Tree Planting Ameliorating Climate Change

Introduction

Climate change has serious effects on the environment and the existence of living organisms. Environmentalists and policy makers have been designing strategies to ameliorate climate change in sustainable manner. As one school of thought believes that planting trees is an effective strategy of ameliorating climate change, the opposing school of thought believes that tree planting is a distraction and ineffective strategy of ameliorating climate change. Therefore, the environmental consultancy company opposes the assertion that tree planting is an effective strategy of ameliorating climate change because of the following reasons:-

The size of land required to sequester current emissions

  • Despite the presence of vegetation, the global emission of carbon has increased in the last decade by about 30%. According to Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2013), carbon emission has increased from 26.1 billion tonnes in 2002 to 34.4 billion tonnes in 2012.
  • According to United Nations Environment Programme (2012), the projection of carbon emissions is 49 gigatonnes by the year 2020 with an emission gap of about 10 gigatonnes, which requires sequestration to reduce the temperature by 20C.
  • A trillion trees are necessary to sequester 10 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide for the global temperature to reduce by 20C (Plant for the Planet, 2014).
  • If one hectare takes 1000 trees, the size of land required to sequester 10 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide is one billion hectares.
  • To sequester 49 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide, about five billion hectares of land and 5 trillion trees are necessary.
  • Five billion hectares comprise 37% of productive earths surface, which is essential in planting five trillion trees, which act as carbon sinks.
  • Current forest cover is about four billion hectares, which means that 1 billion hectares is required to contain the increasing carbon dioxide emissions (Kirilenko & Sedjo, 2007).
  • To plant one trillion trees in the one billion hectares is an extensive work when compared to a simple intervention of reducing carbon emissions.
  • Increasing forest cover by one billion hectares consumes a significant part of productive land, and consequently reduces agricultural production.
  • Moreover, the sequestration capacity decreases as trees mature, and thus unsustainable in ameliorating climate change (McGuire, 2010).
  • Therefore, the limiting size of land and the extensive work necessary to plant a trillion trees make afforestation an unfeasible strategy of ameliorating climate change.

Competing Land Uses

  • Competing land uses due to increasing population makes the expansion of forest cover untenable.
  • As the population grows, more land for agricultural production, industrial development, urban development, and human settlements is essential.
  • From 1960 to 2010, the population of the world has doubled, and projections show that by the year 2050, the population would be nine billion (Smith, et al., 2010).
  • As the population increases by three billion, extra space for settlement is necessary, which implies that people will encroach into the forestland and consequently reduce the forest cover.
  • Additionally, the increase in the population by three billion would mean that agricultural production and industrial goods should increase by 50%.
  • The expansion of the agricultural sector and the industrial sector by 50% implies that the productive land should increase commensurately.
  • Urbanization and migration pattern of people in modern society put more pressure on declining space and relegate afforestation to the remaining space.
  • Land degradation due to human activities such as induced fires, logging, deforestation, overgrazing, and encroachment of forests significantly affect tree planting (Smith, et al., 2010).
  • Bio-energy has emerged and utilized significant size of the arable land, thus increasing competition for land use (Rathmann, Szklo, & Schaeffer, 2010).
  • Development of infrastructure due to increased population, industries, urbanization, and technological development need expansive land.
  • Land use in wildlife conservation takes considerable size of land, and therefore, competes with agricultural and industrial land uses.
  • Catchment areas and water bodies are important water resources that require extensive size of land (Wagner, Kumar, & Schneider, 2013).

Barriers that prevent forestation

  • Tree planting requires one billion hectares, which is limited by the increasing population, as people require more land for settlement, industrialization, and agricultural activities.
  • Harsh climatic conditions in arid and semi-arid areas limit forestation even though they have an extensive tract of land (Allen, 2009).
  • Conservation of wildlife in natural settings limit forestation as artificial forests could be destructive to the natural environment.
  • Urban planning polices focus on economic activities and treats afforestation as an unimportant activity in urbanization (Oldfield, Warren, Felson, & Bradford, 2013).
  • Lack of funds or insufficient funds limits afforestation because it requires million dollars, which are not readily available.
  • Political will to advocate for the afforestation as a strategy of ameliorating climate change is absent.
  • Awareness of the importance of afforestation in ameliorating climate change is very low among the population.
  • Poor and landless people among local the communities are focusing on encroaching forests and conducting deforestation, instead of supporting afforestation.
  • International and regional treaties, which conflict, restrict afforestation in most countries (Backstrand & Lovbrand, 2006).
  • Ethical issues surrounding the distribution of the climate change burden among nations, regions, nature, and individuals (Gardiner &Hartzell, 2012).
  • Conflicts of interests between developing and developed nations concerning sharing of burden threaten afforestation; even through developing nations have vast space for afforestation.
  • Poor management of forests due to weak policies reduces the effectiveness of afforestation in ameliorating climate change in a sustainable manner (Allen, 2009).
  • Changing climate patterns affect the growth of trees in some regions that experience frequent natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, and global warming (Smith et al., 2010).

What other effects of greenhouse gases

  • Across the world, greenhouse gases cause 150,000 deaths and affect daily-adjusted life years of about 5.5 million people, which pose significant burden to the health care systems (Shelfield & Landrigan, 2011).
  • Greenhouse gases such as ozone, sulphur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons increase the occurrence of diseases because they expose humans to many chemicals that have diverse impacts on their health (Smith et al., 2009).
  • Greenhouse gases increase the average temperatures of the earth and consequently enhance spread of infectious diseases such as malaria, tick-borne diseases, and dengue fever amongst others due to migration of vectors (Smith et al., 2009).
  • Aerosols and related chemicals that people use in their households trigger the occurrence of allergic diseases such as asthma (Shelfield & Landrigan, 2011).
  • Particulate matter of greenhouse gases contaminates the air and affects children because it causes infant mortality, low birth weight, and preterm birth (Shelfield & Landrigan, 2011).
  • Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides, and nitrogen oxides accumulate in the air and mix with rainwater to form acid rain, which causes acidification of lakes and oceans, and thus, threatens the lives of aquatic organisms (Hodgson, 2011).
  • Nitrogen oxides when mixed with water form nitrates, which are important nutrients for the growth of phytoplanktons and eutrophication (Moss et al., 2011).
  • Due to eutrophication in lakes and oceans, decaying phytoplanktons release massive amounts of methane gases into the air (Moss et al., 2011).
  • This implies that even if trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air, other greenhouse gases that have adverse effects on human health and global warming still exist.
  • In this view, reduction of greenhouse emissions is paramount in preventing diseases and stabilizing global warming.

Over what timescale can forests be implemented and adapted to a changing climate?

  • Afforestation requires a timescale 10 years for trees to have a significant effect on the level of carbon emissions in the atmosphere (Plan for the Planet, 2014).
  • Current emission gap carbon dioxide is 10 billion tonnes in which, if absorbed by the plants, the temperatures would decrease by 2­0C (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012).
  • Predictions show that planting one trillion trees and maintaining current levels of carbon emission would eventually lead to zero emission gap by the year 2050 (United Nations Environment Programme, 2012)
  • As trees mature, their capacity to reduce carbon emission decreases, and hence, rejuvenation of forests is essential to main absorption capacity of carbon dioxide at optimum level.
  • However, natural disasters such as droughts, hurricanes, floods, and natural fires reduce the effectiveness of forests in absorbing carbon emissions that are in the air (Smith et al., 2010).
  • The disturbance of forests caused by natural disasters has detrimental effects on capacity of trees to absorb carbon dioxide, and would consequently lead to an increased period needed for the absorption to be significant.
  • Therefore, given the unreliability of forests in reducing carbon emissions, afforestation is not a feasible strategy of ameliorating climate change.

What are the alternatives to forest-sequestration

  • According to Obersteiner et al. (2001), bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is an alternative method of sequestering carbon dioxide to forest-sequestration, as it utilizes biomass in capturing and storing carbon for a long period without causing undue fears of releasing it into the atmosphere.
  • Using landfills as burying grounds for biomass to imitate the natural processes that lead to the formation of fossil fuels is appropriate in removing carbon from the carbon cycle and storing them in the ground permanently.
  • Storing carbon in subterranean reservoirs of oil and gas, as in the case of Sleipner Project, has proved to be effective in reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the air (Herzog, 2001).
  • Ocean storage allows sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions in the deep ocean where they undergo the process of forming fossil fuels (Herzog, 2001).
  • Mineral sequestration is a sequestration method that converts carbon dioxide into minerals by reacting it with oxides such as calcium oxide and magnesium oxide, which are available naturally, to form stable carbonates.

Conclusion

Overall, the analysis of the assertion that tree planting is an effective strategy of ameliorating climate change shows the contrary. The space, the number of trees, competing land uses, the existence of other greenhouse gases, extended timescale needed to realize the impacts, and the presence of alternative strategies negate the use of afforestation as a strategy of ameliorating climate change. In this view, the environmental consultancy company disapproves that tree planting is an effective strategy of ameliorating climate change due to the aforementioned reasons.

References

Allen, E. (2009). Restoration ecology: Limits and possibilities in arid and semi-arid lands. Web.

Backstrand, K., & Lovbrand, E. (2006). Planting trees to mitigate climate change: Contested discourses of ecological modernization, green governmentality, and civic environmentalism. Global Environmental Politics, 6(1), 51-75.

Gardiner, S. M. & Hartzell, L. (2012). Ethics and Global Climate Change. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10), 1-5.

Herzog, W. (2001). What Future for Carbon Capture and Sequestration? New technologies could reduce carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere while still allowing the use of fossil fuels. Environmental Science & Technology, 35(7), 148-153.

Hodgson, E. (2011). A Textbook of Modern Toxicology. London. John Wiley & Sons.

Kirilenko, A., & Sedjo, R. (2007). Climate change impacts on forestry. PNAS, 104(50), 19697-19702.

Plant for the Planet (2014). Our three-point plan to save our future. Web.

McGuire, C. (2010). A Case Study of Carbon Sequestration Potential of Land Use Policies Favoring Re-growth and Long-term Protection of Temperate Forests. Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(1), 11-16.

Moss, B., Kosten, K., Meerhoff, M., Battarbee, R., Jeppesen, E., Mazzeo, N., & Havens, K. (2011). Allied attack: climate change and eutrophication. Inland Waters, 1(2), 101-105.

Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2013). Trend in global carbon emissions.

Obersteiner, M., Azar, P., Kauppi, K., Möllersten, J., Moreira, S., Nilsson, P., & Read, K. (2001). Managing climate risk. Science 294(5543): 786-797

Oldfield, E., Warren, R., Felson, A., & Bradford, M. (2013). Challenges and future directions in urban afforestation. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2(1), 1-9.

Rathmann, R., Szklo, A., & Schaeffer, R. (2010). Land use competition for the production of food and liquid biofuels: An analysis of arguments in the current debate. Renewable Energy, 35(1), 14-22.

Smith, P., Gregory, P., Vuuren, D., Obersteiner, M., Havlik, P., Rounsevell, M., & Bellarby, J. (2010). Competition for land. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal society B, 365(1554), 2941-2957.

Smith, K., Jerrett, M., Anderson, R., Burnett, R., Stone, V., Derwent, R., & Thurston, G. (2009). Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants. The Lancet, 374(9707), 2091-2103.

Shelfield, P., & Landrigan, P. (2011). Global Climate Change and Childrens Health: Threats and Strategies for Prevention. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(3), 291-298.

United Nations Environment Programme (2012). The emissions gap report 2012. Web.

Wagner, P., Kumar, S., & Schneider, K. (2013). An assessment of land use change impacts on the water resources of the Mula and Mutha Rivers catchment upstream of Pune, India. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 10(1), 1943-1985.

Climate Change and Mitigation Measures in China

Chen, Y., Zhang, Z., & Tao, F. (2018). Impacts of climate change and climate extremes on major crops productivity in China at global warming of 1.5 and 2.0 C. Earth System Dynamics, 9(2), 543-562. Web.

Chen et al. (2018) evaluated the effects of climate change on the growth of productivity of three major crops: maize, wheat, and rice. Results of the study showed that climate change puts negative impacts on crop production, particularly for wheat in North China. However, the research showed that 2,0-degrees warming is more suitable for crop production than the 1,5-degree warming scenario. The purpose of the article was to study the possible benefits of crop production due to global warming. In addition, the study aimed to calculate the spatial patterns of the time of harvest growth, impacts of higher temperatures and drought on it, and the probability of crop yield cut. Therefore, the article is credible for the topic as it researches the positive side of climate change in China and can be used in the final project as an example of the optimistic side of the issue. Moreover, the research shows how solar radiation, precipitation, and the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere can be ameliorated to improve photosynthesis and the accumulations of biomass and harvest.

Fang, J., Yu, G., Liu, L., Hu, S., & Chapin, F. S. (2018). Climate change, human impacts, and carbon sequestration in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(6), 4015-4020. Web.

The overview article by Fang et al. (2018) study the influence of climate change and human actions on the structure and working of ecosystems. The report also quantifies the magnitude and distribution of carbon pools and carbon sequestration in Chinas terrestrial ecosystems. It mentions increasing carbon stock among four ecosystems forests, grasslands, and croplands (excluding shrublands). The article aims to identify the influence of human activity on climate change in China and study other chemical processes that impact carbon pool and vegetation production. This research is credible as it shows the modern causes of climate change in China and analyses the possible ways of tackling the issue. By synthesizing the studies about four ecosystems and carbon break down, it becomes easier to assess the future steps for reducing carbon emissions. The research can be used in the final project as a possible solution to decrease the level of carbon dioxide and design a climate-change policy. The work, furthermore, shows how ecological restoration projects and agricultural management have enhanced sequestration of carbon which is a good baseline for assessing future changes. For instance, increased carbon stock is equivalent to 14.1% of the carbon emissions from fossil fuel consumption in China from 2001 to 2010.

Lin, B., & Zhu, J. (2019). The role of renewable energy technological innovation on climate change: Empirical evidence from China. Science of The Total Environment, 659, 1505-1512. Web.

In the article, Lin et al. (2019) claim that the government of China needs to put a special effort into renewable energy technological innovation (RETI). The work provides new insight between technological innovation and climate change. The research shows a significant and negative effect from RETI on carbon dioxide emissions, which means that the RETI is beneficial for a low-carbon society. However, this effect is different in provinces with other energy structures. The purpose of the article is to prove the efficiency of technological innovation on climate change. Using threshold tests, the researchers demonstrated that the coal-dominated energy consumption structures hinder the carbon dioxide reduction effect of RETI. The research is credible for the topic as it gives an up-to-date observation of the carbon emission in China and gives an excellent solution to the problem. The research also studies different energy consumption systems and provides a statement on which one is the safest for the climate. This article could be an example of the possible innovative technologies helping reduce carbon dioxide releases in the final project.

Luo, M., Liu, T., Meng, F., Duan, Y., Bao, A., Xing, W., Feng, X., Maeyer, P. D., & Frankl, A. (2019). Identifying climate change impacts on water resources in Xinjiang, China. Science of The Total Environment, 676, 613-626. Web.

The article by Luo et al. (2019) discusses global climate change and its impact on water resources. It concludes that the influence of climate change on different hydrological components indicated a strong diversity in space and time. The sensitivities of the effects of climate change are also highly demanded on the area, elevation, and slope aspects of the catchments. However, increases in water resources are not sustainable since a large part of the increase is from solid water storage. The purpose of the article is to show that climate change in water storage will be more significant soon. The researchers analyzed predictable changes in various hydrological factors in nine catchments high in the mountains in the area called Xinjiang. For exploring, they used the soil and water assessment tool. The article is credible for the topic because it looks at the problem of climate change in China generally, from the perspective of global climate change. It provides calculations and explanations why global warming plays a more significant role in the changes of each hydrological component than increasing precipitation. The information from the article can be used as an example of future changes in Chinas climate if the government will not create reasonable solutions.

Shan, Y., Guan, D., Hubacek, K., Zheng, B., Davis, S. J., Jia, L., Liu, J., Liu, Z., Fromer, N., Mi, Z., Meng, J., Deng, X., Li, Y., Lin, J., Schroeder, H., Weisz, H., & Schellnhuber, H. J. (2018). City-level climate change mitigation in China. Science Advances, 4(6), 1-15. 

Shan et al. (2018) present new city-level estimates of carbon dioxide emissions for 182 Chinese cities decomposed into 17 different fossil fuels, 46 socioeconomic sectors, and 7 industrial processes. It shows that more affluent cities have systematically lower emissions per unit of gross domestic product, supported by imports from less affluent, industrial cities located nearby. The researchers also study technological progress that can lead to substantial reductions (up to 31%) if a small fraction of existing infrastructure is updated. The purpose of the article is to find the most efficient ways of reducing carbon emissions by China. By exploring three scenarios of technological progress, Shan et al. prove substantial reductions (up to 31%) by making some innovative changes in infrastructure. The article is credible for climate change in China because it observes the current situation in the country and gives possible and the fastest solutions for the issue. According to the research results that used sector-based analysis of five city groups in the country, the growth of technologies can reduce emissions of CO2 without any stop of economic development. In the final project, the article is referred to as one of the solutions to the problem. Developing technologies will decrease industrialization growth and reduce carbon emissions.

References

Chen, Y., Zhang, Z., & Tao, F. (2018). Impacts of climate change and climate extremes on major crops productivity in China at global warming of 1.5 and 2.0 C. Earth System Dynamics, 9(2), 543-562. Web.

Fang, J., Yu, G., Liu, L., Hu, S., & Chapin, F. S. (2018). Climate change, human impacts, and carbon sequestration in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(6), 4015-4020. Web.

Lin, B., & Zhu, J. (2019). The role of renewable energy technological innovation on climate change: Empirical evidence from China. Science of The Total Environment, 659, 1505-1512. Web.

Luo, M., Liu, T., Meng, F., Duan, Y., Bao, A., Xing, W., Feng, X., Maeyer, P. D., & Frankl, A. (2019). Identifying climate change impacts on water resources in Xinjiang, China. Science of The Total Environment, 676, 613-626. Web.

Shan, Y., Guan, D., Hubacek, K., Zheng, B., Davis, S. J., Jia, L., Liu, J., Liu, Z., Fromer, N., Mi, Z., Meng, J., Deng, X., Li, Y., Lin, J., Schroeder, H., Weisz, H., & Schellnhuber, H. J. (2018). City-level climate change mitigation in China. Science Advances, 4(6), 1-15.

Climate Change and Teslas Electric Cars

Introduction

Global warming is a significant challenge in every part of the world, especially the industrialized nations. Countries experiencing global warming challenges specialize in economic activities where emissions from industries and vehicles have a significant impact on the environment. Nations manufacturing internal combustion engine cars pollute the natural ecosystem resulting from changes in the climate (Günther et al., 2015). The vehicles release Carbon dioxide and other common greenhouse gases, leading to an extreme increase in the earths surface temperature. Countries have come together to formulate policies and guidelines, such as the Paris Emission Agreement to curb climate change.

Tesla Electric Cars and Climate Change

Paris Emission Agreement proposal included adopting an efficient measure to reduce carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases released. For this reason, the use of electric vehicles becomes the best suggestion for tackling climate change. Most governments in international markets, such as China, Japan, the European Union, and the U.S. actively champion electric vehicle manufacturers to replace the internal combustion engines. At this point, Tesla Company comes in as the leading manufacturer of electric vehicles (Lutsey et al., 2018). Tesla is an electric vehicle manufacturing company founded in 2003 by a group of engineers whose main goal was to promote sustainable energy in the transport sector (Brown et al., 2010). The company builds both electric cars and clean energy generation and storage commodities.

The reduction of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere requires different countries to address energy and its consumption. Tesla Company focuses on creating a comprehensive transportation and energy ecosystem involving solar and energy storage to produce electric vehicles (EVs) with no emissions (Lutsey et al., 2018). Research indicates that charging electric cars is less carbon-intensive and becomes beneficial for the environment (Brown et al., 2010). Electric vehicles replace coal energy use, which has adverse effects on the natural ecosystem due to global warming.

Tesla Electric Cars And Renewable Energy Application

Industries are adopting the electric vehicle manufacturing strategy as the cleanest renewable source of energy. According to an annual production report released by Tesla Company in 2018, renewable energy sources have grown fast at an approximation of 43% (Tesla, 2018). The main reason for using renewable energy sources is that they are sustainable and more cost-competitive in the market than the resources produced from fossil fuels. Electric vehicle customers install solar panels and energy storage solutions in their homes, reducing electric vehicles lifetime carbon footprint (Tesla, 2018). Installation of solar panels and fast-charging stations in public places are essential strategies that solve global warming challenges.

Tesla Batteries and Climate Change

The most significant contributors to climate change are the raw materials used to manufacture electric vehicles and internal combustion engines. While internal combustion engines are constructed to work on fossil fuels, electric cars are installed with batteries (Lutsey et al., 2018). Tesla Company designs battery packs that can make the car last longer than internal combustion engine cars on the roads.

The company designs batteries that last for one million miles or four to five thousand charging cycles (Lutsey et al., 2018). The comparison is made against a standard vehicle that wears out after two hundred thousand miles in the United States and one hundred and thirty thousand miles in Europe. A single electric vehicle battery is designed to utilize one-million-mile coverage, hence reducing emissions per vehicle produced (Brown et al., 2010). The application of electric cars batteries helps curb the issue of climate change.

The owners can recycle batteries designed for electric vehicles. Carbon emissions are further reduced through the process of recycling as the battery pack is captured and reused (Tesla, 2019). The entire recycling process reduces the need for mining raw materials and the emissions associated with mining. Some 48 kg of lithium are usually extracted from a single LIB battery; this process costs 1000$ (Gianesello et al., 2017). Tesla Company manages its batteries by designing them to outlast the cars.

Teslas Electric Cars Supply Chain

Analyzing electric cars global supply chain and determining electric vehicles status in the market is an integral part of this paper. The market size for electric vehicles is enlarging, and there is a growing number of new guidelines for safety, vehicle emanations, and innovative advancements. The standard acknowledgment for electric vehicles can be credited to Tesla Motors Inc. (TSLA) and its remarkable action plan. This involves all the industry sectors, from raw materials and car production to cars selling in the global market.

Changes in demand and availability of raw materials directly influence the output of electric vehicles. This involves both trends and changes in the markets growing demand for electric cars (Deloitte, 2017). Tesla Companys leadership in the production of electric vehicles and its excellent action plan is this discussions point of reference. The general observation regarding Tesla Companys supply of electric cars is that an increase in demand requires an increase in invested capital (Gianesello et al., 2017). Research indicates a rise in demand for electric cars by citizens from the United States of America, China, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

Global sales of battery-enabled electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid cars contribute to increased sales of electric cars.

Tesla shows outstanding competitive potential in driving range among other vehicles
Figure 1. Tesla shows outstanding competitive potential in driving range among other vehicles (Deloitte, 2017).

Tesla Companys innovative model of business boosts its competitive advantage in the market. The electric car manufacturing company stays a threat to other competitors in the global market. An innovative business model occurs where Tesla Company develops vehicles using the same strategy to design product software (Lutsey et al., 2018). Electric cars are installed with unique hardware which improves the daily functionality of the vehicle. Software installation strategy avoids continued oil changes and muffler replacement which is common in internal combustion engine cars. Another innovative strategy is that Tesla Company makes it easy for customers to buy their cars.

The strategy involves customers accessing their favorite electric car models online (Tesla, 2021). The buying process is further made easy as customers add their chosen features, make financial deposits, and then organize when to pick up the car. Buyers become comfortable with this process of purchasing cars, unlike ordinary cars, whose purchasing procedure is always tiresome.

Tesla Companys innovative battery technology plays an essential role in boosting its competitive advantage in the global market. Their batteries are designed to minimize total ownership costs over the lifetime of the vehicle. There are fewer battery parts in electric cars  only 20 parts compared to 2000 parts for a typical internal combustion engine (Gianesello et al., 2017). The fewer battery parts reduce the total costs incurred in owning the cars. More ownership costs reduction is made by Tesla by investing in battery manufacturing technology (Brown et al., 2020; Gianesello et al., 2017; Tesla, 2019). This technology plays a substantial role in reducing the cost of the vehicles and the CO2 emissions related to production, including supply chain production and transportation.

Tesla Company is adaptive to changing environmental trends, global environmental issues, and suggestions. Electric cars have become beneficial in solving cases of climate change. The benefits exist in electric cars features, such as their ability to reduce air pollution (Günther et al., 2015). Tesla supports green economic mechanisms aimed at reducing air pollution on roads and Green financial strategies from current trends in global markets.

Nowadays, countries that manufacture electric vehicles experience disparities in the global market. Discrepancies occur in sales made as the nations with huge markets make huge sales while those countries without good policies get fewer opportunities from the sales made (Lutsey et al., 2018). Other barriers to the supply chain are customer-based when people have weak attitudes toward electric vehicle manufacturing (Brown et al., 2010). The weak attitude is connected to severe charges on infrastructure. Experts recommend that EV companies focus on five areas to boost their businesses  brand, customer experience, production strategy, talent, and business model (Deloitte, 2017). Considering the growing demand for EVs and Teslas leading position in driving range opportunities, some subtle improvements can ensure improvements in customer attitudes.

Some countries experience a shortage of effective government incentives and emission regulations. Domestic manufacturers are limited from the external competition when government incentives and emission policies lack in their countries (Lutsey et al., 2018). In some nations, consumers go for internal combustion engine vehicles instead of electric vehicles. The concerns are related to the driving range, cost premium, lack of EV charging infrastructure, and time to charge (Deloitte, 2017). Another reason for this choice is that governments do not have the proper infrastructure to support electric vehicle use.

Teslas Battery Technology and Supply Chain

Tesla electric car manufacturing company has focused on creating its battery cells for electric cars. Achieving this objective has seen Tesla partner with companies like Hibar Systems. Hibar Systems is a company based in Canada that manufactures automatic batteries used in electric vehicles and other electrical goods. Battery features for electric cars include lithium-ion, which works well in vehicles (Lutsey et al., 2018).

Tesla Companys chief executive officer, Elon Musk, collaborates with other companies producing raw materials for battery manufacture. Tesla has struck deals with California-based Maxwell Company which specializes in electrodes for lithium-ion production. Striking these deals with different companies helps Tesla compete effectively in the global market. Flexibility by the companys CEO is helping them stay competitive against internal combustion engine car manufacturers.

Electric car manufacturing companies are moving at high speed to produce their batteries while remaining active in the market. Latest reports have shown that Tesla plans to make $25,000 electric vehicles that can effectively compete with internal combustion engine cars (Brown et al., 2010). An increase in lithium demand by Tesla would make companies manufacture it and increase lithium investment (Brown et al., 2010). The demand is expected to increase further when more companies join in electric car production. The graph below shows how global lithium demand will be influenced by electric vehicles.

Global lithium battery demand
Figure 2. Global lithium battery demand (Deloitte, 2017).

Boosting the Electric Cars Supply Chain

Tesla focuses on advanced technology and innovation investment to facilitate a consistent supply of electric vehicles. Electric vehicles are major technological contributors to the automotive industry (Brown et al., 2010). They contribute to reliable, sustainable development as they produce lower greenhouse gases, less pollution of air, and most importantly, increase job opportunities for citizens.

The enabled working environment influences the increase in sales and the number of electric vehicles produced by the Tesla Company (Brown et al., 2010). Enabling the environment involves sustainable market policies and regulations that support electric cars existence and sales growth in the global market. Different governments encourage their citizens to adopt the use of electric vehicles while abandoning internal combustion engines. The mechanisms are made possible through the adoption of practical guidelines and policies in their countries (Brown et al., 2010). Some of the procedures include the government offering effective financial incentives for vehicles. Examples of financial incentives are tax credits and discounts to taxpayers.

Another policy imposed by the government is conducting fee eliminations on emissions testing. Allowing Tesla electric vehicles to park freely in urban areas is another beneficial policy for the company (Brown et al., 2010). There are plans by various governments such as China and Germany, which provide prime local markets for electric cars. These policies only work on electric vehicles and not the infrastructure. For this reason, raising infrastructural revenues does not affect the growth of electric vehicle markets.

Favorable market policies have seen sales of electric vehicles from Tesla Company increasing in the United States, Canada, China, Finland, Germany, India, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, the United Kingdom, and Mexico. According to Deloitte research, China appears to be the leading producer of electric vehicles (Deloitte, 2017). China is followed by the European Union and the US, which comes third in manufacturing Tesla Companys electric cars (Brown et al., 2010).

The provision of a sustainable and enabling working environment makes China the leading manufacturer of Tesla Companys electric vehicles. The companys Chief Executive Officer, Elon Musk had a dispute with the US government on electric car production.

The state is reported to have refused to open Tesla Companys electric vehicles manufacturing branch located in Fremont. For this reason, the companys boss has resorted to China as a significant investing location where the working environment is conducive (Donnan, 2020). The government offers favorable consumer incentives appealing to Elon Musk and the entire Tesla Company electric car manufacturers (Brown et al., 2010). Employment opportunities increase in China as a result of teamwork between Tesla Company and the Chinese government. The economy of this country is growing because of collaboration with electric vehicle producers.

Chinas more significant population is made of many potential customers having a great impact on electric vehicles demand and supply. Unlike China, the United States, and the United Kingdom, Japan still has a significant share of internal combustion engine vehicle manufacturing. The main reason for the delay in transition is their vast profits from sales of climate-friendly gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles.

Congo and the Electric Car Supply Chain

The Democratic Republic of Congo is known for cobalt mining, an essential mineral used in making electric car batteries. The most dramatic part of the Congo mining process is that people use their own hands to dig tunnels underground. The use of needles to dig tunnels is generally risky. The collapse of bright red earth soil is familiar in these places. Children as young as 17 years old are forced to search for cobalt to get a daily meal.

The living standards of miners are abysmal as they exchange cobalt for free food and accommodation to survive. Congo tends to fit the electric car supply chain paradigm through the contribution of raw materials for battery making. An increase in the supply of cobalt from Congo mines increases the competition in electric car manufacture. For this reason, many investors from China and South Korea have thought of investing in Congo, but because of the lack of proper infrastructure, they are scared.

Noteworthy, in the 2019 report, Tesla Company says it is aware of human rights violations in mining spots in DRC. Tesla promised to take care of the ethical side of cobalt mining by ensuring its suppliers adhere to OECD Guidelines (Tesla, 2019). The company checks the mining conditions of its suppliers from other regions. Moreover, Tesla asks its battery suppliers to audit their sub-suppliers to comply with the Guidelines.

Brown Coal Fire Station

The brown coal fire station has a different and unique way of solving the issue of climate change. Incorporation of CO2 catch and capacity (CCS) into existing and new coal terminated force stations is viewed as a method of essentially lessening the fossil fuel by-products from fixed sources. The extra energy used to catch the CO2 can be packed for transport and storage. The power station is empowered to build its energy effectiveness by utilizing poor quality warmth, giving less carbon escalation and conceivably lessening the expense of energy creation. The entire process helps to deal with the problem of climate change.

Compare and Contrast a Traditional Car Marker Mercedes

The safety and pricing of vehicles is an overwhelming issue as it is subject to fixed expense, economies of scale, and technology. Rivalry and shopper requests likewise assume a significant part in this. Right now, a considerable percentage of automobiles see value decrease as a decisive key move for endurance dissimilar to the conventional carmaker Mercedes which focuses mainly on safety. For value decrease, organizations need to take a series of choices at each phase of production and marketing, beginning from overseeing elements of production and inventory network to negotiating with vendors.

Recommendations

The use of electric vehicles has emerged as the most reliable solution to climate change. To maintain its market position, specific new changes and regulations need to be applied for market sustainability. Trade is one of those strategies that can boost electric vehicle efficiency, hence a sustainable solution to global warming and climate change in general. Different countries are leading in manufacturing electric vehicles compared to cars with internal combustion engines.

Electric Vehicles: The Role and Importance of Standards in an Emerging Market

Adoption of this strategy by nations helps in reducing carbon emissions to the atmosphere. The application of right and effective government incentives and regulations on emissions can help fight the issue of global warming. Another recommendation is on resources where a different government should invest in the production of electric vehicles. Investing in electric vehicle manufacturing is critical in tackling major climate change issues.

Governments should be ready to set aside funds to help in empowering members of the public about the use of electric vehicles and, at the same time, ensure improved dynamic infrastructural development to support electric cars in the country. It is good to have parking stations, charging stations, and enough security to facilitate the use of electric vehicles. The government needs to invest both in the entire stages of electric vehicle production and sell in the market. Selling involves establishing a favorable working environment with the right incentives and benefits for entrepreneurs. Through these various measures, a country can play a critical role in fighting the problem of global warming.

Conclusion

Reaching the goal of environmental sustainability can never be achieved by a single individual or a country. It requires a combined effort through collaborations and partnerships to solve climate change. For this reason, different countries come together through conventions and meetings to exchange ideas and make recommendations on climate change issues. Therefore, using Tesla company electric vehicles becomes the best decision for tackling climate changes major problem.

References

Brown, S., Pyke, D., & Steenhof, P. (2010). Electric vehicles: The role and importance of standards in an emerging market. Energy Policy, 38(7), 3797-3806.

Deloitte. (2017). New markers, new entrances, new challenges.

Donnan, S. (2020). Never mind Trump: on China, its Elon Musk you need to watch. Bloomberg.

Gianesello, P., Ivanov, D., & Battini, D. (2017). Closed-loop supply chain simulation with disruption considerations: A case-study on Tesla. International Journal of Inventory Research, 4(4), 257-280.

Günther, H. O., Kannegiesser, M., & Autenrieb, N. (2015). The role of electric vehicles for supply chain sustainability in the automotive industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 90, 220-233.

Lutsey, N., Grant, M., Wappelhorst, S., & Zhou, H. (2018). Power play: How governments are spurring the electric vehicle industry. [White Paper].

Tesla. (2018). Impact report.

Tesla. (2019). Impact report.

Tesla. (2021). Web.

Climate Change and International Trade

The relationship between climate change and international trade has been on a great verge of developing a new critical issue. This was so evident at the Conference of Parties (COP 17) Climate Conference that took place in Durban, South Africa; the November-December 2011 conference focussed on selected imperative issues that often arise when issues of international trade policies crisscross climate change facets (Ahmed n.pag). The two aspects have a connection that is developing rapidly.

However, the interface is not stated in the initial guidelines of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Undoubtedly, for successful implementation of climate change eradication programs, the WTO and GATT have to recognize the underlying issue that emanates between the two crescendos.

For instance, as a way of combating environmental degradation from a global perspective, international trade must deal with environmentally friendly commodities. This reveals a clear relation or line that exists between climate change and international trade.

At the COP 17 meeting in Durban, the WTO identified key measures that member nations should adopt in order to ensure the sustainability of the international trade. For sustainability to be a common denominator in international trade, to adopt environmentally friendly technologies, to practice climate protectionism, to adhere to unilateral trade measures, and to use biofuels become universal factors for all nations.

So related are the two aspects that all international summits or conferences have to discuss the modalities of ensuring the sustainability of world projects. The Kyoto Protocol, for instance, has numerous obligations to developed and developing nations to reduce their greenhouse gases emission levels (Trade and Climate Change par. 9). In the course of processing and manufacturing goods for exports, different nations create some impact on the environment.

Therefore, it is the responsibility of international and local trade organizations to design modalities, which will enhance business continuity. From this analogy, international trade and climate change have a clear interface that cultivates new international issues. Countries like South Africa, China, and Brazil have moved swiftly to support the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, as well as strengthen unilateral trade measures.

A key regional block, like the EU, formed majorly for trade issues, have embarked on an emission trading system, in which it buys carbon from developing nations. The move is interpreted as a protectionist measure by unindustrialised nations. The trading dilemma for developing countries has been the border measures, which may negatively affect their export sectors, especially the export attractiveness of their energy-exhaustive divisions (Low et al., par. 7).

To remove the discriminatory border measures, developing countries propose the use of ecologically pleasant technology transfer. India, for instance, has objected the Unilateral Trade Measures (UTMs), which developed nations adopted.

The country holds that UTMs are likely to be discriminatory restrictions on developing countries in engaging in international trade activities; the measures contravene the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities as encrypted in the provisions of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Ahmed n.pag). At the same time, the UTMs breach the WTO principles of non-discrimination, as well as obstructing the efforts of reinforcing multilateralism.

International trade has attracted the use of environmentally friendly technologies. For example, India had made a proposal for the formation of a global association of Climate Innovation Centres (CIC) to aid in developing, transferring, and deploying ecologically pleasant technologies for domestic and international use.

According to Carbon Trust and UNFCCC, CIC will enable developing nations to have the capacity to address the challenges of environment-friendly technologies, thus making its transfer more affordable (Low et al. par. 11).

As a way of supporting the conservation of the global environment, developed nations ought to assist unindustrialised states in adopting environmentally friendly approaches. Such support will increase the involvement of underdeveloped nations in international trade.

For instance, understanding the effects of climate change on agricultural trade and the use of biofuels is significant to least developed nations, as it helps in providing a common position to the changing multilateral trading arrangement. The graphs below are from the WTOs website; they indicate the changes in CO2 levels.

Trade and Climate Change
Trade and Climate Change par. 7

Works Cited

Ahmed, Faisal. The international trade climate change interface is emerging as a new issue. The Economic Times [New Delhi] 2012: n. pag. Web.

Low, Patrick, Gabrielle Marceau, and Julia Reinaud. The Interface between the Trade and Climate Change Regimes: Scoping the Issues. N.p., 2011. Web.

Trade and Climate Change. N.p., 2013. Web.

Global Climate and Computer Science

Introduction

Global climate can be referred to as the information of humidity, atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind, atmospheric particle count, rainfall and other meteorological elements in the world recorded over a long period of time (Thornthwaite, 1948). Biologists and astronauts have argued that climate change assumptions rather than facts, and computer modeling rather than real-world observations, underpin political attempts to combat climate change. Existing data recorded in the past, both ecological and geographical, indicate that climate change is an environmental, social and economic challenge on a global scale (IPCC, 2007).

Scientists who address the natural, economic, and sociological characteristics of climate change are mainly concerned about the direction or the timing of changes. In an attempt to discover the role technology can play in the research of climate change, several approaches have been recommended by the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). One of the greatest challenges that the computer scientists are facing is coming up with technological solutions to climate change. The risks and vulnerability of developing countries (especially in Africa) by uncertain and complex climate change disasters is largely attributed to lack of modern equipment and human resource.

Case analysis

The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (2007) revealed that the global average surface air temperature has increased considerably since 1970. It is estimated that the change in the normal temperature, of the Earth’s surface is mainly based on measurement from thousands of weather stations, ships and buoys around the world, as well as from satellites. The amount of rainfall across the globe is not distributed evenly.

The normal distribution of rainfall across regions is primarily influenced by atmospheric circulation patterns, the availability of moisture, and surface terrain effects. Various researchers have argued that the several elements of climate have been exacerbated by human induced actions such as: the widespread use of land, the broad scale deforestation, the major technological and socioeconomic shifts with reduced reliance on organic fuel, and accelerated uptake of fossil fuels.

Climate resilient development has received increasing recognition in the discourse of poverty and environmental problems. This was largely upheld by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which aims at stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (IPCC, 2007). The approaches that have been used in the past to tackle climate change have evolved over the past regimes from political science arena, to the conference of parties (COP) negotiations and finally targets and timetables approach. The most recent and innovative approach of use of technology was last considered during the Kyoto protocol.

Use of technology in addressing climate change will not only provide reliable information to all the stakeholders but also create early warning for vulnerability and conditions creating risks. By use of software and other equipment’s such as Geographic information systems, ERDAS Imagine, photogrammetry and seismogrammetry represents the power of computer science towards finding solutions to climate change. The availability of real-time and future information convinces that technology can indeed be used in analyzing the complexities and interdependencies of any one intervention required.

Conclusion

Modern technology can enhance proper adaptive capacity in combating to climate change. Use of modern equipment’s to detect the major elements of weather such as rainfall and temperature, will allow proper preparedness, planning and readiness to the possible impacts of climate change. However, technology can not operate in vacuum and this calls for clear policy guidelines to support and build the required framework for technological approach. Its is evident that technological approach paint the bigger picture of climate change and provide estimates for the likely consequences of different future scenarios of human development.

References

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Summary for Policy Makers, in Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, WHO/UNEP.

Thornthwaite, C. (1948), An Approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Review 38 (1): 55–94.

A Discussion on the Effects of Geography & Climate on Arab Seafaring

The assigned reading demonstrates how history is filled with various accounts of man’s conquest at the sea. Through the act of piercing together various evidentiary accounts dating back to prehistoric times, the reading brings into the limelight some of the factors that came into play to favor the development of sailing in the Arabian shores and beyond. The present paper relies on the reading to demonstrate how geography and climate favored the development of Arab seafaring.

In terms of geographical orientation, it can be argued that Arab seafaring benefited a great deal by virtue of the Arabian physical location at the crossroads of important commerce routes that not only necessitated oriental trade with the Mediterranean world but also ensured easy flow of goods via the Arabian Peninsula, the Gulf of Suez and the Persian Gulf.

It is clear from the reading that owing to its physical location at the epicenter of these natural waterways, that Arabian commerce with neighboring countries was invited to the west by the long shores of Northeast Africa and to the Northeast by the long shores of Iran.

Additionally, owing to its physical location, the Arab world was in direct contact with some of the most ancient centers of wealth and civilization, including Egypt, Iran, and Mesopotamia, implying that more commerce passed its way as goods were being transported from these centers to far away countries such as China and India.

Wares from China and India also passed through the Arab world into these centers because Arabs had easy access to the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. The Arab world also benefitted substantially from the Red Sea, the Nile, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which were natural channels that could be used for through traffic of goods between the Mediterranean basin and Eastern Asia. These geographical factors favored the development and growth of Arab seafaring.

In terms of climate, it can be argued that Arab seafaring benefited a great deal from the monsoon winds, which, according to the reading, assisted voyages both to Africa and to India.

However, it should be noted that Arab ships could not stand the vigor of the southwest monsoon winds which started in July and terminated in October due to the fact that the boats were made of skins and hollowed coconut trunks, not mentioning that they were sewn with stitches of coconut fiber instead of being secured with large iron nails as was the case with Greek ships.

Additionally, it is imperative to mention that the Persian Gulf not only lacked craftsmen to build strong ships, but the area produced little suitable timber for shipbuilding, necessitating Arab seafarers to build their boats from coconut trunks that could easily fall apart in high seas.

Consequently, owing to the unstable shape of the Arab ships as explained above, the reading suggests that Arab seafarers used the northeast monsoon to sail to countries such as India as it was not as vigorous as the southwest monsoon.

All the same, it is evident that Arab seafarers benefitted a great deal from the monsoon winds as they later employed the services of the Phoenicians to build strong ships from timber fetched from Nineveh. These new ships could withstand the strong southwest monsoon winds to directly sail from Arabia to India and then return in winter using the northeast monsoon winds.

Kona Hawaii Coastline: Weather and Climate Patterns

Latitude

Kona Hawaii coastline has unique geological and geographical characteristics. The coastline lies along a latitude of 19° 38′ 54″ (19.648333°) north, and a longitude of 155° 59′ 53″ (155.998056°) west. Hawaii coastline has characteristic trade winds that blow from north east to the western side. During winter, these winds are prevalent in Hawaii than in other regions. During most of the ties, the ocean is warm and at the best condition for surfing (Hawaii Scuba Diving, 2011). The temperatures range from 23 to 26o C but are relatively high during summer, a time when they hit an average of 26o C.

Winds

The winds blowing along the coast are relatively moderate and this creates glassy water waves, which are conducive for surfing. The winds that reach the Hawai coastline originate from areas located far away from the beach. These winds generate powerful waves and storms. The coastline is also at risk of being hit by hurricanes, especially on June and towards the end of November. The hurricanes occur after the winds blow across the pacific from the west coast of Mexico (Air Ventures Hawaii, 2005). When a hurricane hits Hawaii, the winds usually blow at a speed of over 74 miles an hour.

Rainfall

Due to the cool breeze and the reasonably high temperatures, Hawaii provides a good station for studying sea climate. The region is the best area to measure geographical and climatic conditions, especially when analyzing the possibilities of a tsunami. The temperature of the mainland drops as one moves away from the seashore. The hot and moist winds blow from the sea to the mainland, and cool down upon reaching the mainland. These winds are responsible for the conventional rainfall that falls in this area. At the Kona coasts, the summer rainfall is relatively higher than that experienced during winter. This is because of the diurnal wind regime that causes irregular weather patterns, which result into unexpected rainfall.

Sea and Land Breeze

In Kona, there are well-developed sea and land breezes, which are responsible for the relatively high rainfall all year through. The sea breeze is characterized by winds that blow from the sea towards the land. Due to the temperature differences, cool air from the sea rises and moves towards the mainland, which is often at a higher temperature. This cycle causes rainfall through uptake of moisture. However, cumulus clouds are mostly created by sea breezes, and they normally vanish at night.

A land breeze is experienced in situations where the sea is at a higher temperature than the land. During this time, winds flow from the land to the sea (Hawaii Style Organization, 2011). If moisture is collected by the blowing winds, this region stands high chances of experiencing rainfall. Kona has relatively balanced land and sea breezes, which enable the area to have a favorable climate and experience rain throughout the year. During summer, winds blow from the mainland to the sea as it starts to cool down. The land breezes are therefore the winds responsible for rainfall that occurs during summer and this makes Hawaii a favorable destination.

The Kona coastline is the perfect place to engage in sea sports like surfing because of its relatively humid condition and high temperatures, which give rise to sea and land breezes. Its unique winds see the coastline receive more rains in summer than in winter. These unique characteristics are important in understanding the geological and geographical identities of the region.

References

Air Ventures Hawaii. (2005). Hawaii weather is dynamic. Web.

Hawaii Scuba Diving. (2011). Hawaiian weather & climate. Web.

Hawaii Style Organization. (2011). . Web.

Abu Dhabi Climate, Water Usage and Food Production

Problem definition

Agriculture is an essential aspect of human survival in the world, as it is a source of food and income. In the UAE, agriculture is highly recognized as part of people’s culture. It is obvious that farming needs a lot of labor, energy, land, and water. Most of these requirements are in short supply in the UAE; for instance, water is scarce due to the fact that the UAE is usually arid, while arable land is limited to a small fraction of total surface area. It is, therefore, very important to diversify to alternative means that would help to economically sustain the needs of people effectively and efficiently.

The climate in the UAE

Summer temperatures in the UAE are usually very high due to the vast arid region and the fact that the area is covered by 80% of the desert. In addition, the coastal area of the UAE is characterized by warm temperatures and humidity, which have attracted a large part of the population. For example, during summer, temperatures go up to 46 degrees Celsius, and this combines with 100 percent humidity. However, winter becomes more favorable, with temperatures going as low as 13 to 23 degrees Celsius. Interior desert regions register up to 50 degrees Celsius, although sometimes it may go to as low as 4 degrees Celsius. This is a clear indication that the interior deserts experiment with the coolest winters as well as the hottest summers.

Average maximum and minimum air temperature by month and region 2012.
Figure: Average maximum and minimum air temperature by month and region 2012 (SCAD, 2012).

In the southern part of the desert, Liwa, agricultural activities are very limited, since annual rainfall received is about 40% mm; this cannot sustain agricultural activities. Generally, the region loses a lot of water through evaporation despite experiencing some rains, which average at approximately 78 mm annually. However, it is the opposite of the northeastern mountains, which received 160mm of rainfall annually. During the winter period, the UAE receives a big percentage of rainfall annually, accounting for over 80 percent, and this is normally between December and March. Spring seasons are also experienced in the UAE, which is generally characterized by rainfall that is not continuous and, at some point, accompanied by isolated thunderstorms. This is a season that takes place between April and May. The inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts on rare occasions, resulting in rainfall in the northeastern part of Emirates.

Average Rainfall by Month and Region, 2012
Figure: Average Rainfall by Month and Region, 2012 (SCAD, 2012).

Challenges of Water Usage in the UAE

In the UAE, there is a major challenge in the availability of sufficient water in all emirates. There are two major sources that the region relies upon in order to support agricultural, domestic, and industrial consumption of water. The first source is the desalinated water, which comes from the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Gulf, and the second source is the groundwater. Two-thirds of water supply in the UAE is from the ground while the remainder comes from the desalinated water plant. Renewable freshwater supply in the UAE is known to be among the lowest globally; this contrasts with its lofty per capita consumption, thus raising several concerns on sustainable usage of water. Some of these challenges include:

Increased food production with rapid population growth

Most of the land in the UAE lies in the desert, making the country to rely mostly on imported food in order to meet its population’s demand. Therefore, the UAE has been spending a lot of its foreign earnings on importing food for domestic consumption. For instance, in the 1990s, the country is claimed to have been importing up to 70% of its food requirements. More people have, however, ventured into farming after the government also realized that providing incentives to farmers would help increase food production in the country.

This has significantly assisted the government in cutting down its expenditure on food imports, as it can now rely on locally produced foods mainly in Abu Dhabi, such as tomatoes, wheat, and eggplant vegetables, to meet the daily needs of Abu Dhabi and the country’s population. Indeed, the aggressiveness of the government in boosting agriculture has enhanced food security in the UAE.

Historical developments in the total area of plant holdings, 1986 to 2012.
Figure: Historical developments in the total area of plant holdings, 1986 to 2012 (SCAD, 2012)

There is a sharp increase in the number of people who inhabit the country, with Abu Dhabi recoding among the highest rates due to its recent growth economically. The effect of this is the increased demand for freshwater, which is actually insufficient.

According to the 203 census results, the population of the UAE has increase previously, and it is expected to reach 10.6 M by 2030. This shows clearly that the consumption of water will go up, thus putting more pressure on the government to provide an alternative source of water. It is important to come up with an urgent strategy for water supply in the UAE as well as ways of publicizing reasonable means of consuming water. If this is not considered immediately, the problem of water shortage will reach drastic proportions in the near future. In order to evaluate this issue effectively, changes in the population of emirates will have to be considered, including analyzing future growth assumptions.

Table 1: Population and GDP in UAE: 1990–2030 (Supposition) (Countrylicious).

Year Population GDP
1990 1,806,000.00 94,000,000,000
2005 4,149,000.00 148,000,000,000
2010 8,442,000.00 271,200,000,000
2015 9,077,000.00 360,000,000,000
2020 9,575,000.00 420,000,000,000
2025 9,917,000.00 420,000,000,000
2030 10,167,000.00 470,000,000,000

According to Countrylicious data, the population and GDP of the UAE are growing rapidly, with a 12 percent increase expected by the year 2030. This, therefore, gives a reason to suggest that population growth is going to severely affect water supply in the UAE. However, this might be made even and relatively stable by rapid growth in the economy, thus allowing for the choice of rather costly, yet efficient water supply technologies. Abu Dhabi city is experiencing the same challenge based on water and population demand growth.

Inefficiency in the Traditional Irrigation Methods

There is a lot of wastage that has been contributed by methods used in irrigating lands, which are inefficient. Some of these methods include the sprinkler irrigation system, which normally sprays water over a certain area of crops. Wastage is also reported where water falls on areas that contain no crops. Moreover, hot climate during summers exacerbates the situation, since the sprinkled water is lost via evaporation before being utilized by crops. This therefore, culminates into a cycle of wastage and scarcity.

All in all, Abu Dhabi environment is one of the harshest in the gulf region, with temperatures fluctuating from extremely high and extremely low due to desert that covers a large area of the UAE. The effect of these unfavorable weather conditions is scarcity of water for both commercial and domestic use. However, Abu Dhabi has managed to utilize the little water available and use some parts of arid land for productive agriculture that has enhanced food security in the emirate.

Carbon Cycle and Climate History of the Earth

Introduction

Carbon is one of the most important elements and it is a major constituent of life on Earth. This element is the primary chemical constituent of most living matter and it is found in large proportions on our planet. At any given time, carbon is stored in various reservoirs on the planet. Some of the major global reservoirs that store carbon include organic compounds, atmospheric carbon dioxide, the soil, rocks, and the ocean.

Carbon does not stay in any of these reservoirs permanently and it moves between the various stores in the process referred to as the carbon cycle. Over a time scale that extends to thousands of years, the atmosphere, land, and oceans exchange huge quantities of carbon through biological, physical, and chemical means. An understanding of the carbon cycle will assist in the understanding of the Earth’s climatic history. This paper will discuss the carbon cycle, which is the continuous movement of carbon atoms through different paths, with a focus on the two major divisions of the process and the human impact on the carbon cycle.

Defining the Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the process through which carbon moves between the different carbon reservoirs. These reservoirs exist in land and water-based systems. Arwyn and Broll (2012) reveal that through its many forms, carbon can move between the “atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere” (p.119). The land surface, soil, the atmosphere, water bodies, and vegetation all act as carbon stores. Each of these carbon stores can be regarded as a sink and a source.

The storage pools are considered sinks since they can take the carbon from the atmosphere and hold it (Folger, 2009). The storage pools are also considered carbon sources since they release carbon into the atmosphere through various chemical processes.

Arwyn and Broll (2012) note that the carbon cycle is the natural process through which carbon atoms are recycled. For example, the same carbon atoms produced from burning wood many years ago could become a part of a plant through photosynthesis and later became a part of a human being who consumes the plant. The carbon cycle is responsible for keeping the Earth in a stable climatic state. The carbon exchange between the various sources and skins ensures that the carbon contained in the atmosphere is at a healthy level. The carbon cycle can be divided into biological and geological cycles.

The Biological Carbon Cycle

This is the circulation of carbon between land-based and water-based systems. These systems comprise “the ocean, the atmosphere, the soil, and the biosphere” (Levin, 2009, p.43). This is collectively referred to as the surface reservoirs and the rocks are not involved. This fast carbon cycle is dependent on the biologically catalyzed reduction of inorganic carbon to form organic matter. Levin (2009) reveals that most of this carbon is reconverted to inorganic carbon through respiratory metabolism. The biological carbon cycle takes a relatively short duration of time compared to the geological carbon cycle. The movement of carbon from different pathways can take place within a few days or millennia.

In the carbon exchange between the land and the atmosphere, the photosynthesis process plays a crucial role. This chemical process is responsible for absorbing carbon from the atmosphere and converting it into energy, which is used by the plant to grow. About half of the organic material produced using photosynthesis is returned to the atmosphere through respiration (Prentice, 2001). The remainder is stored in the soil through the accumulation of dead debris. The dead debris is engaged by microbes in the soil to produce carbon dioxide, which is released back into the atmosphere.

The most significant regulator of carbon in the atmosphere in the biological carbon cycle is the Ocean. While the land-based exchange has the shortest-term effect, with the effect of the carbon exchange being felt within months or decades, the ocean has the largest effects on the longer timescale of several decades to a millennium (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014). Carbon flows between the ocean and the atmosphere through various mechanisms.

Photosynthesis occurs when light reacts with the phytoplankton in the ocean. The ocean might release carbon into the environment when the organisms with calcium carbonate shells die and their shells dissolve and released as carbon dioxide. Carbon is absorbed faster at greater depths of the ocean since the lower temperatures and higher pressures at these depths increase the solubility of carbon dioxide.

Geological Carbon Cycle

This carbon cycle is referred to as the “Slow carbon cycle” since it operates on multi-million-year time scales. Geological forces that have existed since the formation of the Earth produced carbonic acid, which breaks down producing water and carbon dioxide and then reconstitutes itself until an equilibrium is reached (Levin, 2009). Carbon can move between the solid and the ocean and atmosphere in this process. When rocks breakdown through weathering, they take CO2 from the atmosphere as this cash reacts with the surface water and the carbonate minerals that are contained in the rocks (Prentice, 2001).

This leads to the formation of calcium, magnesium, and silica. Erosion can transport these carbonates to rivers and eventually to the ocean. Once in the ocean, the carbonates precipitate to opal in the shells of microscopic plants. When these plants die, their shells (which contain carbon) collect at the floor of the ocean, and over time, they create limestone, which accumulates in layers forming rocks. Mathez (2013) reveals that the rocks may be buried to depths of thousands of meters over millions of years.

The pressure of the deep Earth causes the carbonate to break down giving up carbon dioxide that slowly seeps out of the crust and back into the atmosphere. The rocks may also be dragged to the Earth’s mantle where the heat causes the carbonates to break down and find its way to the surface as gas from erupting volcanoes.

The rocks serve as huge carbon reservoirs and they hold significantly more carbon compared to that contained by surface reservoirs such as the atmosphere, soil, and the ocean. Mathez (2013) states that the overwhelming majority of carbon on Earth is contained in the relatively immobile pool in the form of carbonate rocks. The long-term carbon cycle is therefore responsible for maintaining the conditions on Earth’s surface conducive to the evolution and survival of life.

Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is a natural process that has been occurring at a relatively uniform rate for thousands of years. However, human activities have had some impact on the carbon cycle. Folger (2009) revels that human industrial activities, which began in the 17th century, have added carbon to the atmosphere at a faster rate than the oceans, soil, and vegetation can remove it. At present, the available sinks can absorb the carbon dioxide emitted from human activity in an adequate manner.

The ocean has played a significant role in taking up the carbon generated by human activities. Mathez (2013) reports that over the past 3 decades, the ocean has successfully taken about one-third of all the carbon produced by fossil-fuel burning and it is predicted that 90% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide will eventually end up in the ocean.

However, as the various sinks accumulate more carbon, their capacity to act as sinks as well as the rate of absorption will change and this will alter the balance in the carbon cycle. Scientists predict that this might have a catastrophic effect on the Earth. Mathez (2013) warns that the carbon pathway is being altered and interfered with by the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. While scientists have gained an understanding of how the carbon cycle operates, there are still numerous unknowns about the process. This has led to uncertainty about the impact that the growing levels of carbon emissions dumped into the atmosphere by humans each year will have on the carbon cycle.

Conclusion

This paper set out to discuss the carbon cycle, which is the process by which carbon moves through the Earth system. It began by affirming the importance of the carbon element in life on Earth. It then defined the carbon cycle as the process through which carbon moves between the different reservoirs in the land and water systems. The cycle can be divided into the geological and biological carbon cycle. The geological cycle can take up to millions of years to release or take in carbon while the biological cycle can take as little as months. The impact of human activities on the carbon cycle has also been discussed.

References

Arwyn, J., & Broll, G. (2012). Soil Atlas of the Northern Circumpolar region. Berlin: Office for Official Publications of the European Union.

Folger, P. (2009). The carbon cycle: Implications for climate change and congress. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Levin, S.A. (2009). The Princeton Guide to Ecology. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Mathez, E.A. (2013). Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future. NY: Columbia University Press.

Prentice, I.C. (2001). The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The Climate in New York, Miami and Chicago

Analyzing the Weather

Table 1. New York, Miami, and Chicago: High Temperature.
Table 2. New York, Miami, and Chicago: Low Temperature.
Table 3. New York, Miami, and Chicago: Temperature Range.

In order to demonstrate the entire palette of North American climate, the cities such as New York, Chicago, and Florida were chosen for this assignment. Since each represents a unique climate type, the analysis of their weather and the changes in it have provided good insight into the specifics of local environments. Although these locations are not enough to embrace the entirety of the varied American climate, they offer unique characteristics of the target settings, such as the proximity to the ocean, the propensity toward rapid changes in air pressure and the subsequent probability of cyclones, and similar properties of the target areas.

The climate in the selected location can be described as continental. The precipitation rates are quite high in New York, which makes the weather rather humid. As a result, the climate of New York is humid continental. By definition, the described type of climate implies noticeable temperature contrasts between seasons, with clear distinctions between summer and winter, as well as spring and autumn (National Climatic Data Center). However, it is noteworthy that a substantial part of New York is located in the climate zone described as humid subtropical (National Climatic Data Center). Therefore, the types of climate vary even across the state, causing the weather to fluctuate between continental and tropical.

The peaks and valleys observed in the temperature changes within Chicago area, in turn, can be explained by the fact that, unlike New York, Chicago is located quite far from the ocean. As a result, New York City is characterized by rather low changes in its annual temperature and, as a result, cool summers and mild winters. The temperature in the U.S. areas that are close to the middle of the continent, in turn, are less stable, with higher levels of thermal amplitude observed in different seasons (Tewari et al. 11). Florida, in turn, also has a very varied climate and massive differences in its temperature rates. (Wahl and Chambers 1248).

The described climate changes may also be attributed to comparatively low altitude of 6 feet. Compared to the 33 feet of New York, the specified difference might seem as minor, yet the latitude differences define the gap in the climate of the two states. In turn, the elevation of Chicago, which rises 593 feet above the sea level, is drastically higher than Florida or New York. The specified altitude partially explains the cold, harsh weather of Chicago (Jandaghian and Akbari 19).

Although testing the difference in the weather types of the cities in question would also deliver similar results in any other season, spring does not seem to be the most suitable time to test the changes in question. Namely, during spring, the drastic differences in hot and cold weather observed in humid continental climate is not as evident as it might be otherwise. However, spring is best for exploring the unique properties of the tropical continental climate, which implies multiple typhoons and rather windy weather conditions (Jandaghian and Akbari 19).

Local Geography

Area Code Analysis

The rea selected for this analysis is New York City, which means that the corresponding area code is 718 (North American Numbering Plan Administrator). Although the density of New York population varies form, one part of the city to another, the general density is quite high, currently sitting at the 27,000 people per m2 mark (Department of City Planning). However, even with the fluctuations in the density levels, the specified number places New York among the cities with the highest population density rate in the U.S. (Department of City Planning). Therefore, New York City can be considered rather densely populated (Boehm 102).

Indeed, looking at the map provided by the North American Numbering Plan Administrator (NANPA), one will realize that the city is quite populated, with most area codes being urban and not rural (Department of City Planning). Since rural places are known for being rather spacious, with fewer households and larger unpopulated areas, the lack thereof is a clear sign of a rise in population density, as the situation in New York City illustrates.

Businesses with Cardinal Directions in Their Name

Currently, there are 52 business directions with any of one of the four key directions in their name. In the course of the search, not only the companies that contained a standalone direction in their title but also the organizations that had the direction as a part of the compound noun were considered. It is quite curious that the East and West directions have proven to be the most frequently used, each constituting a part of 15 corresponding titles. However, the South direction came as a close second, forming 14 business names. In turn, the South direction turned out to be the least common one, being a part of only 9 entries.

The specified information indicates that most businesses tend to name themselves mostly either as a part of the West Side or the East Side of New York (New York Chamber of Commerce). In turn, the North direction is typically used to point out that New York is a northern state. Apparently, for the same reason, the “South” element of a toponym is typically avoided unless absolutely necessary.

Table 4. New York: Businesses with Cardinal Directions.

# North South East West
1 American Cancer Society, Inc. Northeast Region Capri Southampton Hotel American Cancer Society, Inc. Northeast Region 3 West Club
2 Canossa North America, Inc. Fairfield Inn & SpringHill Suites New York Manhattan/Times Square South. East 40th Podiatry College of Westchester
3 Moberg Pharma North America LLC Hilton Garden Inn New York Central Park South East CK Trading Courtyard New York Midtown West.
4 North American Chilean Chamber Moe’s Southwest Grill East River BioSolutions, Inc. Element New York Times Square West
5 NorthEast Community Bank Park South Hotel East Wind Long Island Key West Marriott Beachside Hotel
6 Northern Business Intelligence South Bronx Job Corps Even Hotel Midtown East LJ West Diamonds Inc.
7 NorthStar Technologies Inc. South Bronx Overall Economic Development Corp. Fairfield Inn Downtown East Massage Envy Spa Midtown West
8 Northwell Health The South African Consulate General Fusion East Caribbean and Soul Food Restaurant Moe’s Southwest Grill
9 NSOS INC. / DBA: NORTH SHORE OFFICE SUPPLIES TRYP Times Square South Hotel Jewels of the East Spear Physical Therapy – Upper West Side – W. 67th Street
10 SERVPRO of Northeast Bronx Midtown East Family Medicine PLLC Spear Physical Therapy – Upper West Side – W. 75th Street
11 Sicis North America, Inc. NorthEast Community Bank The Westminster Kennel Club
12 TrueNorth Financial Solutions Servpro of Long Island City, Lower East Side/Downtown Manhattan The Westport Inn
13 Union North America SERVPRO of Northeast Bronx Western Pest Service
14 Sheraton LaGuardia East Westside YMCA
15 Spear Physical Therapy – Upper East Side – E. 84th Street Westwide Rifle Pistol Range

Ethnic Restaurants: Analysis

Representing a wide variety of cultures and ethnicities, New York City has quite a lot of ethnic restaurants. According to the New York Chamber of Commerce, New York restaurants are represented by traditional North American, French, Mexican, Italian, Caribbean, and Asian cuisine. The specified list provides a rather clear idea of what ethnic groups currently populate the city. Namely, New York is inhabited by African American, European American, Latin American, Asian, Turkish, French, and Italian groups (New York Chamber of Commerce). Though the accurate number of each restaurant is quite difficult to identity, roughly 5-7 of each are listed in the directory. Personally, I prefer to go to different restaurants depending on how I feel and what kind of experiences I want to have. So far, I have visited about 18 New York restaurants.

Ethnic Neighborhoods within the Community

The New York community is represented by a plethora of diverse ethnic neighborhoods. By plotting some of the restaurants mentioned above on the map of New York, one will identify an approximate location of some of the most populous ethnic communities within the city. For example, the Roti Modern Mediterranean restaurant, which was one of the entries in the previous tasks, is surrounded by Locanda Verde, Piccola Cucina, and Dante NYC, which outline the Italian district of New York City. Namely, the specified restaurants circle the Little Italy area, outlining its ethnic characteristics quite clearly (see Fig. 1).

The same can be said about the Asian neighborhoods, namely, Chinatown and some areas of Flushing. Overall, despite the presence of certain boundaries between different neighborhoods, New York City seems to be extraordinarily diverse, with the key elements of major cultures being represented in it.

Figure 1. Restaurants in NYC (image retrieved from Google Maps).

Works Cited

Boehm, Richard G. Geography: The Human and Physical World. McGraw Hill Education, 2018.

Department of City Planning. . 1.NYC. n.d.. Web.

Jandaghian, Zahra, and Hashem Akbari. “The Effect of Increasing Surface Albedo on Urban Climate and Air Quality: A Detailed Study for Sacramento, Houston, and Chicago.” Climate, vol. 6, no. 2, 2018, p. 19.

National Climatic Data Center. Climate of New York, NCDC. NoAA. Web.

New York Chamber of Commerce. Chamber Member Business Directory, ManhattanCC. n.d. Web.

North American Numbering Plan Administrator. . NationalNANPA. n.d. Web.

Tewari, Mukul, et al. “Interaction of Urban Heat Islands and Heat Waves under Current and Future Climate Conditions and Their Mitigation Using Green and Cool Roofs in New York City and Phoenix, Arizona.” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 14, no. 3, 2019, pp. 1-16.

Wahl, Thomas, and Don P. Chambers. “Climate Controls Multidecadal Variability in US Extreme Sea Level Records.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, vol. 121, no. 2, 2016, pp. 1274-1290.