For a country to harness its industrial growth in the 21st century, availability of resources and technology is critical. An in depth-analysis on countries that have progressed reveals that availability of natural resources and new technology contributed to their current status. However, the potential capacity to use natural resources for wealth creation and industrialization is a challenge to any country. In the process of developing a country or sustaining a countrys development, challenges threatening humanity emerge. The current problem with global climate is an example of a threat to humanity. A discussion on such challenges in poor countries would give an insight on the general problems, as well as recommend policies on the same.
Challenges facing humanity
A leading global challenge threatening humanity is the recent climate. In this regard, the rise in global temperatures as a result of the greenhouse effect is affecting every country. However, the impact of global warming seems to affect poor countries more than developed countries. The cost of reducing high global temperatures is a burden to people living in poor countries. It is important to note that poor countries cannot afford technologies that limit the emission of carbon dioxide. In this context, human activities that seek to improve industrialization in poor countries endanger peoples lives. Poor countries lack the capacity to influence decisions made in global forums in relation climatic change. This means that poor countries will continue to suffer from disastrous activities caused by developed countries.
New technological advancement such as geoengineering is expected to address climatic change problems. However, geoengineering may necessarily not be helpful in poor countries. Geo-engineering seeks to limit the rise of temperature by 2 degrees Celsius. This technological advancement is a technocratic ideology achievable only by developed countries. Nonetheless, while the technology offers a solution for global warming, there are concerns that it is unethical and unachievable in short-term.
Poor countries depend on climate patterns for agricultural reasons. In fact, conventional agricultural practices depend on climatic patterns, and a disruption of the same reduces food production in poor countries. From this perspective, geo-engineering is a technology with the capacity to change climatic patterns in any country.
Scarcity of resources is a threat existence of humanity in poor countries. From this perspective, scarcity of resources or hiking prices of commodity in poor countries is dangerous. In most cases, a change in prices of the natural resources triggers economic recessions. For example, a change in price of the natural oil results to an energy crisis. Climatic change alters productivity in food production, as well as change in food prices. Therefore, economic implications cannot be ruled out as a threat to poor citizens. Negative economical implications have a tendency to causes loss of jobs and economic instability.
An uncontrolled desire to expand economically and conform to technological advancements is in itself dangerous. Such efforts oversee over-usage of natural energy resources and adoption of redundant technologies. Poor countries use fossil fuels as the only energy source since they are unlikely to adapt clean technologies. From this perceptive, cases of environmental degradation, pollution and food scarcity develop as poor countries strive for industrialization.
Policy recommendations
Inclusion of all governments in establishing effective policies on climate and technology is essential. An all inclusive dialogue among governments should precede any initiative directed to alleviating challenges facing humanity.
A need to have alternative energy sources is crucial in preventing depletion of natural fossil fuels. In this context, adoption of clean energy alternatives like solar and wind energy is necessary. Rich countries should have an initiative that helps poor country in setting up clean energy technologies. An emphasis on products with low energy intensity would be significant in reducing the cost of energy. Moreover, this practice is significant in harnessing economic practices, in both rich and poor countries. A global initiative to plant trees is a major boost in conserving the environment and reversing harsh climatic conditions.
A policy to improve on current technologies is essential in improving the economy and environmental conservation. The current development of solar and electric automobiles is encouraging compared to the use of gasoline. Such technologies can be introduced in both rich and poor countries as a way of minimizing the cost of energy.
Development of climatic change models better than geo-engineering requires immediate progress. This means that new climatic change models should not be harmful to mankind. Moreover, models that limit the emission of greenhouse gases would be significant in the new climatic change policies.
A policy to compel rich countries against uncontrolled industrial pollution and emission of greenhouse gases should be enacted. In this regard, rich countries collective responsibility in conserving the environment is enshrined into law.
Effective economic models are significant in projecting both favorable and unfavorable economic periods. Adopting economic models and practices that encourage development of a country without causing scarcity of resources is essential for a poor country. Providing development loans and grants to poor countries by the rich governments should be promoted across the world.
One of the critical challenges of preparedness for future environmental changes is the uncertainty of how the climate system will change in several decades. This ambiguity arises due to two reasons, which make it impossible to predict the mean temperature shifts. First, the response of the system to the increase in greenhouse gas levels is unknowable, and existing simulation models provide different forecasts for the future (Mathez, 2020). Secondly, these predictions assume that the emission levels will grow according to the existing pattern. However, there is no way to tell how the human activity will change and how it will influence the atmosphere. The sources of emissions, such as industry or transportation, might experience changes of different scales, and it is impossible to design an aggregate model for all of them.
Nevertheless, it is undoubted that climate change depends on human activity which should be transformed. One of the ways to manage human actions to avoid adverse outcomes is to access the risks. Risk evaluation includes an assessment of the probability of the change and its potential damage. As protection and prevention practices require costs and effort, they should be justified and overcome the potential losses. According to Mathez (2020), the impact of climate change on some ecosystems is inevitable but will have little effect on humanity. On the other hand, global catastrophic changes might bring immense damage, but their probability seems lower. Therefore, governments must take action regarding the disastrous consequences of environmental change.
The core challenge is that climate change is evolving slowly, and people might notice only slight changes over a human lifetime. However, two chief dangers should be emphasized while educating people about climate change. The accumulating effect of human activity can result in some tipping points that have no forewarning and can happen rapidly (Mathez, 2020). Moreover, the emissions have a distant effect, meaning that if we instantly reduced emissions so that the greenhouse gas content of the atmosphere remained stable, the global mean temperature would continue to increase for several decades (Mathez, 2020, p. 4). It is critical to inform this fact people as they do not see the immediate effects of their activity, but that does not mean that there is none.
Reference
Mathez, E. (2020). Risk, uncertainty, and the future, 1-5.
How Do Toxins, Pollution, and Climate Change Impact Poor and Black and Latin Communities?
There seems to be controversy about environmental justice linked to the demographics of individuals living in proximity to areas used in undesirable ways, for example, land waste sites and landfills. However, the extent to which these sites accommodate trash varies and is not directly correlated to risk exposure. Whereas some researchers use the magnitude of pollution release as opposed to closeness to a hazardous site to define exposure, others utilize the dispersion of pollutants model to comprehend the link between exposure and population. As a result, the current paper focuses on disproportionate exposure to contamination based on race while focusing on the Blacks and Hispanics as influenced by disproportionate siting, coming to the nuisance, market coordination, and discriminatory politics.
Implications of Modelling Choices on Spatial Relationships between Polluters and Residents
Modeling choices on the spatial relationships between polluters and residents have resulted in discrepancies when examining this issue of environmental justice in regards to disproportionate exposure to toxic waste. Hence, there has been a measurement error of environmental justice due to exaggerations of study variables. One such hyperbolic correlation involves the use of aggregate data using smaller units of analysis. While there are arguments that a larger unit of analysis might override the seemingly racial inequities of exposure, contact would be more accurate if indicators of risk and entities of analysis were used based on the maximum distance where exposure is felt. On a different note, environmental justice is eminent in terms of health outcomes as ethnic minority groups are shown to have poor health outcomes compared to their majority counterparts (Banzhaf et al., 2019). It is for this reason that the correlation between pollution exposure and race becomes a pertinent issue because these ethnic minority groups are near hazardous land sites; thus have more adverse health conditions.
Theory and Evidence for Four Possible Mechanisms Govern Patterns of Disproportionate Exposure to Pollutants
The association between pollution and race has not yielded significant results because employment, and non-residential patterns, seem to influence settlement in cheap areas due to the governing force of economic welfare. When socioeconomic factors are controlled, race prevails as a variable correlated with pollution exposure. Taste-based discrimination by firms suggests that as businesses seek to control labor, land, and transport costs, they are likely to target poor neighborhoods and cheap labor. Moreover, their disproportionate siting in areas predominantly occupied by the people of color is perceived to be intentional on their ends as a way of protecting the whites from pollution. As a result, they establish their firms in spaces inhabited by ethnic minority groups from where they can gain more profits due to passive lawsuits and more returns.
Even though every household strives to live in a desirable neighborhood, its ability to settle in such a setting depends on the budget. However, since people of color lack the resources to afford to live in high-income neighborhoods, they choose to settle in cheap quarters which are homeland to polluting firms and sites. As a result, the disproportionate siting of firms in zones settled by people of color results in increased exposure based on race. Nonetheless, similar determinant factors manifest market-like coordination between discriminatory siting and coming to the nuisance.
The link between disproportionate siting and coming to the nuisance is fueled by discriminatory politics which allows companies to use more of the land occupied by the people of color as opposed to that occupied by the whites. Lammy (2020) talks of environmental injustice through biased legislation which does not include the input of the people of color in efforts to address effluence. Martin (2017) also highlights the segregation of ethnic minority groups in opportunities seeking a greener economy. The same principle is advocated by Jones (2010) who claims that biomimicry can be used to create a green economy that has zero pollution as it seeks to respect the wisdom of all species. Whereas the activities of these businesses eroding the environment are important, it is essential to ensure that they develop effective mechanisms through which they can manage their hazardous wastes without affecting the lives of others.
Policy Options
Whereas the government is involved in making decisions regarding the occupancy of polluting firms, the residents should be involved in such decisions as well. Using the various modeling choices of assessing the impact of environmental contamination, the interests of the Blacks and Hispanics must be given equal importance as those of the Whites. However, more research is required to settle on the most effective and informative model. The same regulatory measures imposed on these businesses in areas occupied by the whites should be applied when it involves Blacks and Hispanics as well. Every life matters and the policies to govern environmental justice should ensure safety and quality air for all.
Conclusion
The life of a person of color is as important as that of a white person, and they need access to quality air, water, and soil equally. It is, thereby, essential that Black people are actively involved in opportunities seeking to address climate change where pollution is a pertinent determinant factor. In the quest to create a greener economy, companies should work towards having zero pollution to save the lives of the entire population and prevent deteriorating climate change.
References
Banzhaf, S., Ma, L., & Timmins, C. (2019). Environmental justice: The economics of race, place, and pollution. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(1), 185-208.
Climate change is a global issue that has raised a lot of interest among academics. This paper discusses the contributions of two renowned professors, Nicholas Stern and Ross Garnaut. The first section is about the gifts that Stern has made in connection to climate change. In the second section, the paper discusses Garnauts contribution to climate change. The last section is a comparison of how Nicholas and Garnaut have contributed to the issue of climate change. The paper shows that both scholars have contributed positively to climate change by publishing articles that talk about policies that can reduce climate change.
The Contribution of Nicholas Stern to the Climate Change
Stern is a professor who has dedicated much of his time to writing about climate change. He has been invited to share his thoughts and findings during various conferences, such as the Copenhagen Climate Conference. In addition, Stern shares his thoughts through media houses, such as The Guardian. His comments have been received positively by the public, although various governments have seen him as a threat to the stability of their leadership.
Among the contributions made by Stern is the article that he wrote in The Guardian on his views about the Copenhagen Climate Conference. Stern emphasized that countries needed to come together and unite in the regulation of carbon emissions into the atmosphere (Stern & Monbiot 2009). In his argument, Stern acknowledged that there would not be any achievement in the control of emissions. Therefore, a united approach is required so that the target emission levels that are set by conferences, such as the Copenhagen Climate Conference, are realized (Stern & Monbiot 2009).
According to Stern and Monbiot (2009), there is a need to support and encourage innovations and inventions that are geared towards the reduction of carbon emissions. This kind of innovation has resulted in equipment that can give the exact levels of emissions. Other innovations have assisted in the reduction of carbon emissions to the atmosphere. It was Stern who recommended more innovations and inventions. However, he admitted that these kinds of innovations might require more resources. Therefore, there is a need for various nations to join hands in support of such changes. Most developed countries have been urged to show the way when it comes to innovations and inventions (Stern & Monbiot 2009). This has been attributed to the fact that the developed countries have the capacity to carry out sophisticated innovations that can be useful in the regulation of carbon emissions. Stern adds that strong and dedicated leadership is required for innovations and inventions to be carried out successfully.
Stern and Monbiot (2009) admit that particular issues must be addressed during the conference that is intended to discuss carbon emissions. He says that there is a need to reduce the number of emissions that are discharged in any given year. It is believed that this reduction can be below 35 bn tons by 2030 if there are dedication and commitment from all the participating countries. Stern continues to say that there is a need for the most developed countries to dedicate more efforts to the reduction of emissions because these countries have more industries than the developing countries. In order to promote fairness, Japan, the European Union, and the United States ought to reduce their emissions by at least 80%.
Countries like China have already taken strict measures to address this global issue. Stern closes his remarks by giving the estimates that the developed countries should aim to contribute towards reducing emissions.
Stern (2010) provides several ways that can contribute significantly to the reduction of emissions of carbon and other harmful substances. He says that countries need to put in place strict policies that every industry should follow within its territory. He adds that the international community needs to come up with policies that are workable and attainable regarding climate change. Stern (2010) says that there is a need to be consistent in the way countries address the climate change, because some countries work hard to reduce the degree of emissions, but fail to keep up with the initial reduction pace in the subsequent years.
The Contribution of Ross Garnaut to the Climate Change
Garnaut is an Australian professor who, like Stern, has contributed significantly to climate change as a sensitive matter that is affecting mankind. Garnaut has appeared on several media programs, where he has been invited to give his professional insight on climate change. Apart from the media contribution, Garnaut has written articles for several journals. Among his recent publications is his review of climate change.
According to Garnaut (2014), there are countries that have not shown a commitment like other countries have done in combating climate change. Garnaut gives a comparison between Australia and the United States. According to Garnaut (2011), the US has done a commendable job in efforts to reduce emissions. On the other hand, Australia has done little on the same, yet it is among the most developed nations in the world. This is a worrying scenario, as the global target of a reduction in total emission by 2 degrees will never be realized if some countries like Australia are not as committed as their counterparts in other regions. Garnaut attributes this situation to the lapse in the Australian law on climate change
Garnaut (2013) does not only identify various challenges that Australia is facing in terms of emissions, but he also gives practical solutions to address this issue. He says that the current law on emissions should be revised to include a reduction in the price of carbon emissions. He admits that the current fixed pricing is hampering the Australian efforts to reduce the emissions successfully.
In his review on climate change, Garnaut (2014) identifies various aspects that have to be addressed wholly if the world is to realize its set targets on minimal reduction of emissions. Among the issues discussed by Garnaut (2014, p. 2) is the significance of China in the global concern about climate change. China is said to be the most industrious nation in the world. The amounts of emissions that come from China are so significant that if they go unaddressed, then the climate will change heavily due to the interference with the stratosphere. In this regard, Garnaut (2014, p. 3) admits that China needs to be among the leading nations that are formulating policies on how emissions should be reduced. Encouragingly, China is said to be addressing the issue of greenhouse emissions. In recent years, China has managed to reduce the levels of emissions to the recommended levels.
Apart from the greenhouse emissions, Garnaut (2014, p. 5) has been able to identify other contributors to the emissions made to the environment. He says that the emissions from electricity are significant enough to be studied and discussed. China is said to have most of its current emissions coming from power. The increased emissions from electricity are attributed to the fact that decarbonization from electricity is emitted, which leads to higher emissions from this energy sector.
The transport industry has also been identified as important in the number of emissions that are released into the environment. According to Garnaut (2014, p. 11), un-roadworthy vehicles and vehicles that use poorly purified petrol are partially to blame for the increased emissions in the transport industry. The oil tycoons are also to blame for the continued rejection of alternative methods of supplying energy to the local transport means. There have been better innovations that can replace petroleum as a source of energy for vehicles, but such innovations have been met with stiff opposition. Garnaut (2014, p. 14) recommends that there is a need to support the alternative forms of petrol, as doing this will significantly reduce the number of emissions made to the environment due to the combustion of fuel.
Comparison and Contrast between Stern and Garnaut on their Contributions to the Climate Change
The contribution made by the two authors can lead to a better world. The policies proposed can tame mankinds actions and untamed emissions that lead to climate change. Therefore, one can admit that it is not easy to single out one academician as being the best over the other two. Their judgment can only be made in reference to what effect their contributions have achieved by the participating governments.
Both Stern and Garnaut have recognized the need to have China at the center of any discussion that pertains to climate change. This is attributed to the fact that China is among the nations that have the highest levels of emission into the environment, yet it has done marvelously in the reduction of it. In addition, these two academicians have included the United States in at least one of their articles. This proves that the US has been supportive of embracing international agreements on climate change.
On the other hand, Stern is seen to be more knowledgeable and has a lot of experience when dealing with the topic of climate change. This is mainly attributed to the fact that he has published numerous articles on the latter. He has co-authored many books, as well as those concerning climate change. Garnaut has also published articles on climate change, but not as many as Stern has done. The most significant publications that Garnaut can be said to have made is his recent review on climate change. Therefore, one can conclude that the two professors have been pivotal in contributing to the prevention of climate change. However, one can be tempted to be of the thought that Stern is more knowledgeable and experienced in the same field than Garnaut.
List of References
Garnaut, R 2011, Australia in the global response to climate change: The transition to a low carbon economy, Garnaut Climate Change Review. Web.
Garnaut, R 2013, 14 Chinas climate change mitigation in international context: Issues for Australia and China, China: A New Model for Growth and Development. Web.
Garnaut, R 2014, Changing climate on climate, Pathways to Growth: 2014 Economic and Social Outlook Conference. Web.
Climate change underscores the different happenings or changes that happen to the weather over a long period. Since the issue is related to human activities, it has been termed as an environmental risk. Climate change is a controversial issue since some scholars argue that it has extreme effects on the existence of human beings and other living things, while others hold that it has low or minimal effects. This issue has elicited heated debates and opinions from many scholars. This paper will analyse the ideas of two scholarly journal articles with different viewpoints of climate change.
Leiserowitz, A. (2005). American risk perceptions: Is climate change dangerous? Risk Analysis, 25(6), 1433-1442.
In this article, Leiserowitz is interested in understanding public perceptions regarding climate change. He holds the belief that public risk perceptions compel political, economic and social actions towards a particular risk, and thus public support or opposition to climate change has a strong influence of the risks and dangers of the potential environmental risk (Leiserowitz, 2005, p. 1435). In addition, Steg, van den Berg, and de Groot (2013) posit that risk perception refers to peoples subjective judgement about the risk that is associated with some activity, event, or technology (p. 17).
Based on this argument, the majority of Americans have blurred risk perception of climate change. The author uses the results of a study that was carried in 2003 to highlight public perceptions about climate change. According to many Americans, climate change is a low risk. According to the study, people living in the US do not consider climate change as a grievous issue, and it will most probably be an issue to people from distant lands. The author believes that the issue is important because it has caught the attention of many researchers and scientists. However, he says that the issue does not deserve much attention as in the eyes of the public it poses minimal risk.
The study was carried among different populations in the United States, and they all showed little support to climate change as a pertinent issue in society. People across the United States believe that there are more pressing issues, and climate change is not one of them. They hold that the phenomenon is part of climate and they have no control to it, and thus they should focus on the pressing issues, which they can control and influence.
Thomas, D., Cameron, A., Green, E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, J., Collingham, C.,& & Williams, E. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427(6970), 145-148.
According to Thomas et al. (2004), climate changes have produced numerous shifts in the distributions and abundances of species over the past 3 years. This assertion hinges on the level of extinction of some species. The authors carry out projects on the extinction of different species living in disparate terrestrial regions. They explore how the extinction of different species will continue to happen in the coming years.
From their analysis, the authors hold the view that 15% to 17% of the species on earth will be committed to extinction by 2050. This observation holds because of climate change or global warming scenarios. They also show how climate change is affecting the different known terrestrials. This study shows that climate change is a serious risk since it is not sparing any living thing. The authors also believe that human beings are responsible for this phenomenon since they have the power to control all other living things. In addition, their activities are the main causes of climate change.
The authors see climate change as a big threat to the existence of human beings and other living things on earth, which is the only habitable planet contemporarily. They recommend the use of different technologies to help decrease the emission of greenhouse gases that contribute significantly to climate change. If the appropriate measures are not taken, the authors argue that the outcomes of climate change will continue to worsen, and thus endanger the existence of all living things on Earth.
Comparing and contrasting
Thomas et al. (2004) hold different views from Leiserowitz, as they believe that climate change poses a great risk to human existence on Earth. The two articles differ because Leiserowitz (2005) uses the ideas of the public to analyse the risk of climate change. Since many people do not have facts about climate change, it is probably the reason why they believe that it poses negligible risk to society. On the other hand, Thomas et al. (2004) hold that climate change poses a great risk to society using facts. They look at what has happened to different species through extinction, coupled with highlighting the probable causes of the same. This aspect shows clearly that climate change is a threat to the wellbeing of all human beings.
The risk perceptions of climate change, according to Leiserowitz (2005), are limited. They only cover what is known about climate change rather than using evidence to understand the real situation. Thomas et al. (2005), in their article, take a different position as they have unlimited information. They use evidence from the observable changes to explain the adverse effects of climate change.
However, the two articles appreciate the view that climate change is an issue that has penetrated deeply in society. Everybody is talking about climate change. Even in the media, this phenomenon is an issue that has been given special emphasis. Leiserowitz (2005) obtained the opinions of the public about climate change because everyone is aware of the issue. This assertion explains the reason why they share their views about the same.
Thomas et al. (2004) consider the extinction of different species to illustrate what climate change can do to living things. This aspect shows that they consider the issue as a pertinent one in society. Ultimately, they all agree that additional research is needed on the risk (Thomas et al., 2004; Leiserowitz, 2005). They take this position probably because they consider it an important issue that will define the existence of all human beings and other living things in the future.
Conclusion
The analysis of the two articles shows that people hold different perceptions of climate change. In the United States, the government has taken swift actions to minimise the number of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. This scenario is also happening in other countries for climate change is posing a great risk to the existence of human beings and other living things. Therefore, I would support Thomas et al. (2004) because climate change has shown its real effects. The phenomenon is real (Bell, Greene, Fisher & Baum, 2005), and thus there is a dire need for society to find means of addressing it rather than assuming that it will be solved in the course of time. Being proactive concerning the issue will save the existence of human beings and other living things, and thus such actions are critical. The world should be unified in dealing with climate change, as the phenomenon requires collective efforts.
References
Steg, L., van den Berg, A., & de Groot, J. (2013). Environmental Psychology: An Introduction. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Three articles provided points for discussion, focusing on environmental risks and the opposing views of the three authors. The identified risks are industries and manufacturing plants, agriculture activities and the use of fertilizers and insecticides, solid waste from households, hazardous waste in landfills, gas emission from transportation, migration, and noise in the city. The purpose of this essay is to provide an analysis of the three articles, focusing on the environmental risks and the risk perceptions of the authors.
Summaries of the articles
Pollution
The first article is about pollution, its causes and effects. Factories, industries and various modes of transportation release toxic chemicals in the atmosphere. Pollution is a major cause of lung diseases. Most people know the causes of pollution and its effects like haze and smog, but they ignore it and continue to be instrument of this man-made environmental problem. Other harmful chemicals destroy vegetation and damage the earths ozone layer, our only protection from extreme ultra-violet rays of the sun. Pollution is one of the primary contributors of global warming since greenhouse gases (GHG), such as carbon dioxide and methane, are stored in the earths atmosphere. As the earths temperature rises, sea temperature also reacts and the polar ice caps in the Antarctic melt causing ocean levels to rise.
Air pollutants are produced and stored in the atmosphere. In the U.S. atmosphere, there are approximately 160 million tons of toxic chemicals that affect air quality. In order to control pollution, the U.S. government has formed the Environmental Protection Agency to administer and enforce environmental laws and rebuild the environmental damage (Opposing viewpoints in context, 2012).
Climate change
The second article is about climate change and its emphasis on prevention. There is only one countermeasure introduced in this article, which is the practice of green consumerism, or the buying of green products with the aim of protecting the environment. Businesses and small organizations have recommended to consumers to buy eco-friendly products, organic food and sustainable building materials (Opposing viewpoints in context, 2013, para. 1). Larger organizations take their share by manufacturing green products.
Buying green products can help in reducing climate change but there are consumers who do not support it because they do not have knowledge about the relation of green products and environmental preservation. For example, approximately 80,000 chemicals of various types, mostly toxin, mix with the atmosphere and are inhaled by humans and other living things. Knowledge of this relevant information can motivate consumers to start buying green products.
Critics of green consumerism argue that buying green is not enough to alter climate change because this will continue if yearly emissions are not drastically reduced at least by half by year 2050. Critics also argue that consumerism can even encourage buying not environment-friendly materials. A study conducted in 2010 found that although exposure to eco-friendly products had positive effect on consumers, the participants tended to lie and steal than consumers who preferred other products (Opposing viewpoints in context, 2013). Green shoppers had the tendency to buy more, thinking that they had switched to eco-friendly products, rather than control their impulse to purchase more products.
Can PlaNYC make New York City greener and greater for everyone? Sustainability planning and the promise of environmental justice
This last article focuses on urban sustainability and provides a framework for industrial cities to become greener. PlaNYC was conceived by city planners to formulate New Yorks sustainability plan. Most specifically, it focused on environmental justice (EJ). EJ refers to communities where the poor and people of color live and have to bear the environmental risks due to government neglect. The article recommends that by focusing on the disenfranchised communities, environmental conditions can be improved (Sze, 2007 as cited in Rosan, 2012, p. 961).
Cities with programs on sustainability use the framework of the three Es of sustainability: equity, economy, and environment . PlaNYC aims to eliminate discrimination and environmental injustices, as experienced by people of color and low-income communities.
Comparison and contrast of the risk perceptions
The article on pollution identifies various environmental risks but it also describes the causes and effects of pollution. Industrial plants produce carbon dioxide while some irresponsibly discharge of their industrial waste through streams and bodies of water. Fertilizers and insecticides for agricultural processes are pollutants when carried and mixed with water. Local solid waste from households and businesses also contribute to pollution. Hazardous wastes are deposited in landfills, which is not safe and can cause environmental degradation. Population, urbanization, automobile emissions, and noise in city are all risk factors for pollution.
The climate change article focused on consumer risk behavior, i.e. consumer actions become risk if they buy products considered environmental risk. When consumers do not know what green products are, it becomes a risk. Consumers should know the relation between what products they purchase and the damage it can do to the environment. Products contain industrial chemicals and many are considered toxic. This becomes a risk if consumers continuously buy them; more so, if they buy more than what they need. What consumers do affect the environment, one way or another, but environmentalists recommend that consumers should make changes in their buying behavior in favor of sustainable products.
Environmental risks mentioned in the third article are about economic development and growth of cities. These factors become risks if they are not sustainable. PlaNYC is a framework for sustainable development to reduce the risks. Disenfranchised communities, which are subject of environmental justice, become risks when they are abandoned and not included in the city environmental planning.
The articles have different concepts on environmental risks. The first one focused on the causes, the second article emphasized the effects, and the third one was more on prevention. The cause and the effect are sometimes interchanged.
Environmental stressors
Environmental stressors mentioned in the articles include smog or haze which harm human health and cause respiratory illnesses. The components of smog, like sulfur oxide and nitrogen, travel in high atmosphere and can become a part of acid rain that attack the environment. Other stressors include air quality, noise in the city, and environmental injustice. Environmental injustice is the result of misalignment in the city planning where attention is given to favored groups .
My perception of the risks
Almost everything we do involves environmental risks. Buying more than what we need is a risk. The article on Climate change which focused on green consumerism is a wake-up call for me. It is a wake-up call because what we buy affects the environment. However, the article contradicts itself by arguing that green consumerism can even create negative influence on consumers by encouraging them to be unethical (Opposing viewpoints in context, 2013, para. 5). Of course, this contention has got to be explained further by providing more examples in the literature that was examined. Green consumerism enhances value and meaning of the product. The material goods we buy are like indicators that define our values and social status (Harrison, 2006, p. 398). When we buy green products, we define our culture and values.
Conclusion
This essay provided a comparison and contrast of three articles which were all about the environment and the risks involved. The articles provided risk perceptions and stressors which were properly analyzed. The last part of the essay concluded with our own risk perception in the context of the three articles. Our analysis is that all of our actions tend to affect environmental risks. We should be responsible for what will happen and be ready to provide change.
References
Harrison, B. (2006). Shopping to save: Green consumerism and the struggle for northern Maine. Cultural Geographies, 13(1), 395-420. Web.
Opposing viewpoints in context: Climate change. (2013). Web.
Opposing viewpoints in context: Pollution. (2012). Web.
Rosan, C. (2012). Can PlaNYC make New York City greener and greater for everyone?: Sustainability planning and the promise of environmental justice. Local Environment, 17(9), 959-976. Web.
Applied anthropology can not only analyze the anthropogenic causes and effects of many processes but also research the environmental issues in order to provide effective solutions to address the identified problems. In this case, the climate change is one of the most challenging environmental issues that are discussed by anthropologists in the context of global hazards. From this point, the climate change is an international issue that is associated with a range of climate threats and risks (Kedia and Van Willigen 92; Whitington 308). Concentrating on the global change, it is important to focus on the anthropological perspectives in discussing the climate change in order to explain the role of the human-environmental interactions in influencing the problem (Charnley and Durham 398).
Thus, developing the idea that the climate change is anthropogenic in its nature, researchers focus on proposing the specific framework and solution in order to address a global environmental change that affects all the aspects of the peoples life leading to the social change (Charnley and Durham 398; Moran 133). In this context, it is important to discuss how anthropologists define the environmental change in relation to the social change; what views are predominant in the anthropological discourse regarding the global character of the climate change; what arguments are proposed to state that the climate change is anthropogenic in its nature; what anthropological perspectives influence the discussion of the problem; and what solutions are proposed by anthropologists to address the problem of the climate change depending on the followed perspective.
Environmental Change as a Concept of Environmental Anthropology and Its Relation to the Social Change
The concept of the environmental change is one of the most complex concepts in the applied anthropology because it is associated with the discussion of the forces that cause the change in ecosystems and consequences of the change. Furthermore, the anthropologists vision of the environmental change is closely connected with the idea of the social change. The reason is that anthropologists often discuss the environmental change while referring to such social processes as migration, poverty, and degradation caused by any changes in the environment (Warner et al. 692). From this point, the environmental anthropologists are inclined to see the global change from both positive and negative points because it is rather difficult to forecast the real consequences of any environmental change (Moran 134; Warner et al. 692). As a result, the environmental change is discussed in many contexts, including national, regional, and global ones.
The concept of the environmental change is directly connected with the problem of the climate change. According to Warner and other researchers, environmental changes in society are mainly associated with sudden disasters, ecological processes, and cyclical climate conditions (Warner et al. 691; Whitington 309). Researchers note that being influenced by changes in the climate, people need to change their social realities and adapt to the changed environment or migrate (Warner et al. 691; Whitington 309). In this context, the most influential environmental change is the climate change. Warner and the group of researchers state that today the environmental change and such its aspect as the climate change present a new threat to human security (Warner et al. 691). Anthropologists are inclined to find the solution to the problem of the environmental change in order to avoid dramatic effects on the other aspects of the peoples life. In this case, the relationship between the anthropological theory and practice is direct.
In environmental anthropology, the environmental change is mainly discussed in associations with the humans activities that are important for analyzing the causes and consequences of the change. This idea is supported by Charnley and Durham who state that modern anthropologists should be able to demonstrate how environmental change affects peoples lives and how peoples actions affect the environment (Charnley and Durham 397). The problem is in the fact that environmental problems observed globally not only influence the peoples life in different regions and affect the social change, but these intensified problems are the results of the changes in the populations life because of the notion of carrying capacity (Warner et al. 711). It is important to note that being influenced by the necessity to adapt to the social changes, people form specific environments round them and this activity leads to the environmental change in the future. Such adaptations are associated with the active use of advanced technologies globally, and anthropologists are inclined to discuss the environmental change and the social change in their relationship (McMichael and Dear 9484; Moran 134). In this context, the climate change is discussed as the most important aspect of the environmental change that has many effects on the life of populations globally.
Climate Change as an Aspect of the Global Environmental Change
Anthropologists are inclined to identify the issue of climate change in the context of the discussion of the environmental change and its outcomes for the nations. From this point, the climate change can be defined as a significant shift in the climate patterns caused by the global warming and leading to the rise of the sea level; uncontrolled flooding and drought; increases in the heat levels; changes in the intensity of storms and hurricanes; and changes in the quality of the air (Connor 249; Rudiak-Gould 10; Warner et al. 690). The climate change is usually discussed by researchers as a global problem because it affects people in relation to different aspects of their life. The effects of the climate change are first observed at the environmental level, and it is a reason to discuss the global character of the problem (Connor 249). From this point, anthropologists focus on researching the problem of climate change in order to influence the environmental policies at several levels, where domestic and global levels are equally important (Charnley and Durham 397). Thus, the climate change is viewed by anthropologists as not only the phenomenon with multiple aspects but also as the problem that has several dimensions and levels for the research.
The traditional vision referred to the climate change in the field of anthropology is associated with the discussion of the hazardous effects of the global change in climate because this change can lead to many problems for populations of different regions of the world. Following Kottaks approach to explaining the global environmental changes, it is also possible to discuss the climate change as the environmental hazard. Furthermore, this hazard is of the developmental nature, and it needs to be addressed accordingly. Kottak notes that hazards created by the process of development should be discussed as the necessary conditions for the emergence of new perceptions of the environment (Kottak 26). In this context, it is possible to state that anthropologists are inclined to discuss the climate change in the sphere of applied anthropology as an environmental change that can potentially have hazardous effects on populations at all levels, and the task of anthropologists is to design programs and policies to resolve this issue.
The climate change is associated with a range of ecological risks that are influential in relation to the peoples life globally. Thus, the global character of the climate change means that even if some populations can be affected by the climate change more than the others, it is impossible to state that the climate change is characteristic only for several regions of the world. Researchers argue that the problem of the climate change is in the fact that it is impossible to clearly determine regions of the world that can suffer from the dramatic change less than the other regions (Moran 138; Whitington 310). In this context, the concept of the climate change is directly connected with the ideas of social vulnerability and adaptation at the global level because this environmental change and associated natural hazards affect all the regions of the world. According to Moran, anthropologists need to propose effective responses to the global climate change because the most obvious effects of this ecological phenomenon are the ecological degradation and shifts in the climatic and weather patterns (Moran 139). These changes will lead to many environmental, economic, and social problems (Charnley and Durham 400). From this point, discussing the best ways to respond to the problem of the climate change, anthropologists refer to the principles of environmentalism and focus on the theory of the climate changes development.
The Role of Human-Environment Relations in Affecting Climate Change
One of the most discussed questions related to the problem of climate change is the role of the human in this process. In order to explain how humans activities can be the main cause of the global climate change, anthropologists choose to research and describe the nature of the human-environmental relations in general. The human-environment relations are the complex concept because there is no single idea shared by anthropologists regarding the nature and effects of these relations. Many researchers are inclined to determine the negative aspects associated with the humans role in affecting the environment. Thus, humans are often discussed as the sources of the ecological problems and the general environmental degradation (Moran 140; Warner et al. 690). On the contrary, many anthropologists are inclined to focus on the influence of the environment on the peoples life rather than on the impact of humans on the ecology and other natural processes (Charnley and Durham 400). However, in spite of the position, anthropologists still view the human-environmental relations as the key to understand the problem of the climate change and the perspectives for its future discussion.
In this context, different changes that are observed in relation to the modern climate patterns are explained by followers of the anthropogenic climate change view as a result of the human experience. Researchers are inclined to focus on the role of the humanized carbon cycle in affecting the global warming while discussing the climate change (Kottak 24; Whitington 310). There is an anthropological explanation to the problem that is based on the discussion of the social and economic factors. According to many researchers, populations experience the dependency on fossil fuels in relation to their social and economic life, and this dependency causes the excessive use of energy and significant gas emissions that lead to changing the environmental situation (Kottak 24; Magistro and Roncoli 92; Whitington 310). Thus, the greenhouse gas production is a result of the human activities and a logical consequence of the industrial societys development and overconsumption (Kottak 26; Magistro and Roncoli 92; Whitington 310). From this point, anthropologists state that the climate change is directly associated with the everyday human activities and with the historical social and economic alternations.
Nevertheless, many anthropologists avoid stating clearly that the climate change is a result of the humans activities because they refer to the reception studies the results of which indicate that many people do not associate the climate change with their usual activities and the technological progress of the world. The results of anthropologists surveys demonstrate that many people living in developing regions of the world are inclined to reject the role of the human-climate interaction while discussing the causes of the climate change (Rudiak-Gould 10). If representatives of different communities demonstrate the awareness about the climate change and adverse natural processes, they rarely associate the observed processes and knowledge of the climate change with the activities of humans. Instead, these persons refer to the idea of natural cycles or natural cyclical change in order to explain changes in weather patterns or to argue against the idea of anthropogenic changes (Connor 258). As a result, the question of the role of humans in affecting the global climate change is highly debatable. On the one hand, it is possible to discuss the climate change as a human-induced change (Charnley and Durham 407). On the other hand, the anthropogenic nature of the climate change is often rejected by representatives of the indigenous and developed communities who are inclined to explain the environmental change with references to the natural development process. As a result, anthropologists aim to research the causes of the climate change and find the ways to cope with the problem while focusing on changing the humans visions of the issue.
Anthropological Perspectives in Discussing the Climate Change
The anthropologists focus on studying the climate change depends on the specific anthropological perspective that is followed or shared by the researcher. Thus, in the field of applied anthropology, researchers choose to explain the climate change and select solutions to the problem from holistic or cross-cultural perspective as well as from the point of cultural relativism. The followers of the holistic approach and perspective in the field of applied anthropology state that all the social and cultural groups form the complex global social system, and it is necessary to discuss such global hazards as the climate change from the perspective of its relationship to the whole ecological system (Kedia and Van Willigen 93; Magistro and Roncoli 94; Moran 134). Holistic studies of populations regarding their visions of the climate change are important because they allow discussing the problem from all points and sides.
Multiple factors affecting the climate change are taken into account in addition to the discussion of the cultural and social aspects of the environmental change (Charnley and Durham 400). According to the holistic view, human populations are perceived as interrelated and living in the global physical environment where all the elements are connected. As a result, the climate change is perceived as the problem that is influenced by both human activities and natural processes, and the effects of the climate change are expected for all the ecological systems (Whitington 310). As a result, those anthropologists who discuss the climate change from the holistic perspective contribute more to the development of the international policies in order to prevent the progress of the climate change process because of approaching the problem as a complex of issues.
The second important perspective from which anthropologists are inclined to discuss the problem of the climate change is cultural relativism. Thus, following the principles of cultural relativism, it is important to state that anthropologists see cultures and populations in their variety, and peoples differences are considered as influential to condition humans vision of the climate change (Magistro and Roncoli 92; Whitington 310). Referring to cultural relativism, anthropologists understand that it is necessary to concentrate on the cultural specificity while discussing the ways of preventing the negative effects of the climate change. According to Magistro and Roncoli, to understand what tools to choose in order to address the problem of climate change, it is necessary for anthropologists to analyze cultural meanings, collective myths, and social memory that are typical for the concrete cultural group (Magistro and Roncoli 93).
The researchers state that it is important to identify the association between the climate change and communitys perception of the change at the local level. In this context, the global analysis of the climate change should be based on the analysis of climate change perceptions and reactions in different local communities (Magistro and Roncoli 91). The factors that influence the perception, knowledge, and understanding of the climate change processes are the cultural values and aspects of the social life, including the vision of the role of science and technology in the community (Magistro and Roncoli 91; McMichael and Dear 9483). Focusing on the cultural background which forms the populations vision of the climate change, anthropologists can develop programs that are appropriate for the concrete region.
The followers of the cross-cultural perspective tend to discuss the direct relationship between the culture and climate change while focusing on comparative studies conducted in different regions of the world. In this context, different cultures are considered as having different impacts on the climate change, and the outcomes of the climate problem can also be different for these populations (Moran 136). Therefore, the role of the local perception and knowledge of the climate change is traditionally discussed by anthropologists from the cross-cultural perceptive. Researchers claim that the representatives of various cultures are inclined to understand the climate change differently (Rudiak-Gould 10). It is characteristic for the members of developed cultures associate the climate change with the scientific knowledge and the negative effects of the technological progress. From this point, the climate change is perceived as the effect of the Industrial Revolution and further development of technologies that have changed the modern world and nature of peoples activities (Kottak 28; Moran 138).
A different vision is typical for the representatives of the indigenous populations who focus on effects of the climate change rather than on their causes. According to Rudiak-Gould, existing anthropological investigations of the problem of climate change have focused primarily on how frontline and indigenous communities become aware of global warming through first-hand observation of local impacts (Rudiak-Gould 9). Thus, the local knowledge of climate development is based on the indigenous peoples discussion of noticeable changes in their daily life and agricultural activities caused by changes in the rainfalls, weather conditions, and levels of productivity. From this point, it is important to state that anthropological studies focus on the problem of the anthropogenic climate change from many perspectives while discussing the peoples knowledge and awareness of the problems causes and effects.
The Role of Anthropologists in Solving the Problem of Climate Change
Applying the results of researches to practice, anthropologists can achieve significant results in relation to providing relevant solutions to the problem of climate change that is discussed globally. However, anthropologists role in providing the response to the problem of climate change depends on their successes in influencing what people think and know about climate and environmental changes (Magistro and Roncoli 94). In their article, Magistro and Roncoli also state that to resolve the problem of the climate change, it is helpful to focus on the role of local decisions as the first steps in order to address the global problem of the environmental change (Magistro and Roncoli 92). The reason is that the solution of the global problem is based on the work with a range of issues at the local levels. Nevertheless, the problem is also in the fact that in spite of differences in the visions of climate change that are characteristic for the indigenous populations and for the representatives of the developed cultures, anthropologists need to propose the solution to the climate change issue that could respond to the needs of different nations. The lack of knowledge regarding the aspects and hazards of the climate change is typical for representatives of both developed and indigenous populations (Rudiak-Gould 11; Warner et al. 700). As a result, the most important step is the development of policies and strategies in order to eliminate the gap in the peoples knowledge of the climate change.
While developing strategies and programs that are effective to respond to the problem of the climate change, anthropologists face many theoretical and practical challenges. One of the most important practical barriers to solve the problem of the climate change is the problem of the lack of energy resources and the necessity of using fossil fuels that contribute to creating the greenhouse effect. Those environmental anthropologists who follow principles of cultural relativism propose to address this problem of climate change with a range of culturally appropriate alternatives (Kottak 26). However, in this case, the environmental problem is directly connected with the economic development of communities, and authorities need to pay more attention to implementing those programs and strategies that are both effective for the environment and the economic progress (Moran 140; Warner et al. 700). In this case, anthropologists focus on developing programs and policies according to the principle of sustainability. Specialists work to create the balanced environment for reducing the risk of the climate change and for increasing the economic potential of the region.
One of the basic approaches to changing the populations visions of the climate change problem is informing about the risks associated with the global change. However, the problem is in the fact that perceptions of the people depend on their cultural differences, and this situation affects anthropologists attempts negatively. In this context, it is important to note that differences in views regarding the climate change also cause differences in the risk perception. According to Kottak, risk perception emerges in cultural, political, and economic contexts that are shaped by changes in social circumstances (Kottak 28). As a result, developing solutions to be used in different cultural communities, anthropologists should also refer to differences in the peoples perception of risks associated with this type of the environmental change (Warner et al. 691). These approaches are also typical for the supporters of the cross-cultural perspective in anthropology.
Having discussed the approaches to creating solutions to the climate change problem typical for the followers of different anthropological perspectives, it is important to conclude the analysis with the focus on the contribution of the holistic approach to the discussion of the climate change issues. It is important to state that anthropologists discuss the holistic approach as rather difficult to be used in applied anthropology for addressing the problem of the climate change because of its complicated character and multiple factors affecting the vision of the problem (Warner et al. 700). For instance, discussing the problem of the environmental change, researchers determine such human causes of the climate change as the excessive energy consumption, the excessive use of technologies, industrialization, and the active use of cars (Kottak 28; Magistro and Roncoli 94; Whitington 314). However, these activities are also caused by the changes in the social life and population growth, in their turn. From this point, the climate change processes can be discussed as unavoidable because they are associated with many aspects of the global change. As a result, the approach to solving the problem should be complex. In this case, supporters of the holistic perspective in anthropology point at the necessity to apply the complex decisions while solving the problem of the global climate change.
Nevertheless, such environmental concerns as the climate change are the topics for the debates of many anthropologists, regardless the perspectives they share and concepts they apply to the discussion of the problem. The reason is that anthropologists are expected to provide the effective solution to the problem of the climate change while focusing not only on the environmental issues but also on the role of a man and his needs in this process (Charnley and Durham 401; Warner et al. 700). According to Connor, the anthropogenic climate change is a potentially catastrophic process of planetary dimensions , and anthropologists need to use their opportunities in researching populations and conducting studies in order to explore the problem from many perspectives (Connor 247). The necessity to develop solutions to the problem quickly depends on the fact that global heating and other manifestations of climate change are no longer hypothetical scenarios but are part of the lived experience of people residing in many places (Connor 247). From this point, new approaches to the decision-making process on the topic are necessary to address the climate change process successfully.
Conclusion
The climate change is discussed in applied anthropology as the significant environmental change that should be viewed in the context of its role for the global population. In this context, the role of anthropologists in exploring the nature and aspects of the climate change is connected with finding the solutions to the problem that can be effectively adapted to different social situations. The number of researches on the climate change and its causes is significant, but anthropologists note that the recent studies demonstrate the lack of the peoples awareness regarding the actual causes of the global problem. As a result, anthropologists work to propose programs, policies, and strategies that can be successfully adopted and implemented in different social and cultural communities in order to inform and educate populations regarding the climate change.
In spite of the fact that decades are spent in researching the problem of the climate change, the aim of applied anthropology is to provide resources in order to prevent the negative effects of the environmental and social changes with the focus on practical techniques and well-developed strategies. New models necessary for discussing the climate change are developed by modern anthropologists in order to expand opportunities for addressing all the aspect of the global problem. Although there is a range of barriers and complexities associated with solving the climate change problem, anthropologists work to find new resources and approaches to help people adapt to the changing situations and eliminate the level of the social vulnerability characteristic for different societies. Spreading the idea that the climate change is a global problem, anthropologists can also contribute to improving the communication and knowledge on this controversial topic. From this point, such an environmental concern as the climate change can be discussed as one of prioritized issues that are addressed by anthropologists in their everyday practice.
Works Cited
Charnley, Susan, and William Durham. Anthropology and Environmental Policy: What Counts? American Anthropologist 112.3 (2010): 397-415. Print.
Connor, Linda. Anthropogenic Climate Change and Cultural Crisis: An Anthropological Perspective . Journal of Australian Political Economy 66.1 (2010): 247-267. Print.
Kedia, Satish, and John Van Willigen. Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application. Westport: Praeger, 2005. Print.
Kottak, Conrad. The New Ecological Anthropology . American Anthropologist 101.1 (1999): 23-35. Print.
Magistro, John, and Carla Roncoli. Anthropological Perspectives and Policy Implications of Climate Change Research . Climate Research 19.2 (2001): 91-96. Print.
McMichael, Anthony and Keith Dear. Climate Change: Heat, Health, and Longer Horizons . PNAS 107.21 (2010): 94839484. Print.
Moran, Emilio. Theory and Practice in Environmental Anthropology . NAPA Bulletin 18.1 (2000): 132-146. Print.
Rudiak-Gould, Peter. Climate Change and Anthropology: The Importance of Reception Studies . Anthropology Today 27.2 (2011): 9-12. Print.
Warner, Koko, Mohamed Hamza, Anthony Oliver-Smith, and Fabrice Renaud. Climate Change, Environmental Degradation and Migration . Natural Hazards 55.3 (2010): 689-715. Print.
Whitington, Jerome. Fingerprint, Bellwether, Model Event: Climate Change as Speculative Anthropology . Anthropological Theory 13.4 (2013): 308-328. Print.
The introductory part of an article is a critical section in a write-up as it establishes a firm foundation of the whole paper by indicating an authors concern while setting up the stage for discussion and analysis. The article by Greenstone and Oliver indicates that the problem of global warming is one of the most perilous disasters whose effects are seen in low agricultural output, poor economic wellbeing of people, and high levels of poverty. The emission of Greenhouse gases and the resultant global warming have far-reaching effects witnessed in the fluctuations of weather and poor agricultural output. The author observes that human activities added carbon dioxide levels to the atmosphere.
The article is properly introduced and the initial concerns about human activities on the environment and the emission of greenhouse gases are brought out clearly. By comparing the yearly variation in temperature with output in agricultural production, the notion of the effect of climate change is pointed as a key concept that impacts the economic wellbeing of people. This notion is well supported by Howard-Grenville, Buckle, and Hoskins (620) who view the current climate change as a major problem to the economy. The article convincingly explores climatic change and sustainability options in the methodology that culminates into results and discussions.
Besides, the article is categorical that the ability to restore the necessary integrity and sanctity of the environment can only be effected through an understanding of factual information and the application of effective environmental policies. This concurs with Fenton, Paavola, and Tallontires (270) perspective as well as the views by Haque and Azizul that an approach that provides factual information regarding climatic change is crucial in safeguarding the environment (360). From the onset, the author is critical of the hedonic approach to understanding temperature changes. Instead, they use of yearly temperature measurements is effectively employed to bring out the magnitude of the problem as opposed to dealing with theories only.
One of the greatest concerns of the article is whether there is a way out of the problem of global warming. The author of the article indicates that though the challenge is critical, it can be addressed, but only if the solution is sought from now. This leads to the question that the author fails to answer, what would happen if the uncontrolled effects of global warming catch up with the people? However, the article reflects the perspective by Lee and Hong-Yeon that following the massive effects of global warming on the economic wellbeing of people, it is only the empirical data that can facilitate the process of taking responsibility through the application of proper environmental models (5).
As Butos and McQuade indicate, passages in an article should be cohesive by assimilating a stand, introducing an issue, and posting possible solutions (170). The passages of this article have included the source of rising temperatures as human activities and have defined a methodology used to arrive at conclusions of the problem. This is very critical in facilitating further understanding of how the problem of the poor economic wellbeing of individuals from low agricultural output relates to global warming.
Notably, the use of statistics in the article makes the works of the authors have strong convincing power. The ideas in the write-up have been strongly supported by references and effective in-text citations. The article is indeed systematic with the flow of ideas and partitioning being highly effective. Besides, its concluding outlook is effective and does not end abruptly.
To sum up, an effective analysis in the article by Greenstone and Oliver has provided a clear evaluation of the impacts of climate change on the economy and has viewed it from several dimensions. My view is that the article offers a much deeper exploration of the discussed issue and tries to fix it in the context of the immediate setting.
References
Butos, William, and Thomas McQuade. Causes and consequences of the climate science boom. Independent Review 20.2 (2015): 165-196. Print.
Fenton, Adrian, Jouni Paavola, and Anne Tallontire. Microfinance and climate change adaptation: an overview of the current literature. Enterprise Development & Microfinance 26.3 (2015): 262-273. Print.
Greenstone, Michael, and Desche Oliver. The economic impacts of climate change: evidence from agricultural output and random fluctuations in weather. The American Economic review 97. 1(2014): 19-27. Print.
Haque, Shamima, and Islam Muhammad Azizul. Stakeholder pressures on corporate climate change-related accountability and disclosures: Australian evidence. Business & Politics 17.2 (2015): 355-390. Print.
Howard-Grenville, Jennifer, Simon Buckle, and Brian Hoskins Climate change and management. Academy of Management Journal 57.3(2014): 615623. Print.
Lee, Khil-Ha, and Cho Hong-Yeon. Projection of climate-induced future water temperature for the aquatic environment. Journal of Environmental Engineering 141.11 (2015): 1-7.print.
Since the very start of the awareness about the environmental issues, concerns for the future of the world, humankind and the planet have been the focus of everyones attention. Even though at present, the issue has worn out its welcome among the public, a number of organizations have been discussing the possible outcomes of global warming and the climate change which will inevitably follow. Of all the major organizations dealing with the notorious issue of climate change, the one this essay will be discussing is the United Nations Organization.
Because of the multiple issues which the UNO is trying to touch upon when dealing with the climate change issue, the entire project becomes highly questionable, mostly because it demands the cooperation of all the countries involved. Therefore, taking a closer look at the UNO course of actions, one can possibly see the flaws of the venture and suggest the means to improve.
To assess the UNO policy towards climate change, it is necessary to understand what the organization means when saying that there is a certain objective which the UNO is trying to reach. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (United Nations, 1992, p.3).
Thus, it is clear that the key focus of the UNO concerns for the planet nature revolves around the notorious issue of greenhouse gases and the destructive effect it has on the Earth atmosphere. In addition, it is quite important that the organization promises to take immediate measures to stop the effects of climate change as long as these effects prove negative; meanwhile, the changes which do not harm the environment are not going to be addressed: The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects (United Nations, 1992, p.4).
The given aspect is, no doubt, a considerable strength. However, the key limitation of the given measure is that the UNO has not yet come up with the strategy of classifying the effects of the climate change and whether UNO is able to embrace the entire palette of the climate change effects. While the change of temperature or humidity can be deadly to one kind of species, it can cause other species to develop.
It is important to stress that the UNO is taking a very careful approach to the issues in question. The members of the UNO state that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost (United Nations, 1992, p.4), which means that the organization takes the issue extremely seriously.
Speaking of the measures which the UNO has undertaken so far, it is essential to mention that these measures concern not only the environmental issues but also the political, economical and financial ones, which is a doubtless strength. For instance, it is quite important that the UNO has created the organization that aims at precisely one thing, i.e., ceasing the destructive effects of the climate change: Created in 1972, UNEP represents the United Nations environmental conscience.
Based in Nairobi, Kenya, its mission is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations (UNEP, Cities Alliance, UN-habitat, World Bank Launch Knowledge Centre on Cities and Climate Change, 2010).
In the course of its work, the UNO has offered a number of major results in the given sphere. Even though the effects of climate change are still evident and the process is still going on, UNO seems to have done everything possible to make the change of the environment as painless as possible. According to McMullers report (2009), three years ago, the major effects of the climate change were addressed, namely, the ice caps melting, the ocean levels rising, the unique ecosystems changing and rare species put under the blast. Also, the impact of climate change on poultry and cattle have been discussed (Goodland & Anhang, 2009). In addition, the UNO has considered the impact of climate change on indigenous nations (Climate change and indigenous peoples, 2007).
Offering their solutions to the problem, the UNO seems to pin its hopes on sustainable development. However, according to Drexhage and Murphy (2010), The concept and idea of sustainable development are widely accepted, and good progress has been made on sustainable development metrics; yet the implementation of sustainable development has been largely unsuccessful (Drexhage & Murphy, 2010, 12). However, there are considerable financial limitations to this solution.
Mostly because the major companies, whose funding is crucial for the UNO efficiency, do not see sustainable development as profitable and rewarding, the strategy can possibly fail. Nevertheless, the strength of this approach is illustrated by the fact that the strategy seems to help address the energy consumption issue, which means that the UNO needs to search for the ways to promote it more efficiently: Current patterns of energy production and consumption are unsustainable and threaten the environment on both local and global scales (AGECC, 2010, 7).
Nevertheless, even with all the results achieved, one must admit that there is a lot to be done. While the UNO focuses on the ice caps melting, there is still the deforestation (UNFCCC, 2011) and pollution (Nellenmann, Hein & Alder, n.d.) issues which need resolving. It seems that the organization needs more affiliates that could deal with specific problems rather than the UNEP which aims at tackling every issue and cannot handle all of them.
Thus, it is obvious that UNO is trying to hit too many targets when solving the issue of climate change. The chosen strategy does seem legitimate, since climate change, which is the result of global warming, is induced by a number of related factors and leads to a range of various outcomes in different spheres. Thus, to make the climate change process as harmless as possible, one needs to address each of the elements, which the UNO actually does.
However, in doing so, the organization misses on a number of details. In addition, engaging every single country of the world into the process is practically impossible, which is another reason for concerns. Thus, the UNO seems to be on the right track; however, the organization needs to reconsider a number of issues and change its policy towards a less general strategy, which will possibly lead to the most inspiring results.
Reference List
UNEP, Cities Alliance, UN-habitat, World Bank Launch Knowledge Centre on Cities and Climate Change, 2010. Web.
Climate change and its impact on biodiversity can be traced through the investigation of the ongoing transformations in the various ecosystems such as marine and forest environmental structures. Climate change affects human society as well, which can be easily demonstrated by the changes in agricultural practices (Moss et al. 750). The topic of the environmental transformation and its effects has been examined for decades and all the available data is considered in forecasting and designing different scenarios. The fundamental factor an adaptation of humanity to the changing environment justifies the necessity for an investigation of the climate transformation and its outcomes about biodiversity and the human population. This essays primary objective is to trace and evaluate the impact of climate change on biological diversity through the lens of transformations in the marine and forest ecosystems and evaluation of the agricultural sector both as an affected party and as one of the major contributors to the adverse effects associated with climate change.
Farming and Biodiversity
The effect of environmental changes on farming relates to economic and survival issues. In the agricultural sector, as well as in the various ecosystems of our planet, the main concern, associated with climate change, is the growing level of carbon dioxide and how it affects the cultivation of crops. Depending on the region, the changes in temperature can have both positive and negative impact: small beneficial impact on rainfed crop fields may be found in mid- and high-latitude regions with moderate-to-medium local increases in temperature along with the associated carbon dioxide increase and rainfall changes (Rosenzweig et al. par. 8). On the other hand, the same conditions in the low-latitude areas have an unfavorable effect on crops. The models of climate change on agriculture have to be developed with the greenhouse emission patterns and temperature rise is taken into account because the environmental transformations may significantly affect the provision of security. At the same time, the growing population of the Earth and, as a result, the increase in the food demand leads to the spreading of single-crop farms, which in turn contributes to the reduction of biodiversity. The artificial vegetation, introduction, and application of genetically modified species have adverse effects on various ecosystems as well.
Consequences of Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems
The increase of carbon dioxide levels triggers the increase of the atmosphere and water temperature that in turn influences the changes in wind, rainfall, and drainage patterns. Besides, a high level of carbon dioxide in the air leads to the accumulation of gas in water which results in acidification of the oceans: Sea-surface pH is estimated to have dropped by 0.1 pH units since the preindustrial era, a 26% increase in acidity over the past 150 years. Future projections suggest declines of an additional 0.2-0.3 pH units over this century (Doney et al. par. 8). This process has extremely negative an impact on the biological life of the oceans such as diminishing of reef accretion and forcing coral reefs into a negative carbonate balance (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno 1526). The transformation of climate affects the biodiversity of various organisms and the marine ecosystems and has both estimated and unexplored outcomes on the ocean and the environment. We can expect poleward species migrations that could reorganize traditional cold-adapted biomes, change biodiversity, and increase food-web complexity, with direct impact on carbon transfer within the polar ecosystem and enhanced connectivity with the global ocean system (Doney et al. par. 38).
Therefore, the organization of life in the marine ecosystems, along with the contiguous environments such as coastal, will change, which brings transformations of human society. For example, the alternated biological and climate patterns may force a particular part of the population that gets used to the previous ecological conditions to move to other regions that have a more habitual environment.
Forest Ecosystems
In comparison with the other ecosystems, trees are positively affected by the increase of the carbon dioxide level because they consume gas, which has an invigorating effect on their growth. Moreover, timberlands have a beneficial influence on the biological life of the forest ecosystems and the environment as a whole. For example, with drainage and casting shadows trees to lower the temperature and decrease erosion in the woods. Although the negative impact of carbon dioxide on climate, which includes weather changes, storms, and droughts leads the forests adaptation to them and changing biodiversity within ecosystems. As an illustration, insufficient water supply and high temperatures can lead to growth decline and increased mortality (Silva and Anand 84). However, the effect of climate change depends on the latitude. For example, the connection between intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) and growth rate differs from one region to other: Alpine trees, as well as the Mediterranean and boreal timberlands, demonstrate an increase in growth which is associated with the expansion of iWUE. At the same time, subtropical and tropical forests indicate a negative association between iWUE and tree growth rate (Silva and Anand 87).
While a high amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has a positive effect on the timberlands growth in several regions, the imbalance of other factors, which includes the water supply and changes in weather patterns, stimulates the adaptation processes that have a particular impact on the biodiversity of the forest ecosystems. The forecasted global warming and fire increase may trigger irrecoverable biodiversity losses and shifts in vegetational composition within a few decades or centuries at most (Lindner et al. 703). For example, plants, more tolerant of the higher temperature rates, become more widespread in the forests while the cold-sympathetic species gradually disappear.
Climate Change and Biodiversity
The environment change has a significant influence on biodiversity and, as a result, affects human society. A decrease in the vegetation biodiversity may reduce plant production and alter decomposition (Cardinale et al. 1). Moreover, changes in the species distinction within various ecosystems trigger climate transformations as well. This reciprocal process has been evaluated by Cardinale and his colleagues and it was concluded that in areas where local species loss this century falls, negligible effects on biomass production will result, and changes in species richness will rank low relative to the effects projected for other environmental changes (1). Therefore, observation and evaluation of the processes connected to climate altercation have to be seriously contemplated because even insignificant changes may have unpredicted implications.
Conclusion
The transformation of the environment contributes to metamorphose in various ecological and biological domains. Changes in the forest and marine ecosystems, as well as in the agricultural patterns, demonstrate a significant impact on biodiversity. The species that move from one territory to another following the changing weather patterns, along with the animals and plants that adapt to climate transformation, inevitably lead to environmental changes. These reciprocal processes affect human society in various ways such as adaptation to new conditions, moving to more habitual areas, or changing the patterns of harmful activities which minimizes the adverse effects on the environment.
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