate at which this evaporation takes place is again determined by prevailing weather conditions. i.e. in high humidity the rate is low and in low humidity the rate is high. In addition to this, there has to a relative humidity aspect. The higher the relativity, the higher the rate of evaporation. This thus explains transpiration as a process by which water moves from the ground back into the atmosphere using plants as a medium. On the other hand, evaporation is the change of water from a liquid form to a gaseous form. For the change to take place, there has to heat.
The rate of evapotraspiration is determined by a number of factors. Therefore, the presence or absence of these factors contributes significantly in determining the degree of influence it will have on the climate (Pidwirny, 2006).
Solar energy availability as the core driver of the whole process:- Heat energy from the sun is responsible fro transforming water from a liquid state to a gaseous state. One gram of liquid water requires about 600 calories of heat energy to change into water vapor.
The humidity gradient”- The difference in humidity levels determines the rate of evapotrnspiration with the rate being highest in dry and arid areas.
Air turbulence and the speed of wind. Wind increases the potential for evapotranspiration by increasing humidity gradient (Russell, 2004). The same way that clothes dry more quickly on a windy day is the same way that evapotranspiration is high in plants and on the surface. The idea is that wind removes saturated air adjacent to an evaporating surface and creates humidity gradient by bringing in drier air.
Availability of water. Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available on the earth surface and to plants.
In the era of global warming, plants have been identified as on e of the major ways by which to curb the harmful effect. Global warming has been attributed to the increased production of green house gases, which have led to the altering of climate with global temperatures on the increase. While these greenhouses have no direct impact in generating heat that alters global temperatures, their relationship or their behavior in the presence of light makes all the difference (Lisa and Melvin, 2005). Researchers have informed us that human contribution to climatic change in this case, global warming remains very minimal as the change in temperature seems to have a natural pattern as it is also happening in other planets such as Mars.
In our planet earth, glaciers are melting pretty first, desertification is encroaching fast in rather agriculturally productive areas making life difficult for farmers and everyone as the harsh climatic conditions are very hostile for human habitation.
In response to this deterioration of our climatic environment, increased vegetation cover has been observed to reduce the impact.
Plants absorb the excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and convert it to oxygen. Oxygen as a gas has no radiation effect like CO2, which contributes to climatic changes. In fact Bethan (2007) says that in the last 20 years, global temperature has risen by around 1 Celsius. For the better part of researches dedicated to finding out the relationship between climate and vegetation, they have concentrated on finding out the effect of climatic change on plant cover not the vise versa.
Evatranspiration has on the other hand shown that it contributes positively by increasing humidity levels in the atmosphere. The fact that plants through their leaves loose water to the atmosphere has a direct contribution on the climate. The greater the plant cover then the greater the levels of humidity. Humidity on the other hand has shown that it impacts on the amounts of clouds in the atmosphere. Logan (2003) says that on one hand clouds will “blanket” the atmosphere and insulate it locking away direct heating from the sun on earth’s atmosphere.
Another contribution of transpiration and evaporation on climate is highlighted by Kelly et al (2003), although controversial is that increased evapotranspiration leads to increased density of air especially around heavy vegetation areas and large water bodies. As a result of the increased air density, movement of air is limited leading to weak winds, which can at times be destructive. In addition, heavy plants cover acts as windbreakers. The authors support their argument by quoting the destruction caused by strong winds in areas with relatively lower vegetation cover, hence lower evapotranspiration rates. This argument is refuted by Vivian (2006) who says that there is no direct empirical evidence to support the argument saying that the presence of strong winds in areas with less vegetation is due to other climatic factors other than the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere courtesy of evaporation and transpiration.
Research has shown that transpiration from plants represents approximately 0.7 of Earths evapotranspiration. Transpiration thus utilizes 40% of Earth surface net radiation as a latent heat (Peter, Major, 2003). This indicates that evapotranspiration has its own way of ensuring cool climatic conditions by absorbing the excessive heat energy thus a sure way of regulating climatic conditions.
The Going green campaigns have in the recent times, according to Graham (2006) faced hostility from very determined sources leaving the world at a dilemma. The cause of this shift in direction into campaigning against excessive tree planting as the ultimate solution to climatic changes and global warming was as a result of some scientific findings done in the UK in 2006. In an article titled “Global warming: blame it all on the forests” in The Guardian, it was reported that plants contributed about 30% of methane gas, which has a green house in the atmosphere.
Russell further explains the above situation in giving a relationship of how plants relate with the environment. Methane gas radiates a lot of heat that contributes to global warming and the eventual climatic change. Though this may appear to have little significance in this topic, it relates to our discussion in that transpiration as a vital process in plants carries out function of injecting the harmful gas into the atmosphere. In addition, the increased global temperatures will increase the rate of evaporation from the plants.
Plants absorb water from the ground and use it in transporting nutrients and eventually lost in the air through respiration as a component process of transpiration. The water vapor released into the atmosphere, like all forms of water vapor rises up in the air, cools and condenses to form clouds. Before the water condenses to form clouds, it impacts heavily on the climate as it rises up. Research has shown that water vapor has a green house effect and in fact the largest contributor global warming estimated to account for 36%-66% of the total effect. The cycle here is continuous as highlighted by Lisa and Melvin, (2005). They say that the resultant warm climate will lead to more warming as hot air has the capacity to hold more water vapor.
The effects of evapotranspiration on the global climate seem to weigh more heavily on the positive side. This would thus mean that the human population should work hand in hand in ensuring there is more plant cover on the planet to ensure that favorable climatic conditions are restored. On the other hand, these activities are limited by the various factors that determine the level of evapotranspiration.
References
Bendtner, W. Introduction to climatology, New York: Prentice Hall
Dmitri, H. Official mechanism for implementing environmental impact analysis in Africa, Pretoria: Makurdi, 2006.
Graham, D. Environmental problems and their management: the role of the government and citizens, Ajeam-Agee journal, Vol 23, No. 8, 2002.
Kelly, Brandon, et al, Population, Human Resources, Health, and the Environment: Getting the Balance Right, Review, Vol. 342, No. 9, 2003.
Lisa, Y. and Melvin, J. Environmental challenges emphasizing increased medical care, Lagos: Ikibe, 2005.
Logan, C. Industrialization and environmental pollution in Europe, Science journal Vol. 1121, No.6, 2003.
Oliver, J. and Hidore, J. Climatology-An Atmospheric Science 2nd edition, London: Pearson.
Peter, M. and Major, L. Effective Survival Measures for Environmental and Ecological Hazards in Nigeria, 2003, pg 23.
Pidwirny, M. Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, London: Penguin, 2006.
Rudolf, O. Deserts and desertification: Causes and Effects, Boston: Wesley, 2003.
Russell, B. The symbiotic relationship between plants and climate, Michigan University Press, 2004.
United Nations University Newsletter, 7 (2), 9, Tokyo, Japan, 2003.
UNEP, Fresh-Water Pollution, UNEP /GEMS Environment Library, No. 6, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, 2006): World Development Report 2003, New York, Oxford University Press, 2000. World Bank Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, Toward Cleaner Production.
Industries discharge lots of by products during their operations. These releases can be harmful to the environment. The emissions are in the form of gases, solids, and even liquids. With the increased manufacturing and production industries, the amount of pollutants discharged into the environment is appalling. Most of the major environmental degradations, at present, result from pollution. Climate change, water and air contamination, poor crop produce, mutations in animals and humans, among other alterations to normal life patterns, are known cases of pollution effects. Due to the increased destruction of life, strategies to curb levels of emissions are necessary. An executive policy known as cap and trade is being formulated in the American congress. It endeavors to monitor industrial effluences by issuing trade inducements and financial benefits. Using the stimulus, the American government hopes to trim down discharge of toxins.
Countries restrict the allowable levels of toxics released by organizations. The authorities have regulations that can provide firms with discharged licenses. Consequently, the industries are obligated to maintain a comparable amount of approved discharges as per the license. The endorsements are in place for the permission to discharge a precise quantity. Documents for authorization do not permit a firm to go past the boundaries set to control levels. However, organizations can discharge more toxic wastes by purchasing approvals from institutes that eject lesser amounts of toxic wastes. This exchange of approvals is known as trade in carbon credits. In essence, the purchaser compensates for discharging toxic wastes in their organizations. On the other hand, the vendor gets a return for possessing a cut in discharged amounts. Hypothetically, organizations that can minimize toxic release inexpensively tend to have a reduced price tag on the public. This notion provides a reprieve to the community where such organizations are located.
The objective of a discharge swapping policy is to reduce the expenses incurred on achieving predetermined levels stipulated. The restriction levels are normally revised with intent to reach a nationwide discharge decrease goal. In some arrangements, it is mandatory that a section of all swapped approvals be withdrawn, resulting in abridged discharge whenever a swap occurs. In most procedures, firms that have no discharge can also take part in the purchase of approvals. Environmental advocacy organizations can buy and withdraw approvals causing a price increase to the residual. The surge is propelled by the economic law of demand and supply. Companies are obliged to withdraw approvals ahead of time. They can give the approvals to non-commercial organizations thus attracting a cut in taxations. These circumstances happen at times of closing down or even change of locations.
Generally, discharge swapping regulations need to have a border. This perimeter is laid down and synchronized by the government or the issuing authority. The purpose of this measure is to ensure that the discharge of toxic materials is effectively managed. It is only after the policies are in place that other stakeholders are permitted to contribute into how they intend to use them. The firms are allowed to decide on their stipulations regarding minimizing their toxin releases. Neglecting discharge minimization attracts a punishment charge issued by the authority. It can be a penalty that will escalate the price of doing business. This measure is geared to force businesses into opting for a reduced cost and hence adhere to the directives. The outcome will be a win-win situation for the authorities and the firms having the discharges.
A limitation on carbon discharge into the environment has a threesome effect. It is hoped to change over dependency on residual energy, to stimulate a boom in enterprises and employment formation, and to ensure that money is given to those who deserve it through earned rebates and reimbursements. The government has put limits and compensation suggestion that ensures a stern boundary on effluence is adhered to. These discharges, from organizations, interfere with the global climatic conditions. The effects are felt beyond the area where the discharges are released. The limitations use a licensing criterion to force big organizations into compensating for the approval to emanate gases. The measures amplify the cost of residual energy thus encouraging good organization and novel expertise. Reimbursements from the trades are intended to benefit the end user. This will be realized through a tax acclamation to the citizens after following the regulations (Livermore & Revesz, 1).
However, not everybody views the action on climate change from the perspective of the government. Mockingly, the deliberation on carbon levies and approved swops is a sham. The concern is that there is no existing evidence of a continued elevated cost on carbon in the world, either using levies or limits. The reasons can be found in four considerable and related facts. The influential control of present fuel benefits, reduced end user acceptance for inflated fuel costs, the trade burden that significantly escalates fuel costs; which will passed on to major fuel demanding segments of trade, and more notably, the enormous cost separation between residual energy and renewable fuels options. Renewable fuels have a greater price compared to residual fuels in terms of production investments. Obligatory limits demanding quick decline in carbon discharge should permit the costs of carbon to increase. Owing to this pre-requisite, no organization has opted to cost carbon at a higher price, despite the systems. The outcome is a big setback to the main objective of safeguarding the conditions of our planet.
Relative to centering on discharge decreasing goals and time frames, an alternative structure can be formulated to set cost reductions. Decrease in discharges can be achieved through dropping financial support for renewable fuel innovations. As opposed to setting elevated carbon costs universally, this novel system centers on setting unpretentious and continued carbon costs. The money can be used to support community expertise novelty ventures. Contrary to having secretive concerns and promotions as the principal propeller of skill advancement, the arrangement familiarizes itself with community venture as the most valuable possibility. The idea does not assume economies are ahead by reaching figurative, yet, immaterial discharge reductions. On the contrary, it views advanced economies as potential fundamental avenues for monetary support and innovators of reduced cost ventures for discharge reductions. (McDermott, 1).
The American government is concerned about the energy situation in the country. The nation is engulfed in a relentless energy test to it operations. These confrontations have been neglected over the years by past regimes. Over dependency on fossil fuels from other nations has had adverse implication on the country. These effects are observed in nationwide safety fears and destruction of the surroundings. In effect, these circumstances destabilize the financial bearing of employed residents of America. Consequently, the American government has an inclusive arrangement to spend in substitute and reusable sources of fuel. The administrators hope to stop the craving for international fossil fuels, tackle the world environmental predicaments, and generate numerous employment opportunities for it citizens. The origin of the arrangement looks to achieve many objectives. In the next decade, an outlay of $150 billion will be used to channel private attempts for fabricating a reusable fuel outlook. This is hoped will facilitate generation of employment opportunities. The plan strives to reduce the country’s fossil fuel trade from international sources. An investment of a million locally manufactured energy efficient vehicles by the year 2015. Guaranteed 10 percent of electric power will be derived from reusable supplies by the year 2012 and 25 percent by 2025. It also looks to execute a countrywide limit and swap arrangement to minimize conservatory gas expulsions by 80 percent in the year 2050. The scheme will offer reprieve to American citizens through tax rebates and reimbursements. This will be realized by closing in on extreme fuel supposition and exchange fossil fuel from the designed preserve to cut costs. The use of available incentives to ensure the objectives are achieved is also strategic (Change.gov, 1).
Major conservatory gases discharge, principally, are well fitting to trade focused arrangements. This is due to the nature of their universal effect as opposed to a small area. Hence, hypothetically, where the minimizations happen are not an issue of concern, the effects will benefit every area. However, the environmental justice community has a prehistoric worry regarding unfairness in delivery. Focusing emissions to underprivileged areas is not as a result of exchanges plans. Nonetheless, a question lingers, who minimizes and where do the minimizations happen? This fear is more imperative than admitted by some law formulators. These expulsions do not happen in emptiness, they have to have an area where they occur.
A similar method that produces conservatory gases also produces many other indigenous harmful toxins. For instance, unstable macrobiotic complexes, sulfur dioxide, elements, benzene, and other hazardous materials, are emitted together with the discharges. Therefore, conservatory gas discharge swaps should involve circulation of related toxins. Ultimately, the association between conservatory and other toxins will be a welcomed development. It therefore implies that as a country changes from fossil fuels, the related toxins will probable reduce. The environmental quality will be felt by everybody equally across the board. Conversely, diverse methods of minimizing conservatory gas discharges will initiate results in varied outcomes on the spread of other toxins.
Environmental fairness organizations have always wondered: who will collect the other toxins minimization profits? The act of purchasing credits to uphold as opposed to decrease discharge, subsequently, will result in the neighboring people not seeing the advantages of toxin minimization. Owing to the current arrangement of amenities discharging, the profits of the conservatory gas checking technique are likely to be unevenly shared. Furthermore, the scheme will fall short of its intention to tackle the country’s quest for societal wellbeing.
The level at which organizations will be permitted to utilize compensations will affect, proportionally, the degree at which a conservatory decreasing plan results in toxin diminish advantages. Such as, if a company opts not to decrease it discharge and in its place buys compensations from a lumber firm, which has pledged not to fell trees, then the company’s toxins discharge is bound to increase unchecked (Kaswan, 3).
Numerous threats exist in the conservatory gas swopping structure. It can cause inflation in discharges and related toxins in some areas. The threat will continue thriving except when the discharge limits are rigid. It will occur where use of petroleum energy and other related toxicants has been significantly minimized. The toxicants can be regulated by the Clean Air Act. Notwithstanding, the policy’s care areas are questionable. The toxin licenses under the policy permit organizations to raise total discharges provided they do not go beyond an appropriate pace. It is only after the discharge is unbearable that regulations force the organization to use a different regulatory measure. The damages are already done before the solutions are implemented.
The system also leaves out the communities in resolution formulations and endorsements. In earlier occurrences, the community was involved in formulating the regulations. They participated in establishing regulations for industries nationally and setting specific firm licensing needs. On the contrary, currently, the community’s part in the swapping scheme is establishing the limit and broad swopping restrictions. The companies make their own choices on how and when to purchase approvals to minimize discharges. The community gets a peep at a later phase of statistics regarding the discharges (Kaswan, 4).
Experts in environmental matters such as a couple, William and Zabel are vocal about the approval and swapping plan for environmental protection. The two are lawyers and have vast experience in dealing with acid rain and climatic conditions. They term the policy as purely garbage. They argue that it was, in fact in an earlier legislation, it was a limit and a foundation that reduced discharges by half. Despite the advantages to this occurrence having a reduced price of a factor 25, it had “in house” negotiations. The organizations manipulated the law prior to consenting to the parameters. They were able to protect the coal mines hence to date the discharges from the mines are ever present. A good amount of electric power emanates from coal factories put up in the 50s and 70s. The laws being crafted should cease and a thorough study of the issue instigated. Hurrying into expensive unproductive law formulations is untimely. The havoc being created will take a long time to be rectified. The legislators with the assistance of peculiar stakeholders are headed for a disastrous affair. It has been detected that high ranking officials are being manipulated into endorsing the law. A case of history repeating itself is brewing in the American congress.
The swapping scheme enables lots of flexibility for trading in compensations, allowances accredited by circumventing expulsions or stopping discharges of carbon. Jointly, the fantasy of compensatory gases minimizations and development of strong associations, search for shielding of recently produced advantages in licenses and compensations will amalgamate global warming for ten years or beyond. It is best to have a visible arrangement of costs and refunds. This can be used to supply momentum for the nation to change its fuel traditions to methods that restrain discharges. This is in harmony with the levy and bonus suggestion by Peter Barnes. James Hansen, a NASA weather scientist, has recently advocated for hastened slashing of discharges. Many professionals, like Jake Schmidt and David Doniger of the Natural Resources Defense Council, are of the opinion that the law has possible ambiguities. These avenues seem to be intentionally left for the heavyweight to exercise their greed. With these observations, it is clear that the society has a different opinion to the bill (Revkin, 1).
Limiting the amount of discharge from a plant is a noble idea. The legislation is suitable to an ailing planet. Effects of global warming are evident in many areas of the environment. America has been known to have mixed feeling when it comes to the climate. The industries in the country always try to have the easier way out. As noted, there are manufacturing plants that are ready to manipulate the process of implementing limits to discharges. The policies of discharge curbing have been implemented in areas such as Europe. However, the results are not perfect but, there is at least a policy. The long term economic benefits will definitely out strip the costs. Renewable energy could be costly at the initial stages. Nonetheless, once it is put into practice, the costs of doing business will drop substantially.
The types of reusable energies are abundant in nature. They are considered clean as they have no poisonous discharges. For instance, wind and solar energy have by products that can easily be disposed safely. Compared to coal, oil and other fossil fuels, the long term costs are totally diverse. America and other developed countries should set an example of caring for the environment. Conferences have been held with fantastic resolutions. The tasks become difficult when it comes to implementing. The world should reason, if at all, we desire a hospitable world.
Works Cited
Change.gov. The Official We Site of The U.S Presidential Transition: “The Obama-Biden Plan”. Change.gov.2009. Web.
Livermore, Michael and Revesz, Richard. Obama’s Carbon Cap-and-Trade Plan Can Boost Growth. “Well-structured carbon emissions caps would foster clean-energy technology at scant cost to consumers. The program would even create jobs”. businessweek.com. 2009. Web.
McDermott, Matthew. “Do Cap-and-Trade and Carbon Tax Advocates Both Miss the Point of How to Best Beat Global Warming?”.treehugger.com. 2009. Web.
In the article “The Great Climate Experiment: How far can we push the planet?”, the author attempts to describe the problem of environmental pollution resulting from the excessive release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by industrial activities in the past and the future. Caldeira develops a critical review of scientific findings on the possible impacts of excessive carbon building in the atmosphere. The article cites a number of notable effects of past industrial activities, including frequent floods, torrents, warming of the Arctic and Antarctic, and the increase in the number and extent of deserts (Caldeira 78).
The purpose of this paper is to review Caldeira’s article from a scientific view, with a special focus on the scientific problem, the process applied, and scholarly authorship of the work.
The problem
As mentioned above, the article concerns the current problem of global warming. Apart from being a scientific problem, global warming is a social, cultural, and political issue in the modern world. Thus, the author is justified to develop an in-depth analysis of the problem from a scientific perspective.
Implications
According to the author, the effects of global warming are already observable in the modern world. The author cites studies done in the last one hundred years, which indicate that the average world temperatures have risen significantly since the industrial revolution era. For instance, the article explains that the globe’s average temperature was approximately 140C in the preindustrial era (100 years ago), but now stands at 150C (Wyman 893).
Why we should care
According to the author, the major aspects of the problem complicate the future. According to the studies cited in the article, the global temperatures will be approximately 200C in the next century and 250C in the subsequent centuries. Despite the small margin, Caldeira asserts that a single degree rise in temperature has a vast number of environmental problems. For instance, the 10C rise in temperatures in the last 100 years has caused detrimental problems (Callendar 224). For example, abnormal rain patterns, expansion of deserts, warming of the poles, and decrease in glaciers, as well as a rise in sea levels, have resulted in frequent typhoons and tsunamis, killing thousands of people (Caldeira 79).
The science
The arguments in the article are based on the scientific evidence collected from environmental studies, including geology, meteorology, environmental biology, environmental physics, and geophysics. The article is a secondary report that gathers evidence from primary studies in these fields. For instance, from geology, oceanography, geophysics, and environmental physics, data about the volume of carbon lodged in the earth’s crust and its potential in the industrial sector is obtained.
Secondly, the degree of environmental change due to excessive carbon release into the atmosphere from industrial activities is obtained from environmental biology and meteorology. This data presents the changing trends of global temperatures. The article also derives data from oceanographic studies that report about the submergence of coastlines due to an increase in the volume of ocean waters.
The oceanography technology described in this article is mainly based on chemical tests that describe how carbon dioxide enters the oceans and reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The article reports that the concentration of this acid in oceans is leading to the dissolution of skeletons and shells of marine organisms, destroying the environment (Callendar 224). These studies support the author’s assertion that excessive release of carbon dioxide from modern and past industries has already started affecting the globe.
Organization
The author has organized the test in the article in a manner that appeals to the reader’s eye. For instance, it starts with a short overview, which attempts to explain the problem in brief. In this section, the author introduces an issue that becomes of interest to the reader. To achieve this, the author creates awareness of the massive impact of global warming. In scholarly work, this phenomenon is known as ‘the attention-getter’ and creates the urge to read ahead.
Secondly, the author has used the second page to provide an artistic illustration of the possible impacts of global warming in the near future. A large pictorial illustration is used to show “the near future”. This picture depicts a city scenario surrounded by heavy mists and submergence of villages and arable land. Thirdly, the main points are presented in specific titles. The titles are short but attractive.
For instance, the phrase “a desert in Italy” is used to attract the audience’s attention to the argument on the possibility of expansion of deserts, but not necessarily in Italy. Although the study is based on evidence from science, the author has attempted to explain and reduce scientific jargon, making the study easy to read and understand. In addition, the argument is stated in every topic but in a way that attempts to reduce repetition.
Presentation
It is evident that the author has made use of extensive graphics to depict his thought of the future. This method is effective because the argument can be understood by looking at the graphics. Large pictorial representation of global warming and its impacts are used in the article. The picture on the second page, which depicts submerged villages and infrastructure and a city submerged in mist, is the most compelling figure in the article because it provides the reader with an idea of the possible events in the future.
Conclusions
The author concludes that environmental conservation is not an option but a necessity. Environmental degradation has taken place since the industrial revolution. In addition, my scientific background has built a strong belief in developing a better world by reducing environmental degradation.
Works Cited
Caldeira, Ken. The Great Climate Experiment: How far can we push the planet? Scientific American (2012): 78-83. Web.
Callendar, Stewart. “The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 64.275 (1938): 223-240. Print.
Wyman, Charles. “Alternative fuels from biomass and their impact on carbon dioxide accumulation.” Applied biochemistry and biotechnology 45.1 (1994): 897-915. Print.
Over the years, the number of natural disasters has been on the rise and their severity has continued to worsen. This has resulted in loss of lives as well as property worth billions of dollars.
Evidently, there has been a growing trend of natural disasters that have greatly exposed the inability of countries across the world to deal with associated risks (Jha 456). Based on different research findings, there has been a steady increase in the number of natural disasters since 1960. Apparently, most natural disasters result from earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
According to some studies, natural disasters can have very devastating impacts that include damage to property and loss of lives (Boughton 4). To be on the safe side therefore, it is imperative to have an elaborate disaster management strategy that can be used to deal with natural disaster risks.
After undertaking a risk analysis process, plans should be put in place to mitigate, avoid, or share natural disaster risks. While most developed nations are better prepared when it comes to dealing with natural disasters risks, there is a serious problem among developing countries. This paper presents a discussion on how to manage natural disaster risks in a changing climate environment.
Climate Change and Frequency of Natural Disasters
To a large extent, the increased number of natural disasters is linked to climate change. Forests and other natural features have been destroyed by activities of men and women.
These changes in climate have in turn led to serious environmental challenges. Because of climate change, for example, rainfall patterns have greatly been affected in many places around the world leading to an increase in natural disasters that are experienced time and again.
According to Botzen and Bergh, changes to climatic conditions are responsible for extreme weather conditions that can increase the number and intensity of natural disasters (211). Apart from human related activities, climate change may also be caused by industrialization and urbanization. Emission of carbon dioxide and other green house gases poses a serious danger to the environment as well as human life in general.
According to Hallegatte (177), climate change represents more than just a change in climatic conditions. For a majority of key stakeholders, climate change implies a rise in uncertainty. While climate related parameters could easily be measured in the early days, this is practically not possible today.
Unfortunately, this poses a serious challenge to people who rely on the stability of the climate to have work done. With unpredictable weather patterns, farmers are unable to determine the appropriate times to prepare their lands for farming. In order to deal with these uncertainties, it is necessary to have a completely different approach to the decision making process.
Managing Natural Disaster Risks in a Changing Climate
With the increased rate at which climatic conditions are changing, a number of countries across the world have realized that they are prone to natural disasters.
Many have been hit by serious natural disasters arising from climatic changes and are now more urgent in devising intervention strategies. Usually, the associated economic losses are quite enormous and thinking of compensating those affected is certainly not exciting. Businesses as well as private individuals are sometimes encounter serious damages that leave them devastated and totally bankrupt.
It is for this reason that people are generally advised to have an elaborate disaster risk management plan that will guarantee continuity when the unthinkable happens. Generally, having a plan is important for ensuring that very minimal interruptions happen to business operations.
Apparently, assessing risks is a complicated process and one that must be handled diligently in order to leave nothing to chance. Seemingly, this is as a result of uncertainties of climate change. Usually, it is difficult to figure out the frequency of natural disasters and the kind of damage that can result from the occurrence of these disasters.
Although most people depend on their personal judgment of risks, it is imperative to have a clear approach to risk assessment. While individual risk assessment might work in some cases, it can not be applied in most situations.
Considering that the occurrence of natural disasters my not be so frequent, people may become complacent to the extent of forgetting that disasters can actually occur. Natural disasters may thus happen when least expected and cause great damage to property and life. The huge damage that results from natural disasters is mainly due to the surprise occurrence and poor preparation.
An important idea when it comes to the management of natural disaster risks is hardiness. Although hardiness is understood differently by different people, it generally refers to the ability to take things back to what they before a natural disaster happened, without having to spend heavily in the process.
Ideally, hardiness makes it possible for those affected by a disaster to recover within the shortest time possible. In addition, hardiness stops continued loss after the occurrence of a disaster. For some people, hardiness implies having the energy to absorb and recover from a disaster that has taken place.
Risk Management Strategies
As noted by Hallegatte (177), the uncertainty about the future of climate conditions is a very clear indication that a new approach to the decision making process is required in order to address the challenges that are associated with climate change and natural disaster occurrence. One way of managing risks is to reduce the probability of the disaster occurring in the first place. Ostensibly, natural disasters such as floods can be handled in this manner.
This is thought to be a very useful strategy as it helps to alleviate losses before occurrence. Approaches that may be used to control the occurrence of natural disasters include constructing dams and moving items that may be affected to a different location where they are less prone to disaster.
It is advisable to go to any length to devise ways of preventing natural disasters from occurring. Generally, people are advised to invest in prevention mechanisms before any disaster has taken place. Rather than spend huge sums of money to come up with prevention mechanisms after things have gone wrong, people should be proactive. By and large, this saves individuals the agony of having to go through a painful experience later.
In the event that a natural disaster occurs, risk management may be handled through compensation. For this to happen, it is advisable for people to have property insured against different forms of risk. When a disaster occurs, insurance companies will usually carry out an investigation to determine how the disaster occurred and the extent of the damage.
After the damage assessment process has been carried out, insurance companies prepare to meet the cost of the damage based on the agreed terms and conditions. Usually, the goal for both the insurance companies and clients is to ensure that normal operations resume within the shortest time possible. However, there are concerns that providing compensation can lead to laxity and an increase in natural disasters. This is mainly because people are aware that their risks are well catered for.
Although people are free to choose a risk management strategy that they are comfortable with, it is advisable to make use of a mixture of disaster management strategies. This usually ensures that when one strategy fails, the other should provide a reliable solution. In addition, the best way to deal with cases of uncertainty is through diversification of intervention strategies.
The Role of Insurance in Natural Disaster Risk Management
Generally, insurance companies play an important role in helping the affected parties to absorb damage and comfortably recover from a disaster. Over the years, the risks covered by insurance companies have been increasing prompted by the ever changing state of affairs in the world. In the recent past, climate change has been classified as one of the greatest challenges of our time. Consequently, the risks covered by insurance companies today include those that are weather related.
Because of the amount of resources that have to be spent to help people recover from disaster, insurance companies have been identified as partners in dealing with issues that relate to climate change. In order to reduce the occurrence of natural disasters, collaborating partners should undertake to educate members of the public on the importance of being prepared to deal with natural disaster risks and the need to prevent occurrence of such disasters.
It is generally presumed that getting people to be aware of issues that relate to climate change and the occurrence of natural disasters is a useful way of making sure that the number of natural calamities is greatly reduced. While this move will save insurance companies from unnecessary expenses that may result from negligence on the part of their clients, clients also benefit due to reduced incidences of natural disasters.
As a caution, however, it is essential for all insurance companies to be diligent in conducting its affairs. Efforts must be made to honor all claims presented to them and to ensure that their clients are quickly resettled. In the absence of integrity, the public will lose trust in the work of insurance companies and this can only serve to create more problems.
Conclusion
Climate change is certainly a serious menace in the modern day society. To a large extent, human beings bear the greatest responsibility for climate change. As a result of these changes to the climate, countries across the world have to experience natural disasters from time to time. Considering that activities by human beings are not about to stop, it is important to come up with strategies for natural disaster risk management.
As has been explained in this paper, there are different natural disaster risk management strategies that can be adopted to absorb and recover from risks arising from natural disasters. Prevention is one of the options that can be used. Among other things, having an effective prevention strategy against natural disaster risks enables people to stay safe and to have fewer worries. Another helpful strategy requires people to have their valuable properties insured by insurance companies.
Works Cited
Botzen, Wouter and Bergh J. C. J. M. “Managing Natural disaster risks in a changing climate”. Environmental Hazards, 8.3 (2009): 209 – 225. (Provided article)
Boughton, Geoff. “Planning to Prevent Natural Hazards from Becoming Natural Disasters”. Australian Planner, 29.4 (2010): 198 – 201. (Provided article)
Climate change is critical with regard to governance and political control in contemporary society (Andresen 2). Global leaders deliberate on appropriate methods that suffice in relation to climate control and sustainability. As political leaders strive to identify favorable solutions, researchers endeavor to devise and formulate a regime that augments recurrent desire for climate control (Andresen 7). There have been extensive studies with regard to causative realities and remedial steps that suffice in relation to climate change.
In order to guarantee positive outcomes, researchers adopt a multidisciplinary approach that seeks to synchronize ideas and thoughts from diverse fields of engagement in contemporary society (Andresen 12). It is important to note that climate change is a complex reality that necessitates dedication towards its resolution. Stakeholders encounter challenges that emanate from political leadership and conflict of interests among powerful state entities.
Such nations find it difficult to facilitate the implementation of remedial policies because they affect vital engagements within their jurisdiction (Andresen 12). Development of global climate control regime can only materialize through political involvement and dedication. In the absence of such efforts, it is impossible for global leaders and stakeholders to guarantee formulation and propagation of an appropriate climate control regime (Andresen 14).
This research undertaking seeks to analyze factors that affect the development of effective a global climate control regime. It will contextualize diverse realities that hamper the realization of sustainable solutions in realms of climate change and degeneration. In order to achieve the aforementioned objectives, this essay will utilize information from credible and authoritative academic publications.
Contextual realities in global climate control
As earlier mentioned, climate change is a complex reality that manifests in contemporary society. It portends negative implications that ultimately curtail recurrent desire for environmental wellness and sustainability (Andresen 15). It is difficult for global leaders to counter the effects of climate change due to contextual thresholds that define its initiation, sustenance, and propagation. Research experts should strive to demystify diverse realities that suffice with regard to climate change and environmental degeneration (Andresen 17).
Devoid of such measures, it is difficult for authorities to formulate sustainable policies that support climate control. In order to develop such policies, global leaders should understand the inherent dichotomy of climate change and contextualize efforts that bolster such undertakings (Andresen 19). The complex orientation of climate change creates the need for collaborative efforts among stakeholders in diverse fields of interest. Climate change suffices in diverse realms of interest within society.
Therefore, it is necessary for leaders to fuse policies that complement the formulation of such paradigms of climate control and sustainability (Andresen 22). Climate control regimes should conceptualize ideas that relate to pertinent spheres of political, social, economic, and cultural engagements. On the other hand, political and social leaders must guarantee goodwill in order to propagate appropriate avenues of implementation (Andresen 22).
Perception plays an important role in guaranteeing the realization of requisite progress in relation to the formulation and actualization of climate control mechanisms. Currently, leaders popularize climate change as a global concern that is beyond domestic legislation and involvement (Young 34). They participate in global conferences that seek to formulate policies with regard to mitigation of environmental degradation. However, leaders do not facilitate domestic efforts toward the implementation of such policies (Young 34).
Although there is a need for global involvement, leaders must take decisive action against domestic factors that facilitate the propagation of negative environmental practices. Climate change requires multidisciplinary efforts that create the impetus for action towards the eradication of inappropriate environmental practices (Windram 21). Boardroom engagements are not sufficient to eradicate factors that predispose the environment to degradation.
Such efforts require dedication and willingness to make crucial decisions that affect existent political establishments (Windram 21). Countries must implement eco-friendly measures at the domestic level. Consequently, domestic gains spread to the global arena, thereby creating an opportunity for sustainability and progress with regard to environmental management (Windram 24).
Climate control revolves around international participation and creation of domestic frameworks that support the establishment of appropriate regimes. In the absence of political involvement, environmental agencies cannot actualize basic functions that gear towards climate control and sustainability in contemporary society (Windram 27).
Financial realities also affect the effective formulation and implementation of legislation that seeks to alleviate environmental degradation (Victor 69). Environmental legislative efforts require a huge amount of funds in order to ensure a comprehensive resolution of recurrent challenges within realms of diverse engagements (Victor 69). Donor agencies allocate funds that gear towards the creation of structural frameworks and avenues for implementing climate control.
However, most developing countries do not utilize such funds for the intended purpose. They often divert funds to other less viable ventures that do not satisfy thresholds of urgency as compared to climate change and environmental degradation (Victor 73). Developing countries also face challenges that relate to corruption and mismanagement of funds.
In most cases, leaders in such countries siphon public funds into private accounts, thereby jeopardizing efforts that seek to develop structures to counter climate change and resultant environmental degradation (Victor 75). Although such leaders do not admit wrongdoing, it is evident that developing countries do not exhibit commitment with regard to climate control and sustainability.
It is important for global leaders to guarantee the allocation of sufficient funds for climate control and other related activities in realms of environmental management (Trilling 42). Developed countries have duty and responsibility to promote climate control because it affects current and future prospects with regard to sustainability in the world. Climate control requires global attention because future generations are at risk of losing out on benefits that emanate from suitable environmental thresholds (Trilling 43).
Developed countries should also make more contribution to climate control because they are the largest polluters. Their corporate and economic activities revolve around mining, construction, manufacturing, and other related areas that contribute to excessive emission of industrial fumes. Industrial fumes are key contributors to environmental degradation and other negative implications such as global warming (Trilling 44).
Traditional frameworks of financial flow in climate control are culpable for the inherent disconnect between donors and recipient nations. Ordinarily, developing countries depend on funding from developed countries and international donor agencies (Nye, 57). Such countries do not make any efforts towards climate control and environmental management. Their domestic regimes do not consider climate control as a vital component in contemporary settings.
There is a need for holistic and concerted efforts that seek to overhaul existent paradigms of financial flow with regard to climate control and environmental management (Nye 57). Developing countries should incorporate climate control into domestic policy thresholds in order to guarantee continuity and sustainability in environmental management (Nye 59).
The international community and donor agencies should demand global commitment in order to sustain cooperation with developing countries. They should draft legislation to govern the formulation of climate control policies in developing countries (Nye 62).
Such intervention is necessary because climate change is a reality that could distort ecological patterns in the future. Developing countries should initiate domestic efforts and policies that support the allocation of funds towards realization and propagation of climate control (Nye 65).
Ideological views and responses play an important role in determining the orientation of stakeholders with regard to climate control. Due to current technological developments, stakeholders preoccupy with the formulation of policies that revolve around technology and its impact on climate regime in contemporary society (Depledge 31). Most assumptions fail to recognize that climate change is a multifaceted reality that requires holistic and concerted intervention.
The complex nature of climate change necessitates paradigm shifts in areas that characterize its management and avoidance. Most countries strive to develop technology at the expense of relevant policies that pre-empt climate change and environmental degradation (Depledge 33). Technological developments are responsible for high rates of climate change and environmental degradation. It is important for countries to develop policy frameworks that regulate development, adaptation, and application of technology.
Unregulated technological developments precipitate environmental disasters that often affect human existence and propagation in social contexts (Depledge 36). Legislative biases lead to misplaced prioritization of efforts and resources that seek to enhance climate control and management. For instance, most organizational and statutory provisions cite technology as the foremost contributor to climate change and environmental degradation (Brooks 78).
Such frameworks fail to recognize political, social, economic, and cultural considerations that affect climate control and governance. It is evident that climate control requires political goodwill and participation at all levels of implementation (Brooks, 78). Political leadership plays a central role in lobbying support for climate control initiatives. Most decisions and initiatives emanate from political platforms that suffice in diverse thresholds of engagement among global leaders.
Therefore, political leaders should utilize official platforms that present the opportunity for progress with regard to the formulation of global climate control regime (Brooks 81). They should also enhance the development of domestic statutory provisions that accentuate the realization of the aforementioned objectives. Such efforts cannot materialize in the absence of financial and political facilitation (Brown 14). Authorities should endeavor to influence decisions and policies that seek to bolster the realization of global climate control.
On the other hand, lobbyists should focus on pertinent issues that manifest with regard to climate change and environmental degradation (Brown 17). If not well covered, environmental degradation could affect ecological thresholds that support human existence and propagation in contemporary contexts.
Global climate control is an incumbent function of global leaders because it falls within their jurisdiction (Brown 21). It remains a vital component with regard to the realization of a sustainable and progressive relationship between human beings and the environment. Inappropriate application of technology affects ecological balance, thereby precipitating extensive damage to the environment (Brown 23).
Conclusion
Climate change is a critical issue with regard to governance and political control in contemporary society. Global leaders continue to deliberate on appropriate methods that suffice in relation to climate control and sustainability (Smith 69). As political leaders strive to establish favorable solutions, researchers endeavor to devise and formulate a regime that augments recurrent desire for climate control.
There have been extensive studies with regard to causative realities and remedial steps that suffice in relation to climate change (Smith 73). Development of a global climate control regime is a venture that necessitates support from relevant stakeholders.
However, it remains elusive due to numerous realities that characterize its realization (Smith 76). Global leaders should pursue avenues that guarantee speedy formulation of legislative provisions that support the establishment of an effective global climate control regime. It is important to note that most developed countries are uncooperative in efforts that seek to achieve sustainable and effective global climate control (Smith 79).
Works Cited
Andresen, Steinar. International Environmental Agreements: An Introduction. Newyork: Routledge, 2012. Print.
Brooks, Richard. Law and Ecology: Rise of the Ecosystem Regime. London: Ashgate, 2002. Print.
Brown, Janet. Global Environmental Politics. London: Westview Press, 2010. Print.
Depledge, Joanna. The International Climate Change Regime: A Guide to Rules, Institutions and Procedures. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.
Nye, Joseph. Governance in a Globalizing World. Newyork: Brookings Institution Press, 2000. Print.
Smith, Lester. Plan B: Rescuing a Planet under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble. Sussex: Norton, 2003. Print.
Trilling, Julia. Global Climate Change: European and American Policy Responses. Los Angeles: University of California, 2008. Print.
Victor, David. Global Warming Gridlock: Creating More Effective Strategies for Protecting the Planet. London: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Print.
Windram, Craig. International Trade and Climate Change Policies. Newyork: Earthscan, 2012. Print.
Young, Oran. The Effectiveness of International Environmental Regimes: Causal Connections and Behavioural Mechanisms. Newyork: MIT Press, 2009. Print.
Caring for nature is one of the main focuses of attention of people around the world nowadays. Every day, the overall environmental situation on the planet is getting worse. The most significant contributors to this problem are large corporations such as Amazon, which have a vast number of enterprises worldwide. Therefore, the solution to the question should begin with the adoption of specific policies by these corporations. This study aims to investigate the impact of Amazon on the environment, analyze the company’s actions, and propose alternative approaches to solve the issue.
Analysis of Data
Protests
Although Amazon is widely known as an online platform, existing order centers contribute a lot to environmental pollution. However, this issue did not receive enough attention until the company employees forced the chief executive Jeff Bezos to focus on it. Many people have organized protest movements, urging the Amazon CEO to do something about the damage the corporation is doing to the environment (Peltz, 2019). Similar proposals were made in many cities in several countries of the world, and in the end, they were crowned with success, as they forced Bezos to put forward the so-called Climate Pledge.
Actions of Amazon
The Amazon CEO program sets several goals for the corporation to help clean up the environment. First, Bezos aims to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2040 and 100% use of renewable energy sources in the company in 2030 (Peltz, 2019). This step is the first significant action on the company’s path to cleaner production. Such efforts have a tremendous impact on the entire market, setting an example for other corporations. Simultaneously, Amazon has begun the active construction of solar and wind power plants to obtain renewable energy sources. Finally, the CEO donated $ 10 billion to combat the climate crisis (Weise, 2020). These funds were spent on creating the so-called Bezos Earth Fund, designed to unite scientists, activists, and organizations of various kinds to solve a common problem. Bezos’s most fundamental idea is the development of the space industry, with the help of which humanity could leave the Earth with its dwindling resources.
Alternative Solutions
Emissions
The ideas of going into space, as well as switching to renewable energy sources, are certainly positive. However, such goals are too global, so it might be worth focusing on more pressing and vital tasks. For example, it is necessary to invent new methods for eliminating existing emissions into the atmosphere. The full transition to renewable energy will not take place soon, and until that time, it is necessary to somehow deal with the existing pollution. Therefore, the logical option is to develop filtration systems and market them. Plus, Amazon can use its influence to popularize them and motivate other companies to do the same.
Research and Development
It is also necessary to develop methods of getting rid of current problems and to study fundamentally new directions in technology and science. At the moment, the most popular is the concept of switching to electric vehicles. However, the widespread introduction of such technology creates a problem of environmental pollution with battery waste. Thus, it is necessary to develop new types of energy that are not only renewable but also do not harm the environment after the end of their service life. In a way, the Amazon CEO is taking this path with the Bezos Earth Fund, but the concept needs further development.
Recommendations
Thus, Amazon is one of the few corporations taking active steps towards solving the climate problem. However, the plans under consideration at the moment are too ambitious and aimed at the distant future. Hence, it is recommended to pay attention to more everyday and ubiquitous environmental issues, such as dealing with actual emissions. At the same time, it is necessary to continue researching possible options for replacing harmful energy sources with non-waste alternatives. Finally, further development of the Bezos Earth Fund is needed as an established platform that can unite people around a common problem.
Given the current circumstances and negotiations, it can be argued that the international climate cooperation, which was established to find ways of limiting carbon emissions responsible for global warming, has been unsuccessful in its actions. However, using evidence from some international climate cooperation, the argument is that the collaborative actions aimed at addressing the international environmental issues are far from being attained.
The reverse argument of the collective action theory that the collaborative efforts within a larger group are unlikely to be achieved can be applied to explain the failures of international treaties and actions on climate change (Harris 196). Essentially, despite the few successes and the greater efforts for over three decades to construct an effectual environmental cooperation, it is clear that the elements of accomplishment may be present for the predictable future.
The current international negotiations would just reduce but not reverse the global warming at some point in the relative distant future. The paper endeavors to find out the reasons why the efforts of the international climate regime have not been successful.
Background information
The problem of climate change has not been perceived as a collective responsibility. In order to succeed in a collective agreement, members must have almost an equal share of the problem. In fact, collective action theorists point out that the cooperative sharing principle is critical for the success of the actions of larger group (Harris 197). The principle of collective action is yet to be agreed upon among the members of the international climate cooperation. Everyone agree that the emission of Green Houses Gases (GHG) has been the major cause of global warming and every country is responsible for a particular level of emissions. However, the level at which each country is contributing remains the basis of controversy. In other words, the GHG emissions have not been perceived as a collective problem (Victor 92).
In fact, some countries particularly, from the developing economies, feel that the industrialized countries have been contributing hugely to the emissions of GHG thus, should bear the greatest burden (Johansen 118). The feeling among the developing economies is that they are forced to bear the burden, which they have not created (Victor 92).
Lack of agreement on who is most responsible has undermined the ongoing set of arrangements for progressive control of GHG emissions (Harris 196). Besides, the numbers of countries causing GHG emissions are large and continuously increasing in the recent past (Harris 196). In addition, most of these countries felt that it is not on their immediate interest to bear the cost of reducing GHG emissions (Harris 196). The view is still held by many countries most of whom are the major polluters.
The other important factor is lack of consensus on the magnitude and nature of global warming and climate change (Johansen 119). Scientists in many occasions have disagreed on the magnitude and nature of global warming resulting in the provision of different sets of contradicting data (Johansen 119).
The works of the scientific skeptics to global warming have undermined the efforts made by various organizations to prove without doubt that the current change in climate is caused by carbon emissions present in the atmosphere (Johansen 118).
The climate skeptics have been in existence throughout particularly, from countries that are supposed to bear the greater cost of climate change (Victor 99). The impact of their skeptic view on environmental policy has been greater. Such skeptic view help in advancing the uncertainties surrounding the magnitude and effects of global warming and climate change (Harris 198).
While these issues remain critical undermining factors in the combined GHG emissions mitigation, they have not been extensively examined. In fact, the world is still grappling with effective measures that would ensure a collaborative effort geared towards reducing the GHG emissions (Harris 196).
Therefore this study would be important to the environmental policy makers and in academic circles since it would provide increased information on the issues that has lead to the failure of the global environmental regime in their goals on reducing GHG emissions.
Information sources
Information included in this study will be coming from credible sources primarily from previous studies. Most importantly, there will be keen focus on previous studies published in books, journals, peered reviewed journal articles and credible websites. Some key primary sources of information that will be consulted include environmental management journals, journals of environmental science as well as the environmental and resources economics journals.
Most importantly, critical information will be taken from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
In addition significant databases that will be consulted include Environmental Protection Agency (EPA – December 1999 to January 2014), Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER – December 1999 to January 2014), National Climate Data Center (NCDC – December 1999 to January 2014)) and European Environmental Agency (EAA – December 1999 to January 2014).
Expectations
The aim of the study is to examine various factors that have contributed to the failure of the climate regime to limit the carbon emissions responsible for global warming. In fact, one major question the study would answer is whether the failure of the global climate change organization has led to the continued increase in the GHG emissions.
Essentially, the major objective of this study is to exonerate the international climate change regime on the political intrigues that affect its noble cause of reducing the GHG emissions. Generally, my expectations are that this study will clearly provide explanations, through the application of appropriate theoretical framework, why the global climate change regime has failed to attain its main objectives.
Introduction
Causes and reasons for global warming have been extensively studied. Besides, major environmental organizations and institutes have been keeping track of the changes taking place in the earth’s climate. In addition, everyone agree that increased Green House Gases (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere are the major cause of the changes in the world climate. Moreover, there is a considerable consensus on the dangers posed by the climate change.
However, achieving consensus on the collective action aimed at reversing the climate change has proved challenging (Harris 199). In fact, good policies aimed at reducing the GHG emissions have been marred by political contradictions and intrigues, which have prevented their full implementations (Harris 199). Environmental experts argue that reducing the current trends in the carbon emissions need a global concerted effort.
Through various conventions and climate change agreements such as the Kyoto protocol, the environmental experts have tried to bring into action the global corporation on climate change. However, such corporations have not achieved much due to various constraints (Harris 195).
The agreements on how to overcome some of the constraints is far from being achieved. However, such agreements depend on how countries are involved in building a consensus regarding the magnitude and nature of global warming and climate changes, mitigation measures and how to bear the cost (Harris 223).
Works Cited
Harris, Paul G. “Collective Action on Climate Change: the Logic of Regime Failure.” Natural Resources Journal, 47.1 (2007): 195-224.
Johansen, Bruce E. “Global Warming in the 21st Century: Our Evolving Climate Crisis.” World Resources, 16.4 (2006): 118-224.
Victor, David G, “Toward Effective International Cooperation on Climate Change: Numbers, Interests and Institutions.” Global Environmental Politics, 6.3 (2006): 90-103.
Geological features have historically provided dramatic and enchanting views for people. Some examples include mountain peaks, desert surfaces and coastal cliffs. Despite providing magnificent sceneries, the potentially harmful nature of some of these features provides hazards to the society.
Landslides and volcanic eruptions have always been cataclysmic, leading in loss of lives. These features have been used in scientific research studies while others serve as tourist attractions. The features display some similarities and differences depending on whether they are in desserts or glaciers.
Desert landscapes cover slightly over one third of the land surface on earth (Hallmann & Steinberg, 2000). They are usually dry, receiving extremely minimal rainfall, thus supporting a small number of life forms. The vicinity frequently experiences harsh climatic conditions typified by either exceptionally hot or extremely cold. There are diverse forms of deserts classified depending on the quantity of rainfall received and its location.
The contrast between the desert and glacial landscape is the extreme weather conditions and landforms dotted across the surface. The desert landscape is characterized by kilometers of dunes and stone surfaces. Stones of unlike solidity and constitution erode at singular rates to fabricate the splendid wilderness imagery. Several features including playas and blowouts make up the desert landscape (Ryan, 2008).
Glaciers also face displacement and erosion, similar to deserts, which result in the formation of landforms. The glacier rubs out substances underneath it as it shifts leaving matter on rocks (Ryan, 2008). The glacier accumulates the material which it eventually deposits elsewhere, giving evidence to their direction of movement.
The resulting landform of the desert landscapes is characterized by its configuration through wind actions and weathering. When the globe heats up, warm air, which is less heavy, physically ascends to the summit headed for the poles while cold air settles down. This breeze process is though affected by the revolving of the world thus fashions a sidetracking energy on the current of air.
The rotational speeds of the wind depend on the distance from the equator (Ryan, 2008). The speed of rotation is frequently zero and the poles and gradually increases towards the equator.
Glaciers are formed when it is cold enough for ice not to melt during winter snow. This climate is normally experienced in elevated areas around the polar. Huge accumulations of snow must exist in a gently sloping rocky area which will prevent its loss (Hallmann & Steinberg, 2000). Molecules in the ice are reorganized without change of physical structure, forming new crystals.
Even though it is presently being amplified by the media, climatic changes have historically being there. The year of climatic change can be determined through scientific research in ocean sediments and tree rings. Volcanic upsurges around the terrain and changes in path directions are some of the causes of weather modifications. Some of the effects of this change were ice ages and interglacial periods when the planet was warming.
Natural sources like volcanoes result in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (Ryan, 2008). The presence of the gases adds to the chilling and temperate occurrences. The earth may begin to cool due to adjustments in its orbit. More CO2 thus dissolves in the oceans hence making the planet much cooler (Hallmann & Steinberg, 2000). Wild forest fires and other sources of heat radiation make the earth warmer. The oceans receive less CO2 hence gets warmer.
There was a small cooling event around the 16th century caused a slight cooling of the earth. The earth experienced warming during the medieval times across different regions such as Europe. The beginning of the industrial age is however the time when the earth started experiencing continuous warming. This results from the production of greenhouse gases through industries, automobiles and manufacturing activities.
Climatic change has resulted in overall heat increase. Patterns of rainfall have changed in various regions, exemplified by more rainfall in certain regions and occasionally in others. Aquatic levels have been progressively expanding, increasing by more than ten centimeters.
In the 21st century, temperatures will rise; hence the thawing of glaciers will escalate. There would be extreme weather changes due to the increase in temperatures. The rise of sea levels would interfere with coastlines and activities on beaches. There would be increased erosion and the subsidence of land would thus considerably reduce.
The effect on deserts would also be tragic. Life forms, which depend on the little precipitation, would not have any water from streams, which would undoubtedly have dried up. Most deserts on earth are fed by glaciers. Melting of the glaciers due to climate change will impair their water services to the deserts, which will become more arid and incapable of sustaining life.
They will become hotter and much drier. The soil becomes further degraded through wearing away and compaction (Hallmann & Steinberg, 2000). Extreme desertification will lead to more migration and end up overcrowding some areas.
There would be further wearing down of the ice resulting in more intense liquefaction. An estimated 1/3 of all glaciers will disappear in less than 100 years. The distribution of river flow and water supply would decrease thus impacting agriculture and production of electricity. Hydrological changes would change navigation systems of rivers, which may provide benefits for shipping industries, which could previously not navigate some areas.
Life forms on earth would be threatened if climatic changes exaggerate. Unfortunately, these effects will not be equally distributed across the earth. Some regions will be more adversely affected while some will experience the benefits of the weather changes. Some of its impacts will be irreversible depending on their rate and magnitude.
References
Hallmann, M. & Steinberg, M. (2000). Greenhouse gas carbon dioxide mitigation: Science and technology. Florida: CRC Press.
Ryan, J. (2008). Desert and glacial landscapes. Technology: science. November 20, 2008. Web.
The practice of gathering and classifying information regarding different climatic conditions of the world has become an important way through which effective understanding of various climatic patterns and seasons can be attained. This paper takes a critical look at the Koppen climate classification system of San Francisco city and Salt Lake City, Utah.
San Francisco
Physical geographic description
San Francisco is one of the major cities in the United States with a population of about 7.5 million people (Haug 646). It is located on the West Coast and closely stretches and borders the San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The city has several Islands which surrounds.
Some of these islands include Angel Island, Almeda Island, Yebra Buena Island, treasure, and Alcatraz Islands. Besides, it has offshore uninhabited islands called the Fallaron which covers an area of 43 kilometers. In total, the city occupies an area of 600 kilometers (Haug 646).
San Francisco city can be best described by its famous landscape which has more that 50 hills. Settlements which have developed along the hilly areas have come to be named after the hills. Some of the neighborhoods include Russian Hill, pacific Heights and Nob Hill (Metcalf 444). San Francisco’s mount Davidson forms that highest hill with a height of about 282 meters. In addition, the city also has faults like Hayward and San Andreas which are areas that attract earthquake activities.
Figure 1: A figure representing the map of San Francisco
Climate
The climate in San Francisco has been described as a cool-summer Mediterranean climate (Wang and Overland 46). Studies indicate that it is characterized by dry summers and moist mild winters (Wang and Overland 46). The moderate temperatures swings mostly experienced in the city are due to the three water bodies surrounding it.
Using the Koppen climate classification, San Francisco has a climate classification which falls under the Csa and Csb categories, that is for dry summer subtropical climates. San Franciso experiences seasonal temperature variations with Koppen-Geiger system classifying them at 18-22 degrees Celsius high and 11-13 decrees Celsius low between May and October (Jin and Shepherd 682).
Seasonal changes, precipitation averages and temperature changes
In terms of seasons and temperature changes, San Francisco unlike many cities in the Mediterranean, does not experience very warm summers and relatively mild winters. Instead, its summers are mild, a factor that is attributed to regular summer fogs and onshore breeze caused by upwelling cold surface waters. Its temperatures are moderate, but during winter, they fall down to freezing points.
Its high temperature annually stands at 65.1 Fahrenheit and low at 51.4 Fahrenheit (See figure 2). Wang and Overland indicate that in a year, San Francisco has 67 rainy days and a precipitation average of 518.16. Besides, it has 105 cloudy days and 260 clear days in a year (45).
Figure 2: A climatograph showing temperature and precipitation averages for San Francisco
Climate control systems
The climate control for ocean currents in San Francisco has been set in place due to the fact that the movement of water in the Mediterranean influences climate changes (Stewart and Oke 922). In this city, ocean current control system has been set in all weather stations along the coast to check on the temperatures whether they make the city warmer or cooler.
It is important to mention that the moderate temperatures experienced at certain times in San Francisco are due to the southwest movement of ocean currents along the coast.
Bio-geography
Mediterranean climate zones vegetation have been considered to have a close association with scrub, woodlands and forest biome (Wang and Overland 46). San Francisco has a distinct climate which allows sclerophyll shrub-lands to thrive (Metcalf 444). These are mostly referred to as chaparral in California. Its natural vegetation has been adapted to survive over long period of times. Its vegetation comprises of herbs, grasses, shrubs, fruit trees, deciduous trees and evergreen trees.
Figure 3: A figure showing a portion of San Francisco biome
Salt Lake city, Utah
Physical geographic description
Salt Lake City is the capital city of the state of Utah and has a population of approximately 186, 500 people. This city covers a geographical area of 285.9 square kilometers and its height above the sea level stands at 2,868 meters (Stewart and Oke 922). Salt Lake City has Grandview Peak as its highest point with 9410 feet of height and the areas near Great Salt Lake and Jordan River as the lowest points at 4210 feet.
The location of the city is towards the northeast of the Salt Lake. Its western and eastern borders are surrounded by steep Oquirrh and Wasatch mountain ranges. Marsh lands and mudflats form an extensive separation between the city and the Great Salt Lake. The outlay of the city follows a grid plan with streets running in all directions.
Figure 1: A figure showing the map of Salt Lake City, Utah
Climate and seasonal changes
The Koppen climatic classification of the Salt Lake City (koppen BSk) is that it has four seasons in a year and is characteristically semi-arid. It has snowy and cold winters, and dry and hot summers. Both winter and summer in this city are long while its fall and spring are comfortable and brief. Its wettest season is during spring and the driest is the summer.
Precipitation averages and temperature changes
Pacific storms that come in the months of October through May have been considered to be the main source of precipitation in the city (Stewart and Oke 922). Cold storms from the Pacific Ocean cause measurable snow. Sometimes, during the storms, rains that are enhanced by the Great Salt Lake lead to the development of lake-effect snow.
These along with excessive snowfalls occur about eight times in a year. Besides, the temperatures during summer vary with 56 days of 90 Fahrenheit, 23 days with 35 degrees Celsius and 5 days with 37.8 degrees Celsius. Strong temperature inversions normally occur in areas like the Great Basin where pressure is high.
Figure 2: A figure showing precipitation averages and temperature changes in Salt Lake City, Utah
Climate control systems
Climate control systems in Salt Lake City use systems like pressure cells and storm tracks. The former is used because of the high pressure experienced in areas such as the Great Basin. Storm tracks are important control systems used to monitor storms coming from the Pacific Ocean into the city.
Bio-geography
The vegetation in Salt Lake City include sagebrush, creosote bush, desert spoon, prickly pear cactus, barrel cactus, suguaro cactus and yucca. This vegetation is attributed to the semi-arid characteristic of land due to the prevailing climate. Cacti are the major vegetation growing in large numbers with some portions of grasslands and prairies.
Works Cited
Haug, Katherine. “Bull v. city and county of San Francisco.” The Urban Lawyer, 43.2 (2011): 646-647. Print.
Jin, Menglin, and Marshall, Shepherd. “Inclusion of urban landscape in a climate model: How can Satellite Data Help?” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 86.5 (2005): 681-689. Print.
Metcalf, Gabriel. “City for sale: The transformation of San Francisco.” Journal of the American Planning Association, 69.4 (2003): 444-445. Print.
Stewart, Iain and Timothy, Oke.”A new classification system for urban climate sites.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 90.7 (2009): 922-923. Print.
Wang, Muyin and James, Overland. “Detecting arctic climate change using Koppen climate classification.” Climatic Change, 67.1 (2004): 43-62. Print.
