Category: Climate

This report illustrates the significant contributions to the issue of environmental protection, which are provided by the global non-profit organization, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES). The union targets the questions of climate pollution and develops some consistent informative and technical strategies, which aims at the improvement of environmental safety quality. The organization reveals its activities on multiple levels. Specifically, it treats the climate protection operation on the regional, local, individual, and global scales.

The primary mission of the organization is directed to the creation of an economically effective market system, which would promote nature-friendly solutions. The policy of market mechanism, which is offered by the C2ES underlines that multiple emissions, which are released by modern industries throughout the world, constitute a danger to the global economy since the eradication of their consequences may be quite costly. Specifically, the statement regards the damaging effects of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and suggests that the world manufacturers have to follow the market system of GHG allocations decrease, which has lately been introduced in several states of the USA.

The representatives of the organization often claim that gas emissions, as well as other types of environment pollution, inflict equal financial hardness on all the citizens of a specific particular. Moreover, the crisis of GHG release possesses some subsidiary ecology implications, which hinder the development of anti-pollution strategies. These are such consequences as sea level growth, biodiversity loss, and weather changeability (Market mechanisms: Understanding the options 2015).

The C2ES organization gives a preference to the market-based strategies of environment protection over the customary power and control techniques. Thus, it offers a flexible system of industry control, according to which, every emission issue should be approached separately.

Except for developing some consistent planning of pollution reduction, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions investigates the alternative fuel sources as well as promotes the usage of ecology-friendly materials both in everyday life and manufacturing processes.

Primary Initiatives and Achievements of the Climate Organization

Throughout the history of its functioning, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions accomplished a wide range of ecology-friendly models and launched numerous climate projects, in cooperation with the leading environment protection organizations of the world. In this report, the principal initiatives of the C2ES are assessed.

Lately, the union initiated a global system of fuel energy efficiency that is based on the usage of the information and communication technologies usage. The project was devised by a joint group of several world platforms, which are CityMart, the United Nations Foundation, the UK Technology Board, and some others. The program was named SMART 2020 since it establishes long-term realization goals and predicts a full accommodation of the project until the year 2020. The system follows the famous pattern of social media connection. Thus, the experts claim that the usage of connecting to each other through the world web provides an excellent model of energy emissions control. Mainly, it is offered to link the major world machines so that they could exchange the information about the level of gas allocations. The technique assists in monitoring the amount of fuel expenditure, which provides a background for energy economy (The Climate Group 2015). The model has already gained a name of a Clean Revolution and is actively embraced by many world climate agencies.

The Clean Revolution campaign is not the only model of environmental protection, which was launched with reference to technology development. Due to the rapid growth of the Internet facilities, the organization aims to keep a pace with the progressive tendencies. In 2012, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions designated a new social media project in corroboration with Alcoa Foundation. The model was called Make an Impact and represented an interactive foundation of environmental education and awareness. The project mostly targeted the global corporations, which introduced their employees to the issues of ecology protection. Thus, the HR director of the famous company Fullerton, Darlene Bush, stated in her interview that Make an Impact website made a significant change to the workers’ understanding of climate concerns. In the course of following the Internet platform, the employees of the company were acquainted with the issues of carbon calculation and personal footprints. Since the management of the business was eager to support the interest of the staff as well as the values of the project, they initiated an ecology project according to which, every employee was supposed to leave his carbon footprint on the grounds of the corporation by planting a tree (Climate change 2012).

The Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFL) project represents a global initiative, which was introduced by the C2ES group in 2013. The organization managed to connect the major American stakeholders to the system of AFS deployment, which encourages the employment of ecology-friendly fuel for the automobiles. Since the innovation requires the additional resources testing, as well as license application, the C2ES organization brought the projection to the attention of the Washington State Legislature, which overtook the initiative and launched a program of financing the AFL (Alternative Fuel Vehicle Initiative 2013).

The C2ES union made a considerable contribution to the development of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. The document established a balance between the U.S. economy and ecology condition. Specifically, it targeted the green policies as well as emission control and allocated $787 billion for the embodiment of the environmental recovery in particular states of America. The Center for Climate and Energy Solutions provided a theoretical grounding for the policy implementation and conducted a distribution between the target investments, which had to be promoted by the new regulation. Mainly, the union made a decision on the energy and transportation renewal. Moreover, it estimated the amount of allocations that had to be directed to the emission monitoring, energy taxation, and environmental science. The innovation had some positive influence on the American community, for it stipulated the creation of diverse simulation models and energy programs (Abate & Kronk 2013).

The usage of natural gas in the U.S. industry serves as a substantial achievement of the C2ES union. The organization has first initiated the planning of natural gas employment since it was noticed that it can serve as a tool of GHG emissions decrease. The planning of the resource use was based on the research, which was launched by the organization. According to the outcomes of this examination, the realization of natural gas employment must be based on two critical steps. First, it is crucial to disclose the alternative sources of gas such as solar or wind power. Second, the experts have to find the ways, in which one could overtake the emissions that come from the burning of coal and natural gas so that to direct them to the underground space. Furthermore, the organization created a consistent planning, according to which the project can potentially be implemented in life. Due to this plan, the renovation has to start with the private houses, which employ a significant amount of power. Thus, it is recommended to substitute such electric devices as water heaters for the innovative natural gas appliances. Moreover, it is offered to introduce some new fuel cells that are powered by natural gas so that to turn waste heat into the new energy. The experts claim that education is a substantial part of renewal processes since the users of primary energy appliances are not entirely acquainted with the rules for natural gas employment. Besides, it is critical to show the society that a new type of energy possesses some substantial advantages so that to extend the areas of natural gas consumers throughout the world. Finally, the C2ES group offers to align the projection of the alternative energy use with the primary state and regional policies, which would create space for new fuel generation technologies.

Finally, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions launched a line of innovative plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), which rely on the power of natural gas. The projection was already implemented in the USA and some European countries. The estimations of the environmental reviews show that the usage of electric vehicles serves as a perfect method of imported oil employment. The active usage of such devices contributes to the greenhouse gas emissions decrease, air quality improvement, and combat of gas value (Plug-in electric vehicle dialogue 2015).

Employment of Science as a Tool for Environment Renovation

The inclusion of scientific techniques is a crucial factor, which underlines the principles of environmental protection modeling. Therefore, the C2ES group is actively using science for building its theories on climate and ecology. Specifically, the process includes several domains of scientific knowledge such as adaptation regulation and economic resilience.

Since the organization primarily deals with the issues of climate and energy law, the concept of adaptation is often regarded in the measurements. Due to the changeability of weather conditions, the citizens of various countries are always challenged by global temperatures impact. Thus, the C2ES should attend to the science of accommodation techniques so that to correlate the devised projects with the natural conditions. The approach includes measuring diverse ecological ratios such as water temperature, air pressure, and so on. These skills assist the representatives of the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions in compiling consistent planning of future innovations. It should be noted that an erroneous application of adaptation strategies may result in the ultimate failing of the project. Therefore, the scientific skills are of great value in this context.

The C2ES group is famous as a professional in the sphere of business analysis since its project always corresponds to the actual industrial tendencies. The skill accounts for the area of economy resilience. Thus, the organization specialists apply their scientific knowledge of economy calculations and apply them to the environmental models so that to match the projections to the real-life practices.

Therefore, one may conclude that climate regulations account for the full application of scientific skills since the area refers to the objective world experiences.

Conclusion: Summary of the C2ES Advocacy Positions

In this report, the primary strengths and specifications of the C2ES group were assessed. Specifically, the paper dwells on the mission statement of the union, which embraces environmental protection as the first priority. In the body of the work, the existent projects, which were realized by the organization, are described. Finally, we describe some specific scientific skills that are practiced by the members of the union so that to match the devised models to the real-life experience.

It may be deduced that the organization primarily targets the issues of harmful emissions eradication as well as an adequate substitution of poisonous gasses for natural fuel. The models of strategic implementation, which are offered by the C2ES organization, are characterized by scientific complexity and scrupulous elaboration. The experts claim that this factor accounts for the professionalism of the members, who manage to utilize the basic scientific measurements as well as ecology-related experience and turn them into the progressive models of environment treatment.

The second constituent of the C2ES’s success is its tight collaboration with the world leaders, which score high in the sphere of global ecology or have excellent recognition and substantial authority. Mainly, the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions cooperates with NASA the UN organization, etc. Such linkage helps the members of the union to bring its sound ideas to the target public. For instance, lately the group launched a joint project in collaboration with Alcoa Foundation. The model under the name Make an Impact was promoted by the latter among the leading business corporation, which introduced the project to the global industry.

Therefore, a successful staff deliberation, the sound principles, and winning strategies turn a climate foundation into the major player in the domain of world ecology.

Reference List

Abate, R & Kronk, E 2013, Climate change and indigenous peoples: The search for legal remedies, Edward Edgar Publishing, Camberley.

Alternative Fuel Vehicle Initiative 2013, Web.

Climate change 2012, Web.

Market mechanisms: Understanding the options 2015, Web.

Plug-in electric vehicle dialogue 2015, Web.

The Climate Group 2015, Web.

Introduction

While in reality, the existence of agglomerations near the shores of the sea or ocean bays seems most comfortable and attractive in environmental and climatic terms. Such life can be complicated by several negative factors related to the lack of local natural disaster management. To put it another way, densely populated locations with grandiose population density, additionally attracting tourist flows every year, have the potential to lead to emergencies with threats to the life and safety of the population. In this connection, an in-depth study of existing mechanisms of counteraction to coastal disasters provoked, among others, by abnormal climatic fluctuations is an expedient solution.

The central topic of this work is geographic-ecological research of the coastal zone of the USA, namely one of the most populated cities of the state, San Francisco, California. The population of this region, according to official data, exceeds 800,000 people, with the city being a traditional travel destination for citizens from around the world (Brinklow, 2017). However, the agglomeration’s climate is classically Mediterranean with warm winters and dry summers, the factors of global climate warming place San Francisco under numerous threats. This paper seeks to critically assess the problems associated with the chosen area, along with reflections on possible methods of controlling critical situations.

Geographic Features of the Region

San Francisco is located at the tip of the peninsula of the same name on North America’s west coast. It is noteworthy that although the total area of the city exceeds 600 square kilometers, of which about 120 is occupied by land, the boundaries of the territory are highly blurred along the Pacific Ocean coastline. In general, it is worth recognizing that of the four possible sides, San Francisco is surrounded by water from three: its land is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the bay of the same name.

In the context of lithospheric and landscape structure, it should be noted that the proximity to the ocean has made the city’s topography hilly and uneven. A closer examination of why the hills in San Francisco are so varied — there are more than forty in the region — reveals that near the geographic center of the city, there is a junction of two lithospheric plates, which find themselves in constant motion relative to each other (“Discover,” 2018). The collision and friction of such giant tectonic objects cause not only regular coastal earthquakes but also fracture formation.

The city’s urban landscape continues to change as the population expands, and the agglomeration becomes more attractive to residents. In particular, several new neighborhoods have been built using artificial infill water technology. Summers are quite warm, so locals prefer to spend time on the city beaches: broad sandy areas are significant for refreshment, as a cool breeze blows uninterruptedly from the Pacific Ocean.

Human Characteristics

San Francisco’s population continues to grow because of the region’s many spectacular advantages: climate, infrastructure, economic patterns, and culture. According to Brinklow (2017), the region’s population density is relatively high, at 7,120 people per square kilometer. Geographically, the city is developing, occupying new areas along the coast and creating artificial islands. Economically, the agglomeration continues to expand thanks to tourism, high-tech industries, and the financial sector.

Climatic Conditions

At just above sea level, San Francisco has a climate with characteristics similar to those of the Mediterranean. Local winters are much colder than summers, but temperatures rarely drop below seven °C, while summer temperatures are low, with temperatures in August and September hovering around 20-21°C (“Monthly,” 2020). The region has many different microclimates, but rainfall is generally infrequent, with most rainfall occurring between November and March. The number of rainy days annually fluctuates around the seventy-day mark. This was not always the case, though: for easy visualization of historical meteorological information, some of the most critical parameters over the past seventy years are presented in the table below (“San Francisco,” 2020; “Climate,” 2018). As it can be seen from the data, San Francisco has long been characterized by periodic fluctuations in climatic conditions.

Climate Disasters

It must be recognized that San Francisco’s main advantage, its proximity to the ocean line, is also an important problem for the city’s civil safety. Tectonic movements are natural causes of earthquakes, with one of the most significant occurring in 1906. At that time, the strike’s magnitude was 7.8, killing several thousand people and destroying about 80% of the buildings (Garr, 2016). Thus, earthquakes are frequent here, and there is more than a 50% chance of another major earthquake within the next thirty years (USDI, 2016). For instance, tectonic plate movements are known to cause shifts in ocean currents, which in turn cause climate change.

It is worth recognizing that tsunamis are not a frequent occurrence for San Francisco, but the last known episode occurred in 2011 due to a powerful earthquake in Japan (“How vulnerable,” 2019). At the time, the city’s infrastructure was damaged, highways flooded, and dozens of lives were lost.

Finally, severe storms formed over the ocean can cause significant flooding of areas. Landmark episodes have been seen in the city’s history: in 1986, a powerful storm dumped about 50 inches of rain in San Francisco (Barber, 2017). In 1996, warm rains caused hilly glaciers to melt, causing flooding on the city’s east side: rainfall levels then exceeded the 24-inch mark. Similar disasters were observed in 2005 and 2006 when uncontrolled rains flooded the city’s infrastructure.

The Possible Effect of a Warming Climate

There is no doubt that the planet is in an era of global climate warming, the effects of which will be noticeable in all areas of life. In San Francisco, as one of the coastal cities, the changes will be most noticeable. Climate change will intensify the frequency of flooding in the city as rainfall will naturally increase. The vulnerable resident population is projected to increase by 20 percent by 2050 (“California,” 2019).

In turn, rising water levels will intensify erosion and erosion of road surfaces, causing the destruction of residential riparian areas. This means that the city will gradually become more and more flooded, which means that we can expect it to disappear altogether in the future. It is fair to say, however, that the economic side of the agglomeration is also subject to severe risks. Because of the threat of sinking homes, the investment appeal of San Francisco is severely diminished, and consequently, less money is flowing into the region.

Responses

It would be a mistake to blame San Francisco authorities for inaction in fighting natural disasters since the relevant departments develop profile plans and conduct detailed analyses of changing climate conditions. Thus, by researching and predicting a potential problem in advance, SF DEM can implement the necessary solution to reduce an accident’s economic and material damages. However, if a problem has already occurred, the department launches an ambitious plan to evacuate the population, stop the cause of the biogenic disaster (if possible) and restore urban supplies. Specific policies include staged situation management, FEMA, combined with prioritizing recovery and support goals after a disaster, RSF (“Recovery,” 2018).

Moreover, SF DEM actively invests in developing natural disaster prevention and management programs, creating integrations with popular social resources (Fracassa, 2019). Thus, it is evident that the department not only maintains a rigorous organizational and preventive program to monitor and manage accidents but also an informational program to alert people.

However, it may seem that existing programs and technology do not maximize efficiency because San Francisco experiences the same power and water problems every time there is an earthquake, landslide, flood, or storm. Hence, some recommendations seem appropriate to put into practice for the city. First and foremost, it is worth building some visually appealing dams and reservoirs to deal with excess water during crises effectively. It is essential to ensure that the city has a ban on housing in vulnerable areas and existing settlements are moved outside the danger line. In addition, building levees along the shoreline will delay flooding in the city, as will widening and cleaning up existing rivers.

The broader and fuller the rivers are, the more likely they will carry more water in times of flooding. Finally, the construction of bypasses around the regions, as is typical of Venice, will allow excess water to drain away from the protected area and give the city’s architecture a fresh and natural feel.

References

Barber, M. (2017). 4 historic California storms that caused serious destruction. CurBed. Web.

Brinklow, A. (2017). Mapping what SF would be like if it were as dense as New York, Paris, and Manila. CurBed. Web.

California coastal flooding. (2019). States at Risk. Web.

Climate of San Francisco. (2018). GSWS. Web.

Discover the 7 hills of San Francisco. (2018). Stanford. Web.

Fracassa, D. (2019). SF planning big disaster-preparedness bond for next year’sm ballot. SFC. Web.

Garr, S. (2016). The 5 most horrific tragedies and natural disasters in San Francisco’s history. Only in Your State. Web.

How vulnerable is California to tsunamis? (2019). CBS8. Web.

Monthly weather forecast and climate San Francisco, CA. (2020). Weather Atlas. Web.

San Francisco, CA weather history. (2020). Weather Underground. Web.

Recovery plan. (2018). ONESF. Web.

USDI. (2016). Earthquake outlook for the San Francisco bay region 2014–2043. Web.

Problem Statement

Most cities in the US especially those in the North of the country continue to face complex environmental and development challenges. The rise in population of most of most countries in the world is harming both biological and natural resources.

The state of the world’s natural resource base is rapidly changing to become unproductive from what it used to be. The top productive soil is being carried by water and wind power and in the process is becoming weak and unproductive due to poor land management practices such as cutting down trees and overstocking.

The only solution left in the protection of the natural environment include; instituting, preserving and developing areas of conservation that will aim at preserving the natural diversity. This will only be possible if policies and legislation governing environmental and natural resources are put in place. The only earth’s natural resources remain in the areas that are reserved though they continue to shrink and lose their natural ecological perspective.

Susan page reported in the ‘US Today’ that in Washington – Pollution and other environmental problems have been shown as the major cause of the threat the world is facing, America especially the United States is to blame for these problems and should be responsible to respond to them (1). Forest cover in parts of US has reduced drastically due to the timber industry and development. Rising seas, longer and more intense heat, increasing storms and cyclones and forest fires are reported almost everyday in the US.

North America is acutely sensitive to water issues. Several states have lost as much as 25% of water resources from their lakes. The Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (IPCC), reports that water resources in the North are used heavily by industries, in agriculture, for domestic use and for hydro electric power (UNEP 1).

The state of ground water is poor and rainfall patterns are changing and becoming more erratic due to climate change. Locally, various water bodies like the Lakes and rivers have dried up due to interference with water catchment areas.

There has been reports of drop by up to 35% in the Edwards Aquifer in Texas while the water flow in Colorado and Columbia rivers is dwindling (UNEP 1). In this UNEP report, Mr. Achim Steiner who is the UNEP director laments that though the US and Canada have strong economic power, the impacts of this problem continue to face them just like the rest of the world.

In an interview over the phone with Mr. Raven who is plant biologist and a specialist in the field of forestry. Professor Raven is the manager of the Kew Botanical Garden and a Professor at one University in US .He revealed what many people take for granted.

He says that the world’s biodiversity is slowly being lost and that in 40 years time, most species that we see today will have been reduced by a half. He attributed this loss to the destruction of their natural homes. He cited that the effects of forest destruction on local climate were more serious than generally thought (World book par 4). Mr. Raven said that humans were destroying the habitats of plants and animals across the globe.

According to him, the world has no any unoccupied frontier left, every single inch of the earths surface is influenced by man’s activities and this is most clearly in tropical rain forests which contain an enormous diversity of life.

The world’s majority species liv in forests and if the trend of destroying their habitat continues, the future generations might not have anything for them left to see. He cites that the population in many of the states is growing so fast that people exploit the resources of the forest for settlement.

Today people are cutting down trees so fast that the impacts are felt almost immediately. Forests are known to regulate the world’s weather when they absorb rainfall; they also create rainfall and acts as a sink for green house gases. It has also been shown that forests absorb heat than do soils without vegetation. Mr. Raven also touched on the role of community based programs minimizing loss of forest cover.

He said that women groups and other stakeholders in the environmental sector should work to disseminate vital information on research findings, lessons, experiences and ideas regarding climate change and environmental conservation among researchers, educators, policy makers, and students.

They should also develop policy guidelines regarding research, innovation, development, and industrialization tailored towards curbing forest degradation. Community based groups could inspire and motivate crop of young people who understand environmental issues and are willing to take a leading role in conserving the environment.

An article posted on the web by Dr. Young show that most of the rain forests lie across the equator. Rain forests act as carbon sinks when they take up carbon released into the atmosphere by plants and give out oxygen which is utilized by plants.

There is usually high water level in the air and usually forested areas receive much rainfall than bare ground. it can be seen that cutting down trees will result into failure of absorption of CO₂ will in turn cause a heating up of the earths atmosphere causing global warming (Young par1)

Research has shown that cutting down trees is reducing the leaf surface available for evaporation and consequently the amount of rainfall.

The ground is rapidly drying up and plant life can no longer be supported. solar energy absorption is also being hampered because plants are shown to absorb shortwave bands of light which bare ground doesn’t. As a result, the waves are being reflected back causing reduced heat retention of the earth surface thus under cooling. The amount of rain received in different places on earth has been shown to be reducing.

Forests covered about 40 percent of the earth’s surface in 1940’s but has been reduced by indiscriminate clearing of forests to a mere 7%.

Community based forestry has the power to improve forest supervision in the common land. Unfortunately, the effortlessness with which interests of the logging business are able to disregard community decisions and illegally harvest timber remains disturbing. Illegal logging is highly destructive to community unity and institutions. Logging operations have compound implications with common property directors. Confrontation and complicity are apparent in the fight to protect forests.

Solution

An individual American citizen may wonder what role to play in the mitigation plan. In our own state, loggers continue to rape our forests as we watch. They cut trees without caring the consequences. A primary role of every like minded citizen of this great country, various stakeholders in the environmental sector such as government agencies, private institutions, NGOs, policy-makers and students from various institutions of higher learning across the state, should, without limitation;

1. Create awareness on the how forest destruction cause climate change and environmental degradation.
2. Discuss, share and understand the various effects of climate change and environmental degradation particularly in our state
3. Evaluate and assess the impacts of forest destruction on various sectors of the economy e.g. agriculture, natural and biological resources, energy, water and health countrywide.
4. Share new research findings, lessons, experiences and ideas concerning trees and their role in climate change mitigation thus help influence decisions.
5. Explore new opportunities and strengthen existing partnerships in research, education, training and development across our state and in the US at large
6. Model a crop of young people who understand environmental issues and inspire them to take a leading role in environmental conservation.
7. Review critical issues about water and water systems and the connection with forest cover.
8. Identify strategies of adapting to or mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.

Benefits

When many plants transpire, moisture is returned into the atmosphere in the process raising the relative humidity. Later when this moisture condenses rainfall is formed. Moisture also tend to lower the temperature of the surrounding air thus having a cooling effect. This cooling effect modifies the local climate (Mastrantonio and Francis par3).

In addition, forests refill the air by using co₂ and giving off o₂. Forests are also known to regulate the flow of rivers, slow the speed of raindrops and acts as water catchment areas. Cutting down trees causes faster run off thus causing soil erosion. Forests are also used for fuel wood and for herbal plants. The forest has also been shown to be a home to many millions of indigenous people

Conclusion

Every single American citizen should familiarize him/herself with the environmental issues. To lead an informed life, every citizen should strive to understand global ecology. Each one of us should make good decisions for oneself, your company, or your family. People should learn about the environment because this knowledge will inspire them to take necessary steps when confronted by an environmental issue.

Works Cited

Mastrantonio, J. Louise and Francis K. John. “A Student Guide to Tropical Forest Conservation.” USDA Forest Service International Programs, 2000. Web.

Page, Susan. “Poll: climate problem the biggest threat.” USA today. 2007. Web.

UNEP. “Climate Proofing North American Cities and Communities Key Challenge for 21st Century.” United Nations Environment Programme, 2007. Web.

World book. “Interview with Peter Raven.” World Book , 1999. Web.

Young, Donald. “How might rain forest destruction affect our weather?” Eden Communications, 2010. Web.

The impact of volcanism on the landscape appears to be underestimated. At first glance, it may seem relatively low, as it has direct influence only on the areas of volcanic activity. Volcanos exert a significant impact on the climate of the planet, but at the same time, they are not the only cause of the climate change.

Nowadays, over 80% of the Earth’s surface is of volcanic origin (United States Geological Survey, 2012, para. 1). The consequences of volcanic eruptions affect other areas far beyond the spots. Volcanic dust erupts on big heights and spreads for long distances by wind streams, dispersing among the troposphere and, consequently, preventing sun radiation rays from falling on the Earth surface. For example, the massive eruption of the Mount Tambora in 1815 in Indonesia resulted in abnormally low temperatures in Europe in 1816, which in scientific thought is called a Year Without Summer (Tully, 2006).

Over last 160 years, the climate was changed due to volcanic eruptions: for instance, global temperature decreased by 0.5-10C because of losses in sun heat. Radiation slackening caused by volcanic dust reaches the indices of 57-66% of the heat, which the area would have gained under normal circumstances. Moreover, volcanic dust is accumulated in the areas that are hundreds and thousands of miles from the eruption spot, which results into swarms of flora on mass areas (Rodo & Comin, 2003).

Considering the earlier examples of volcanism, one should note that tectonic activity formed Vaalbara, a supposed super-continent. The following seismic activity together with significant volcanic activity defined the landscape of the Earth. Cenozoic and the Quaternary periods are most notable for their considerable volcanic activity, which made a direct influence on the landscape, mineral resources and climate we face today (Kock, Evans, & Beukes, 2009). There are more than 10 thousands of volcanic islands only in the Pacific Ocean. Most known islands, which mainly or fully consist of the eruptive rock, are the Hawaii (the Pacific Ocean), the Ascension Island (Atlantic Ocean), the abovementioned Krakatau, Stromboli (the Tyrrhenian Sea) and others (Monroe & Wicander, 2001).

Different types of eruption cause unequal effects on the landscape. For instance, Icelandic eruption type volcanoes also help smooth landscapes: erupted lava flows into clefts and fissures, valleys and glades, filling them with hot magma. Other types, such as Strombolian, Vulcanian and Pelean eruptions reinforce uneven terrain; high accumulative cones formed in some cases (for example, on the east coast of Kamchatka) even ranges of mountains, consisting entirely of volcanic peaks. A volcano does not only build a cone but may also destroy it in subsequent eruptions. Volcanic mountains are a natural phenomenon, and their height can also change dramatically in a short time (Handbook of volcanic risk management, 2012).

In 1883, there was a catastrophic eruption of Krakatau in Indonesia, it destroyed a half of the island. Its area decreased from 13 square miles to nearly six square miles (Eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, 2005). New islands appear and disappear due to volcanic activity in many regions of the world, such as on the Aleutian Islands, the Azores and elsewhere; lava sometimes flows by block rivers, resulting in a formation of impounded lakes (Savino & Jones, 2007).

Thus, volcanic activity has an undeniable influence on the meteorological phenomena, the nature of the hydrographic network, on living organisms, not to mention the fact that, for example, the eruption of lava in Iceland leads to the melting of huge masses of ice and devastating floods, since many volcanoes in Iceland are in the same areas where the Icelandic glaciers. Powdery products of the eruptions, especially ashes, bury cities, fields, cover valleys, changing the entire look of the geographical landscape. No one should doubt that the greatest effect is observed in the areas of an immediate eruption.

In 1902, Mont Pele performed a dramatic eruption and destroyed the whole population of Saint Pierre and its neighborhood in several seconds. Before the Katmai volcano eruption in 1912 there was a broad wooded valley with a rather dissected landscape to the north-west to it. After the eruption, it was completely buried under volcanic sand and turned into a sloping plain with many fumaroles in it (Carazzo, Tait, Kaminski, & Gardner, 2012)

Volcanoes not only exert a significant impact on the landscape but also on other environmental aspects such as climate change. Scientists analyzed the past 2500 years and came to some very interesting conclusions. The first peculiar observation was that many cold periods were caused by high content of Sulfates in the atmosphere. These cause such effects as were observed during the Year Without Summer, referred to earlier in this paper: heat rays could not reach Earth, and so it lacked heat, which caused considerable lowering of the temperature. In the years of 526, 626 and 939 cold periods were recorded, caused by eruptions of tropical volcanoes, as well as by volcanoes in North America and Iceland (Volcanic eruptions that changed human history, 2015, para. 7). It should also be mentioned that volcanoes can also make a truly positive impact on the environment. There are many unique lakes, which were formed in the craters of former volcanoes, distinguishing by clear water and unique fauna

Volcanoes spew huge amounts of gases. Among others, such components prevail in the erupted gas: water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sometimes also hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, and, after eruption allocated sulfur gases (SO2, H2S). Furthermore, sometimes methane, ammonia and argon are present. Gases also transfer little parts of iron, copper, molybdenum, tin, nickel, zinc and other elements (Savino & Jones, 2007).At the same time, the produced carbon dioxide is extremely important for natural life. Some authors (Matthews, 2011) believe that life on the planet exists exceedingly owing to volcanic activity.

Even if it is false, its role is still considerable. Although statistical data differs a little, overall trend seems quite clear: the amount of CO2 increases drastically from year to year. Over the past 500 years, the volcanoes on Earth emitted over 70 cubic miles of powdery products and about 12 cubic miles of lava. Volcanoes emit from 65 to 319 million of metric tons per a year, whereas human activity causes a 29-30 billion tons per a year emission. This number is not final and is constantly growing (Volcanic gases and climate change overview, 2011).

To understand the scope of these disturbing figures one should refer to the nature of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is defined as “a natural phenomenon through which gases present in the atmosphere absorb heat, which lessens the amount of radiating heat that exists the earth’s atmosphere heating the Earth’s surface” (Rehkopf, 2011, p. 798). In other words, this phenomenon concludes in the temperature rise on the surface of the Earth to heating gases; some gases make atmosphere act as a glass of a greenhouse. Most often, the greenhouse effect is associated with global warming, neglecting other serious drawbacks of this phenomenon.

The most dangerous consequence of the greenhouse effect is the global warming, which leads to disruption of the thermal balance of the planet as a whole. This results in droughts, acid rains, winds, tornadoes, hurricanes and other natural disasters. It is most appropriate to speak, in this regard, about the intensification of tropical storms, expansion of arid areas and deserts, rapid glaciers melting, and others. Yields will drop drastically, inhabited areas will be flooded with water, many animals will not be able to adapt to rapidly changing conditions, sea level rise and change the overall water-salt balance (Rapp, 2014).

However, it is unreasonable to accuse volcanoes of causing the greenhouse effect. If we look at the chart provided by the US Environmental Protection Agency, it is clear, that humans are the primary driver for it, being responsible for at least 65% of all CO2 emission (The United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).

Volcanos are, thus, not the source of a considerable harm to the environment. This is primarily a man. To stop environmental destruction the humanity should reconsider and reduce consumption of fossil fuels, especially coal, oil and natural gas, use special filters and catalysts to remove all of the carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere, increase the energy efficiency of the thermal power plants due to the use of environmentally friendly hidden reserves, increase the use of the renewables, as well as stop the felling of green space and establish a purposeful planting and stop the overall pollution of the planet.

Works Cited

Carazzo, G., Tait, S., Kaminski, E., & Gardner, J. (2012). The recent plinian explosive activity of Mt. Pelée volcano (Lesser Antilles): The P1 AD 1300 eruption. Bulletin of Volcanology Bull Volcanol, 74(1), 2187-2203. Web.

Eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. (2005). Web.

Handbook of volcanic risk management. (2012). Web.

Kock, M., Evans, D., & Beukes, N. (2009). Validating the existence of Vaalbara in the Neoarchean. Precambrian Research, 174(1), 145-154. Web.

Matthews, J. (2011). Encyclopaedic dictionary of environmental change. London, UK: SAGE Publications. Web.

Monroe, J., & Wicander, R. (2001). The changing Earth: Exploring geology and evolution. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Web.

Rapp, D. (2014). Assessing climate change: Temperatures, solar radiation, and heat balance. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company. Web.

Rehkopf, L. (2011). Greenhouse effect. Environmental Encyclopedia, 4(1), 798-801. Web.

Rodo, X., & Comin, F. (2003). Global climate: Current research and uncertainties in the climate system. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. Web.

Savino, J., & Jones, M. (2007). Supervolcano: The catastrophic event that changed the course of human history (Could Yellowstone be next?). Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. Web.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Global greenhouse gas emissions data. Web.

Tully, A. (2006). Tambora, Indonesian volcano. Web.

United States Geological Survey. (n.d.). How much of the Earth is volcanic? Web.

Volcanic eruptions that changed human history. (2015). Web.

Volcanic gases and climate change overview. (2011). Web.

This Changes Everything: Capital vs. the Climate

“This Changes Everything: Capital vs. the Climate” is a book written by Naomi Klein and published in 2014 by Simon & Schuster Publishing. The book is considered to be a testament to movements against Global Warming. It offers great insights and well-supported analysis against deniers of climate changes, who are supported by corporations and industries that stand against anything that would diminish their profits. The book’s central motif is that to survive, humanity needs to reform from individualistic and towards the collective model – something that is fiercely opposed by the members of the industrial-capitalistic camp.

The first chapter of the book serves as an introduction to the subject. It begins by presenting the arguments and choice quotes of the deniers of global warming – something that sets the mood of the story and puts the reader on the right side – the side of the pro-science and pro-environment movement. The main idea set forth by Naomi Klein in this chapter is that the Environmental subject is being viewed as a battleground between the right-wing and left-wing political ideologies. She states that “For the left, Climate change is the perfect thing. It’s the reason why we should do everything [the left] wanted to do anyway.” This reasoning explains why the power-hoarders and factory owners are so adamantly against climate change policies – they see not only a threat to their profits, but their property as well, as socialism for them is associated with redistribution of wealth and power.

Some of the other ideas that are covered by the first chapter are how the corporations are stripping the world clean of resources, while simultaneously financing pseudo-scientific research to support their cause. They also provide a new worldview to their adepts and followers, slowly transforming individualistic ideas of capitalism into something more akin to national and even racial superiority – the strong eat the weak kind of mentality. This serves as preparation for future conflicts and wars for resources, which will happen between the rich and well-armed minority against the separated and poorer nations of the world.

The second chapter of the book focuses more on how attempts to find a compromise between environmentalism and capitalism essentially failed. The reason why these two concepts cannot coexist and are forced to remain separate and opposite one to another is simple – a serious environmental action demands cooperation, while capitalism is largely based on competition. Competition between companies and between nations as well. The competition involves the elimination of other competitors, whether through outmatching them or using lawsuits and other dirty tricks to get them off the track. This is seen in a series of lawsuits filed by numerous countries against one another’s sustainable energy projects. Naomi Klein calls these actions “bizarre,” stating that “rather than compete for the best, most effective supports for green energy, the biggest emitters in the world are rushing to the WTO to knock down each other’s windmills.”

Another idea pushed forward by Naomi Klein is that globalization aided global pollution rather than prevented it. Instead of uniting nations under the goal of saving Earth, globalization ended up paving the way for global multinational corporations to claim cheap labor markets. Some of the greatest “emitters” in the world are India and China, both are known for being used by Western powers as they outsource production base. Also, globalization allowed western mining and resource-extracting corporations access towards more rural regions of the Earth, where they can mine and extract without any care for potential damage they cause.

The chapter is finished with a utopian description of the environmentally-friendly economic model, which involves degrowth, luxury taxes to discourage needless consumption, the introduction of a base level of income, large investments into green technologies and energy-saving technology as part of the New World Order, described by several thinkers, academics, and journalists, such as Tim Jackson, Maccario, and Alyssa Battistoni. This model is called utopian not because it is impossible, however. Many utopian projects are doable in real life. The problem is with the current consumerist philosophy of the world – many people would not give up their creature comforts, even if it means saving the planet.

Moreover, those who hold power and influence will do everything to keep it that way

After reading these two chapters, it became obvious to me that Naomi Klein is a supporter of socialism and collectivism, at least when it comes to social and environmental policies. This is not a bad thing. Arguments and ideas she puts forth in these two chapters are backed by facts, are logical, and are hard to argue against. I agree with her assessment of the situation regarding saving the world from Global Warming and the ongoing energy and resource crisis. The world is not going to be pulled out of the crisis through the effort of any one company or any one nation. Human history shows time, and again that greatest victories and achievements were done together. The overarching thought that Naomi Klein seems to suggest throughout her book is that humanity will either stand together or will perish alone.

Introduction

Authored by Noah Smith, the article ‘Economists are out of Touch with Climate Change’ appeared in The Age Comment magazine in March 2016 as a wakeup call to climate economists to pull up their socks in terms of participating in the fight against climate change, including global warming. Smith’s core message is that climate change economists have been dormant to the level that their participation in addressing the crucial issue of climate change is not felt at all, despite the urgency of the matter and the need for policies that can address the situation.

My overall evaluation of the article is positive since it supports Smith’s sentiments that economists have to assume an active and constructive role in the debate about climate change by establishing the appropriate policies that countries can implement to curb the threatening impact that global warming is posing on the environment.

Analysis

It is almost impossible for the field of climate change, particularly global warming, to expect any fruitful contribution from economists if they continue to ignore the need for incorporating updated scientific facts in their views on climate change. Smith’s article shows how proper understanding of the trend in climatic changes and the impact that such changes have on the environment requires the input of various stakeholders.

These stakeholders include climate economists, climate scientists, and environmental agencies such as the UNEP among others. These parties have to work in collaboration to keep the issue of climate change in check. Smith reveals this missing gap between climate science and economics. According to him, economists have abandoned the significance of science in their analysis of climate change to the extent that they only include obsolete scientific facts that make no sense in the current debate about global warming. Smith substantiates this claim by revealing the first economics article that he read concerning global warming.

Despite the study providing a thorough analysis of global warming, it deployed an old-fashioned framework and shallow procedures that failed to consider other elements that could fuel the level of death such as the presence of floods. The implication here is that such an article could have been more useful when it comes to fighting global warming. However, Smith sees it as nothing but a mere composition that should only be read and dumped into the pit it adds no value to the field of climate change. According to Smith, the economist authors could have spared some time to research the discipline of science to update themselves on what science had confirmed about global warming.

The economics of climate is significant to people’s appreciation of how to tackle this complex matter excellently. In line with this claim, Smith reveals how economists can lead people ‘astray’ by providing climate change theories that are not at par with the situation on the ground. In other words, any theory has to be backed by up-to-date facts that have been confirmed scientifically. Smith reveals how most climate change publications from economists fail to cite natural science opinions.

One may want to know how useful scientific facts are when it comes to climate issues. The scientific view on climatic matters entails the general verdict among scientists concerning the degree at which global warming is taking place, including the underlying causes and the likely repercussions. Hence, the deliberate act of economists of ignoring the role of science in climate change shows the outdated nature of this class of people who have not yet recognized the evident positive relationship between economic trends and natural occurrences. Scientific facts have been made available for all disciplines to use as a way of substantiating their claims.

According to Smith, it is worrying that nothing much may be expected from economists, despite their central role of deliberating climate change courses of action. Economists are expected to classify, appraise, and/or communicate the repercussions of economic ambiguities and information gaps concerning climate change. However, the current state of economics publications remains a key challenge to other climate change stakeholders since the studies do not provide reliable and informative. Update economics records can offer a central discussion that reflects on the elementary economic matters that improve scientists’ appreciation of climate policies.

Evaluation

The author mainly argues that climatic economists have a noble role in contributing to the debate on climatic change in the public domain. However, such contribution is widely nonexistent. However, in establishing the relevance of these concerns, it is perhaps important to question whether climatic economists are concerned about climatic change. The author indicates that climatic economists are equally worried about the problem, just like anyone else.

If this claim holds, why then do they not participate in the debate? If they do, is their contribution relevant at all? These are the two main sub-arguments of the article. To support the main argument and sub-arguments the author deploys three important premises, which he attempts to support using appropriate evidence. He notes that climate change economists have been caught in the challenge of using backdated science. Besides ignoring all possible implications of climatic change, their studies have yielded inconsistent results.

Backdated science, the inconsistency of results of studies by climate economists, and ignorance of possible implications of climate change have the strength of helping to support the main argument abundantly. Any research discipline is relevant to the extent that the premise it advances reflects the actual concerns and merits or demerits of the situation under study. Therefore, the inconsistency of results of studies completed by climatic change economists is the most important strength of the author’s evidence that he offers for his arguments. However, arguing this way, a weakness emerges concerning the extent that he does not provide a set of statistics drawn for different studies that demonstrate the inconsistencies quantitatively. Therefore, his argument is not convincing enough.

Secondly, the author succeeds in demonstrating that climatic change economists have not provided any updated study with any reliable evidence supported by other science disciplines. Indeed, he supports this argument by quoting a case of a study in which climatic economists found no significant contributions of climatic change to the rising number of deaths attributed to the situation. As a potential weakness of the evidence in support of the main argument, it is possible to counter-argue that methodologies deployed in the study yielded the reported findings and that it could have been unethical to manipulate the study to suit climatic change concerns that arise from other studies in other disciplines. However, the author’s argument against the non-participation of climatic change economists in the debate on climatic change still holds substance.

The author notes that climatic economists have failed to embrace the role of natural science in helping to validate their discipline by quoting research in social and natural science, yet concerns about climatic economics depend on natural occurrences. This assertion creates a clear link between climatic change economics and natural science. To this extent, the author established a strong relationship between the two disciplines to the extent that it becomes hard to refute any claimed ignorance by climatic economists.

Indeed, while studying the impacts of climatic change on mortality rates, Deschenes and Greenstone failed to include disasters such as Hurricane Katrina and flooding in low lands as potential sources of mortality related to climatic change. Indeed, the author’s arguments are stronger upon considering the case in which Deschenes and Greenstone published a paper on the implication of climatic change on agriculture, yet they used outdated science. This observation indicates that climatic change economists lag in terms of information from other disciplines, which their studies should consider. Nevertheless, this argument has a weakness since Smith considers only two studies completed by the same researchers.

This case has the effect of weakening the argument that climatic change economists ignore knowledge and ideas that may help to support the discourse. Using two case examples is not enough to declare climate economists reluctant in their work. Based on my overall positive evaluation of the article, Smith urges climate change economists to address the matter by availing updated academic insights and experimental observations that apply to the study of climate change.

Conclusion

International climate change causes danger to the safety of humans and other organisms based on its impacts on the performance of the flora and fauna, biodiversity, asset efficiency, and health. The above article by Smith has opened a room for discussion concerning the laxity that has been witnessed in climate change economists. Such economists have failed to upgrade their work and knowledge to be at par with the current scientific studies. Despite the article’s strength of supporting the link between climate scientists and climate economists, Smith fails to substantiate his work by quoting various studies on the same topic and hence the article’s major weakness.

We are a young couple that lives and works in the UAE. We have a stable income that allows us to build wealth, and this is our goal: we intend to invest the money that would otherwise be wasted. Our risk tolerance is moderate: we realize that investment is associated with uncertainty, and we are willing to increase our wealth at a faster rate, but we are not ready to take high risks. We are going to make informed decisions, and we will expect about 5-6% annual income.

Our income is expected to rise; in particular, the husband has remarkable career growth perspectives. We are willing to invest the saved sum of 22,000 AED. Apart from that, taking into account all the expenses (that admittedly include unnecessary ones), we are currently willing to invest from 1,000 to 2,000 AED every month. We realize that our economic position can change, but as it has been pointed out, part of our expenses are not a necessity and can be reduced.

According to the UN, the current economic situation in the world can be described as a sluggish recovery from the recession of 2008-2009; besides, the current geopolitical tensions are not favorable for the restoration of the global economy (“World Economic Situation and Prospects 2015” 1-10). For oil-exporting countries, the plunge in the oil prices can be described as a catastrophe, but the situation of the UAE is different (Hanware par. 7-12). The government of the UAE has been diversifying the economy of the country, and as a result, only a quarter of its GDP now depends on the oil export (“United Arab Emirates” par. 5).

This factor makes the UAE less dependent on oil, although the prices plunge is, naturally, not beneficial for its economy. Apart from that, the upcoming Expo2020 is an event that will have a significant positive impact on the economy of the country as it creates job places and improves the infrastructure of Dubai (Churchill par. 6). To sum up, the economic situation in the world and the UAE is not at its best, but it is recovering, and there are significant positive trends. It is also noteworthy that the investment policies of the UAE are extremely attractive for both local and foreign investors, and that the country is especially protective of the former (Maceda par. 1-2; “2013 Investment Climate Statement – United Arab Emirates” par. 1-3).

Given the investment-favorable climate of the UAE, we would like to invest 60-70% of our assets in the UAE securities. With respect to bonds and stocks, the portfolio is going to correspond to the moderate risk tolerance of the investors. About half of the assets (50-55%) will be allocated to stocks as they are characterized by higher risks and profit; the rest will be invested in bonds to ensure a greater level of security. At least 10% will be allocated to international stocks, but the largest part (35-45%) will be invested in the UAE stocks. 20% will be invested in international bonds, and 25-30% will be allocated to the UAE ones. The preferred maturity of the bonds is moderate, which would balance out the risks and interest rate and is in line with the character of the portfolio.

With respect to investment planning, it is especially important to study the history of various opportunities. Also, we are going to make the portfolio as diverse as it will be logical, which is characteristic of moderate investments (Kandziolka 88).

In our case, the wealth accumulation process is concerned with benchmarks rather than goals. A reasonable benchmark for moderate investment is the Standard & Poor’s 500 Index, and it is going to be chosen to evaluate the performance of our portfolio (Kandziolka 88; Baker and Filbeck 706).

Works Cited

“2013 Investment Climate Statement – United Arab Emirates.” US Department of State. The Office of Website Management, Bureau of Public Affairs, 2013. Web.

Baker, H. Kent, and Greg Filbeck. Portfolio Theory and Management. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Print.

Churchill, Neil. “Expo 2020 Win: Impact On Dubai’s Jobs Market.” Gulf Business, 2015. Web.

Hanware, Khalil. “Falling oil prices trigger stocks sell-off in Gulf.” Arab News, 2015. Web.

Kandziolka, Charles. Personal Wealth Management And Retirement. Raleigh: Lulu Press, 2012. Print.

Maceda, Cleofe. “Dubai, Abu Dhabi Strong Policies Lure Investors, Experts Say.” Gulf News, 2013. Web.

“United Arab Emirates.” CIA. CIA, 2015. Web.

“World Economic Situation and Prospects 2015.” UN World Economic Situation Report. UN, 2015. Web.

Market System

Promoting a positive Investment climate generates opportunities where private corporations can thrive in their business undertakings. At the same time, a positive investment climate provides individuals with openings to empower themselves. To achieve these objectives, there is a great need for an efficient and operational market system in any economy. It is in this perspective that many people recommend the free market system as the best economic mechanism, for distributing scarce resources and encouraging a positive investment climate.

A market economy is one in which prices of things are unreservedly set based on the principles of supply and demand. Such an economy is unregulated by intervention from a government or outside organizations. A market economy is, purely, an economy operated exclusively by the market itself. In the actual world, nonetheless, there is no such thing as a strictly free-market economy. Therefore, the free market economy as a concept is used to refer to economies, which are determined by market forces of demand and supply.

Many people believe that the market system enables the proper allocation of resources and creates a positive investment climate. One key feature of a market system is the capacity of the free market system to give people the freedom of choice (Pate, 2006, p.181). The author observes that the free market system empowers people to have greater freedom to make rational decisions on how they want to use their proceeds.

Another major advantage of the market system, as noted by Pate (2006), it allows for extensive use of individual entrepreneurial capacity. A free-market economy is determined by individual originality and the notion that hard work and inventiveness are rewarded through accomplishment. According to Pate (2006), the main objective of any business venture is to realize maximum returns in its operations. For this reason, in the free market system, a triumphant business makes a steady profit as it fends off contenders.

Competition is one of the key features of a free market system. Apart from ensuring that scarce resources are available at a convenient place and time, the market system through competition ensures that resources reach the end-users at a fair price, as dictated by demand and supply. When competition is at play, poor quality is phased off as competitors provide better offerings giving customers value for their money (Pate, 2006, p.184).

Government Role in Encouraging Positive Investment Climate

Although the free market economy has many positives, it is worth noting that some issues are very sensitive to be left in the hands of private investors; divorce of government attention and control. In reality, there are no ideal free-market economies. The American economy is touted as a free market economy, however, even in such a self-sustaining market; there is enough government control or regulation (Finger& Nogues, 2005, p.15).

Finger and Nogues (2005) note that to encourage a positive investment environment, it is necessary for a government to formulate effective trade policies, which after implementation will curb the unwarranted business practice. Such practices may include hoarding, a situation whereby business enterprises may end up holding basic commodities to benefit from the exorbitant profit that results from the creation of artificial scarcity of such products.

Governments also get involved in the trade to curb the dumping of substandard or harmful goods in an economy. To bring under control such occurrences, the government must improvise sizeable restrictions on what can be imported into the country as well as the legally acceptable magnitude through the system of import proportion and tariffs.

Other considerations that necessitate the active role of government in trade include the provision of sensitive goods and services that cannot be entrusted to the market forces. Issues such as national security and manufacturing of weapons to be used by the armed forces are so sensitive such that unless the government commands total control on their production, the country may transform into anarchy, incase such arms fall in the hands of criminals or terrorists (Feldman, 1969, p.20).

Some services such as the provision of electricity and other sources of energy to an entire nation are so crucial in the day-to-day economic activities of any given country. The provision of such goods and services cannot be delegated to a single private company or individual. Even where privatization has been realized, often the government may find itself having to come up with various control measures to facilitate smooth delivery of such critical services.

For the free market system to be most effective in providing a favorable investment atmosphere, it requires some environmental conditionalities like complete, free, and immediate accessibility of all pertinent information to all consumers and sellers ( Ndulu & Chakraborti, 2007, p.158). Governments often get involved in facilitating such market-wide sensitization and awareness drives. The government sensitizes investors on investment opportunities while sensitizing the customers on how to find the best deals or value for their money.

Another major reason why the government has a role to play in encouraging positive investment conditions is the fact that a free market economy has no mechanism to lessen the discrepancy between the rich and the poor members of society. There can never be a positive investment atmosphere when citizens are unable to empower themselves due to negative externalities resulting from the activities of industries. However, through government involvement in the free market system, such discrepancies are avoided.

Government policies that can help in improving the investment climate (South Africa)

A positive investment atmosphere is critical towards private sector directed growth and development, which in turn leads to the creation of job opportunities, income escalation, and the eradication of poverty. Improvement of the investment climate requires a proper understanding of problems and limitations to private sector ventures. To improve the investment climate, the government of South Africa should formulate policies that guide all the necessary business stakeholders to prosperity.

Though the topic of ‘investment climate’ is a multifaceted one, there are certain policies that are very vital for any business enterprise to thrive. Different issues that hinder our country from achieving a favorable investment climate can be categorized as economic, political, or social.

Starting with economical issues, our government should come up with policies that facilitate easy access to capital by businesspersons, be it the micro-business enterprises, or multinational corporations. Such a guiding principle may incorporate the bank rate policies, where the rates charged upon borrowing money for business investment are lowered (Fan, 2008, p.121).

Fan (2008, 121) further notes that the government of South Africa should come up with clear and uncomplicated guidelines that facilitate the simple bureaucratic procedure to be followed by companies or individuals who want to establish a business in South Africa. The fan is also critical of the margin requirement by most of the South African banks. He explains that to help create a good investment climate, our government should advise or direct the central bank to reduce the margin difference between the amounts of loan disbursed to an individual enterprise or company and the value of the collateral that one is required to pledge.

Politically, the situation in South Africa has not been conducive enough for business. To enhance the investment atmosphere, our government should establish measures that restructure the political situation in our government. The biggest block, politically, according to Smith (2005, p.6), is the high magnitude of corruption associated with crooked senior government officials. Smith (2005) notes that many multinational corporations that operate in South Africa are in one way or another politically connected with high-ranking politicians who facilitate their smooth business dealings.

As elucidated by Smith, the multinational corporations on their side, usually give kickbacks in an attempt to benefit from lucrative government contracts and tenders. Apart from the escalating corruption, there has as well been a lack of political goodwill among the politicians, many of whom do not have the interest of South Africans at heart.

In the social setup, the case is similar; most South African society is renowned to have a negative relationship with foreigners. Sometimes the issue gets out of hand leading to countrywide anarchy, where hundreds of foreign investors are roughed up, some experiencing uncountable losses while others end up losing their lives. This experience has tarnished the image of South Africa, and it will require our government and people of South Africa as well to walk the extra mile in trying to reconcile with the rest of the world, to enhance a positive investment climate.

Possible Positive Impacts of Hosting the 2012 Olympic in the UK

The Olympic Games is one of the oldest international sporting events in the world; the first Olympic Games having been held in Athens, the capital city of ancient Greece in 1930. The bid to hold the mega event has of late been turned into a political affair, due to the ever-increasing competition from big economies, in an attempt to stage the super event. This can be explained in terms of the numerous macro-economic benefits associated with staging some of these big international sporting events such as the Olympics or the world cups.

The 2012 Olympic Games bid was not in any way different from the previous bids, and it was after a rigorous battle that the International Olympic Committee awarded the United Kingdom the right to stage the 2012 summer Olympic and Paralympics Games in London.

Hosting the Olympic in 2012 is expected to bring many tangible macroeconomic benefits, to the United Kingdom, during and after the event. One key condition, set by the International Olympic Committee, is that the bidding nation must have the quality of hard infrastructure. Any government must therefore prove its potential, infrastructure wise, before being awarded the right to stage the event. In the case of the UK, the country is expected to benefit from the construction of world standard infrastructure such as state-of-art stadiums. These stadiums in return, are expected to generate huge revenues for the country in terms of entrance charges levied on thousands of fans and spectators who are expected to flood the country.

Transport is the other economic sector expected to receive a major boost. In this case, the UK government must renovate the transport system, to match the international standard expected for such a big event. It should be noted that the additional infrastructure or modes of transport developed, be it the railway, roads, or airports, will continue to be used even after the sporting event. Consequently, hosting the event will improve the transport sector and making it easier for people especially those who live outside London to have easy access to other places.

Many studies on the impact of the preceding Olympics reveal that inward investment has been captivated by arrangements for the Olympics, which has enlarged the host cities’ international profile. Although London is already recognized worldwide as a modern city and is a principal target for inward investment in the UK and Europe, it still experiences sustained competition from other world-class cities; both the old ones and the currently emerging.

The 2012 Olympic Games will without doubt elevate the reputation of London in comparison to other cities in Europe. The Olympics will help endorse London, worldwide, as a business focal point. The games will create attention and stir interest towards further increased investment into London (Poynter & MacRury, 2009, p.321) Poynter & MacRury (2009) further comment that the occasion will help East London to magnetize inward investment due to the boost it will receive in the form of world attention and improved infrastructure.

Tourism is the other sector of the UK economy, which is expected to enormously benefit from the Olympic Games in 2012. This will be possible through the extensive attention that will be directed at the country by local and international media. In particular, London is expected to receive and host a record-breaking number of tourists, who apart from touring the city are expected to tour the rest of the country at large (Poynter & MacRury, 2009, p.326).

The Olympic Games are also anticipated to present the prospect of promoting London as a more eye-catching international visitors’ destination and, as a result, to inspire a more constant tourist number and expenditure.

Another front likely to benefit, from staging the 2012 Olympic Games is job creation. Numerous job opportunities are anticipated to emerge because of this mega event in the UK capital. It should be noted that to successfully host this competition, the International Olympic Committee as well considers the potentiality of a nation in providing the required services for the sake of peoples’ welfare.

Some of the welfare services that are of utmost importance include the security of sportsmen and the accommodation for the huge crowd of fans. This means that the country must be prepared to provide enough security officers to maintain law and order, in addition to ensuring that the safety of all the persons will be guaranteed. Coming up with such a huge number of policemen implies that the unemployed citizens will be recruited in the police force or security units, and as a result, employment will have been enhanced. The other sector likely to boost the level of employment in construction, which will witness a beehive of activities in trying to catch up with deadlines.

From this sector, numerous job opportunities, for both skilled and untrained workers will be in plenty; putting into consideration that various construction works will be going on in the different fields of operations at the same time.

Sporting legacy is the other probable impact of staging the 2012 Olympic Games in London. The sporting legacy would take several forms. The first form will be reflected in accelerating investment in sporting equipment and other facilities, not only in London; the Olympic region, but also in other parts of the United Kingdom (Church & Coles, 2007, p.262). Church and Coles (2007), give examples of places where the training facilities will be provided, noting that such places are expected to be distributed in different parts of the country. The sporting legacy according to Church & Coles (2007) will be experienced in the form of increased participation in sports, which in return is anticipated to have social and physical impacts.

Therefore, hosting the Olympics is likely to impact on the health and well-being of Londoners. Due to the effect of the Olympic Games, many people and mostly the young generation will most likely be eager to participate or get engaged in sporting activities. Increased participation in sporting activities will improve the health statures of the people, and this means that most of the health complications related to lack of exercise reduce substantially.

Many Intangible benefits are likely to accrue from hosting the Olympic Games in the UK. These intangible reimbursements are impossible to evaluate in a quantifiable way. For example, more people in the country are likely to experience the enthusiasm, excitement, and honor that the Games will bring to the county.

An increase in overall economic growth will be the utmost benefit derived from hosting the Olympic Games. The huge amount of money that has already and which will continue to be injected into the economy will go a long way in facilitating faster economic growth and development.

Though the positive impacts may not be noticed instantaneously, in the end, they will be witnessed. Because of the huge investment in this sporting event by the UK government and other stakeholders, many job opportunities will be created, which in turn will empower the workers economically. On their part, most of these workers will invest their earnings in different economic activities to generate more returns. Due to the multiplier effect, the amount initially invested by the government will in the end facilitate a wider economic growth.

Possible Negative Impacts

The fact that hosting the Olympic Games is capable of generating a negative impact on the government as well as the people of the UK cannot be taken for granted. This is likely to be experienced in case losses are incurred, and the costs of preparing the event overshadow the benefits likely to emerge from the mammoth sporting event (Toohey, & Veal, 2007, p. 348). In as much as extensive economic benefits may be associated with staging the Olympic Games, there have been instances in the past, as noted by Preuss (2006, p.136), where staging these games did not bring expected financial rewards.

For instance, the 1972 Munich Olympics and the 1976 Montreal Olympics registered only losses for the two countries (Preuss, 2006, p. 44). Nevertheless, the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics and the 1992 Barcelona Olympics made an additional £215 million and £2 million respectively. The committee appointed to oversee the preparation and eventual hosting of such events determines the failure or success of any such big event.

Toohey and Veal (2007), further explain that such losses are most likely going to be met by citizens through increased taxation, which will be an added burden to the people. Others, though minor negative influences of the game, will register in the form of and as a result of congestion during the Olympic period. Additionally, as expected, the large pool of people will increase pollution in the environment.

Pollution of the atmosphere will possibly result from excess carbon emission from the various construction activities, taking place within London and its environment. Another source of carbon emission is likely to emerge from excessive automobile, transporting fans to the Olympic Park. Lastly, the disposal of waste may as well prove to be a hard nut to crack during this particular time.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it was worth celebrating for Londoners, when the UK won the bid to stage the 2012 Olympic Games. This first stimulated a sense of national pride, but most crucially, the celebration was informed by anticipated benefits likely to accrue from such an event. There are likely to be many economic and social gains from hosting the event. For instance, there is likely to be improved tourism gains during and after the event.

As discussed, due to the event, infrastructure is likely to be improved and employment opportunities are created. However, there are some possible negative consequences, which demand serious attention. For instance, there is a need for proper plans on how to deal with congestion on the roads. Although the country may boast of super high ways, the event is likely to affect the ordinary flow thus impacting negatively on the economy. Secondly, efforts towards ensuring preparations expenditure does not exit direct quantifiable benefits are necessary. Therefore, the Olympic preparations committee has to be astute enough in its expenditure as well as in planning the management of the event.

References

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Natural Ventilation and Light

Natural ventilation and light are essential factors of sustainable green design as applied to high-rise buildings (Elotefy, Abdelmagid, Morghany, & Ahmed, 2015). Daylight should be avoided in constructions erected in hot, humid climates (Abdellatif & Al-Shamma’a, 2015). In addition, it is known that there is a direct relationship between the shape of buildings and the emergence of overpressures or low-pressures. However, the existing body of knowledge does not allow specifying the essential physical parameter of natural ventilation as applied to high towers constructed in humid regions. The core of the issue lies in the need to determine the pressure differences as applied to windward and leeward faces. For that reason, it is crucial to study wind-induced air motion further and its possible importance for green design.

Green Cores

Green scores are actively used in the design, especially in city master planning. They are an important part of the radial development principle. Nevertheless, their potential as applied to high-rise buildings needs to be investigated to comprehend whether they can be used for constructing sustainable buildings and in the maintenance of comfort zones for a living (Navaei, 2015).

Greenery

Greenery is particularly important for cooling down the ambient temperature (Sharma, 2016). Well-designed green walls, sky terraces, and rooftop gardens do not only create a beautiful visual effect but also contribute to meeting the landscape requirements. Designers should consider accompanying traditional vertical coverage with horizontal planted areas.

Façade Skin

Façade skin is one of the most important factors in green design in hot, humid regions (Halawa et al., 2018). According to a case study by Yang, Yuan, Qian, Zhuang, and Yao (2018), well-ventilated designs help in energy-saving and assist in controlling the exhaust airflow. In their article titled “Summertime Thermal and Energy Performance of a Double-Skin Green Facade: A Case Study in Shanghai,” the team carries out a comprehensive energy assessment (Yang et al., 2018). The façade is a particularly significant factor as applied to glazed buildings. The research suggests that further studies are required to understand how the use of climate-sensitive regulators can help manage hot, humid climates effectively.

References

Abdellatif, M., & Al-Shamma’a, A. (2015). Review of sustainability in buildings. Sustainable Cities and Society, 14, 171-177.

Elotefy, H., Abdelmagid, K. S. S., Morghany, E., & Ahmed, T. M. F. (2015). Energy-efficient tall buildings design strategies: A holistic approach. Energy Procedia, 74, 1358-1369.

Halawa, E., Ghaffarianhoseini, A., Ghaffarianhoseini, A., Trombley, J., Hassan, N., Baig, M., … Azzam Ismail, M. (2018). A review on energy conscious designs of building façades in hot and humid climates: Lessons for (and from) Kuala Lumpur and Darwin. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82(3), 2147-2161.

Navaei, F. (2015). An overview of sustainable design factors in high-rise buildings. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society, 3(2-1), 18-23.

Sharma, R. (2016). Sustainable buildings in hot and dry climate of India. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 6(1), 134-144.

Yang, F., Yuan, F., Qian, F., Zhuang, Z., & Yao, J. (2018). Summertime thermal and energy performance of a double-skin green facade: A case study in Shanghai. Sustainable Cities and Society, 39, 43-51.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, the decrease of ecological state and the level of pollution forced the global society to revise the conception of modern construction. This essay investigates the current sustainable high-rise building worldwide, its purpose is to compare skyscrapers with green high-rise buildings, investigates the main parameters of sustainable modern construction, and provides examples from different parts of the world.

Background

This work focuses on the modern construction of high-rise buildings according to the principles of sustainability. This term is defined as “balancing a growing economy, protection for the environment, and social responsibility, so they together lead to an improved quality of life for ourselves and future generations” (Jin, Zhang, Zuo & Lindsay, 2013, p. 34). A high level of pollution, global energy consumption, substantial population growth, and intensive urban development in the context of limited space resulted in the necessity of the new approach to urban construction (Hong, Deng, Ezeh & Peng, 2019). This subject should be studied as the concept of sustainable building is highly essential supported by the majority of developed and developing countries that care about the current population and future generations (Neyestani, 2017). This research may be regarded as an introduction review that identifies sustainable construction, describes its parameters and the main difference from skyscrapers’ building, and provide examples of green high-rise buildings in different regions with a particularly hot and humid climate.

Skyscrapers and Sustainable High-Rise Building

Skyscrapers are not a new type of construction, people were familiar with these buildings several centuries ago. Shibam, a desert city found in the territory of Yemen, has buildings “up to fourteen stories in height” made from mud bricks (El-Shorbagy, 2009, p. 2). Modern skyscrapers built upward solve the problem of a lack of space, however, they are not ecologically friendly (Elotefy, Abdelmagid, Morghany & Ahmed, 2015). As the indoor atmosphere is cut from the outdoor environment and created artificially to achieve appropriate human comfort, skyscrapers may be regarded as huge engines that release substantial amounts of carbon dioxide (El-Shorbagy, 2009). With the construction of skyscrapers, Dubai was considered as “the largest polluter in UAE” and “an example of an unsustainable city” (as cited by Jin et al., 2013, p. 33). Skyscrapers do not meet the modern requirements of ecological safety anymore (Abdellatif & Al-Shamma’a, 2015). On the contrary, modern green high-rise buildings satisfy all demands of reasonable energy consumption, safety, and the accessibility of facilities in various climatic conditions (Wan, Chan & Cheng, 2012). Sustainable construction is environmentally responsible, and it combines the community’s comfort with economic development.

Parameters of Sustainable Green High-Rise Building

The reasonable and perspective strategy of green high-rise buildings requires specific principles. In general, in developed countries, such construction is certified according to the standards of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design which require environmental safety, reasonable site planning, and the efficiency of resources (Alnaser, 2008). The sustainable high-rise building is conducted by several parameters of modern urban development – the decrease of energy consumption and transportation energy usage and the accessibility of green courtyards and parks (Darwish, 2014). The parameters include the use of innovative materials, and the maintenance of comfort zones for living and public interaction as well (El-Shorbagy, 2009). In a hot climate, the sustainable building should “modify extremes of air temperature and protect the inhabitants from solar radiation” (Sharma, 2016, p. 135). These main principles are currently applied in the majority of regions and climate zones.

Malaysia

Malaysia is a country that started to realize the importance of reasonable city development and, with the support from the government, educational institutions, and other non-governmental organizations, it started the elaboration of sustainable building. It is using innovative technologies to address both the current population’s demands and the needs of future generations. Troika, an exclusive residence, was built on the territory of Kuala Lumpur City Centre, it includes three residential towers, office units, boutiques, and restaurants (Sayigh, 2017). It meets all modern standards of sustainability, efficiency, and attractiveness of urban living through the balance between nature and urban construction.

The main difference of this residence from previous constructions lays in the elaborated position and layout of buildings that provide comfortable living in a hot, humid climate (Sayigh, 2017). The solar orientation, glass walls, and “the twisting geometry of the towers” provide enough daylighting, regulate heat, and protect from excessive solar radiation (Sayigh, 2017, p. 21). The open courtyard area creates its own microclimate, with winds and shade “naturally filtering the outdoor polluted air affected by the traffic” (Sayigh, 2017, p. 21). The extended green helps to decrease tropical humidity and heat waves naturally as well.

Dubai

In recent years, Dubai has postponed the beneficial practice of meeting the demands of wealthy investors. In 2007, UAE Prime Minister and Ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, introduced the Dubai Strategic Plan (Jin et al., 2013). It currently aims to develop Dubai’s economic sectors to create its vision as a safe, sustainable, and attractive area, and the plan includes green building development as well (Asif, 2016). It focuses on the construction of mixed-use buildings to decrease the transportation energy use and balance energy efficiency due to the symbiosis of commercial and residential areas.

The most influential examples of Dubai’s sustainable green building are mixed-use towers, the Burj Dubai, Dynamic, and Nakheel Towers. The Burj Dubai, the highest building in the world at present, includes residential and commercial areas, offices, and a hotel. The concentration of important units in one place promotes the reasonable energy consumption that is spread within 24 hours as offices demand energy during the daytime and the hotel’s energy usage is highly substantial at night (Jin et al., 2013). After the Burj Dubai, the Nakheel Tower will be the next tallest building worldwide when it will be completed. It will consist of not only offices, shops, apartments, and a hotel but “an experience centre and observation facilities along with a special sky function space” as well (Jin et al., 2013, p. 37). Besides reasonable energy consumption, The Nakheel Tower will support one more principle of sustainable green building – the comfort zone for visitors, as sky function space and bridges promote community interaction.

Other Regions

Various countries all over the world are currently included in sustainable building development to provide the comfort zone for the community, reduce energy consumption and maintain the balance of nature and urban environment (Navaei, 2015). For, instance, Guinea-Bissau and Southern Angola focus on natural ventilation and innovative materials to control and dissipate heat (Guedes, Cantuária, Borges, Pereira, Aleixo & Alves, 2013). Salford Quays in Manchester, England, is a combination of residential buildings, courtyards, and public facilities that provides public integration, accessibility, and high functionality (Kalcheva, Taki & Hadi, 2016). The majority of countries consider climate conditions during the construction of sustainable buildings as well.

Conclusion

The global community currently started to realize the importance of reasonable city development. The construction of sustainable green high-rise buildings that do not pollute the environment, decrease energy consumption and provide the balance of nature with the urban environment for comfortable living, is highly essential at the present time. Such buildings may actually be found in Malaysia, Dubai, African countries, and other regions.

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Jin, X., Zhang, G., Zuo, J., & Lindsay, S. (2013). Sustainable high-rise design trends – Dubai’s strategy. Civil Engineering and Architecture, 1(2), 33-41. Web.

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