Project-based learning is an ever-changing approach to teaching students new ways to find solutions to the problems they encounter with both their studies and real-life experiences. Problem-based learning involves developing cross-curriculum skills for students while they work in small groups. In addition, project-based learning provides an active and interactive learning environment that enables students to master various subjects quickly where they experience difficulty as its purpose is to let students retain knowledge as compared to other approaches used for teaching purposes (Edutopia, 2015).
Overview of the General Problem to Be Established
The general problem for the case study is that pupils in a particular class are not gaining from the experiences being delivered to them by their classroom educator. From the student’s data collected, it is recorded that a good fraction of them are always frustrated through the lessons, bored, and not understanding the concepts being presented to them by their classroom educator. Therefore, the problem to be established in this case study is to get the teacher to try to use project-based learning towards her students to enable them to grasp the core concepts being passed in the classroom lessons. The intuition behind this is that project-based learning provides students with an opportunity to be evaluated based on their projects while enjoying the greater flexibility of project learning.
Overview of How Students Will Be Assigned and Monitored
Students will be assigned and monitored through groups created by the classroom educator. They will be allocated according to complex series where they experience difficulty or challenges, and they will be controlled through how well they interact with team members over time and their personal participation in the group. Moreover, the assignment process may also involve group inclusions with the external academia to assist them in areas where they encounter difficulty to help in developing their professional skills and networks within and outside classroom lessons (Larmer, Mergendoller, & Boss, 2015).
Description of the Problem Developed By the Group and Presented In Class
As a result of the project-based learning, formed groups developed problems responsible for them not understanding the concepts being passed by the classroom educator as follows; Initially, they lacked flexibility in learning as the former instructional method used by their teacher did not give them room to assess their traditional participation in various activities. Secondly, the students also came up with a problem that the former instructional method used by the classroom educator did not allow them to integrate technology with their studies as the majority of them were well versed in technological matters.
Lastly, through their groups, students also developed the problem that their former instructional method was grading them based on comparatively narrow rubrics that are defined by activities done in class rather than classifying them on the basis of their projects (Savery, 2012).
Common Characteristics of Problem Based Learning
The common characteristics of problem-based learning are that the project should make sense when applied to one’s personal life. This implies that the task related to it should only be things or activities that matter. Secondly, problem-based learning should also explore problems that exist. This implies that the problem being researched should be something that exists as the aim of the PBL is to find solutions to existing problems in real-life situations. Thirdly, the PBL should also be flexible and accommodating to one’s opinion as the results should be based on the accuracy and effectiveness of those tasked with the core. Lastly, the PBL should fulfill all the goals and objectives of the curriculum in question (Stephen & Gallagher, 2013).
Addressing an Open-Ended Question Posed To Each Group
In discussing an open-ended question posed to each group, the classroom educator should be at the forefront because the success the PBL greatly relies on his or her input. The classroom instructor should work to guide the groups in her classroom as facilitation is an excellent job when success is desired amongst the groups formed in a classroom.
How the 21st Century Skills Are Learned or Applied To the Project
In the case study project, 21st-century skills can be used to equip students with the expertise needed by the current employers. This is because the job market today has become highly competitive, and such things like technology control practically all functional government, industry, and professional accreditation centers. In using PBL, students can work with computers and other related technologies to match the employer’s needs for new recruits in the job market.
Moreover, the 21st century is witnessing institutional rebranding, and only when the classroom educator applies PBL as an instructional tool can the students acquire skills of institutional rebranding needed by job seekers in the century (Wardle, 2013).
How Culturally Relevant Strategies Are Included or Applied Within the Project
Culturally appropriate strategies can be incorporated into the project inform of effective strategies used by the classroom educator on her students. The issues of diversity in culture are an issue that, when not properly addressed, affect the student’s performance negatively. Therefore, the classroom educator should be culturally aware of her students to incorporate their different cultures into the learning process. Likewise, students should also be accommodating enough to show cultural responsiveness in their studies (Wardle, 2013).
Conclusion
In conclusion, developing project-based learning is an important aspect of classroom lessons as it stimulates students in different learning environments through a changed curriculum that enables them to study, restore and grasp core concepts that they could not understand through traditional approaches.
Larmer, J., Mergendoller, J., & Boss, S. (2015). Setting the standard for project-based learning.Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Savery, R. (2012).Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Stephen, W., & Gallagher, A. (2013).Problem-based Learning. New York: Springer Publishing.
Wardle, F. (2013). Human relationships and learning in the multicultural environment. San Diego:Bridgepoint Education.
Classroom floor plan for 1st Grade: Language Development
The general floor plan: center-based
The 1st grade classroom for language development should allow for many different centers. The floor plan may have library, art area, computer, literacy and reading, dramatic play, large group, and science area among others. All areas address various issues concerning language development, physical, cognitive, emotional, or social needs of learners. Apart from these centers, a classroom floor plan also has other areas, which facilitate learning and teaching. These areas create conducive learning environment for learners.
This paper addresses only three areas (in the above floor plan) in a classroom floor plan that can facilitate language acquisition in 1st grade classroom.
Reading Area
There are many literacy materials in this area. They include books, letter charts, papers, and site words. There are also listening materials in the reading area for book tapes or music to facilitate reading, listening, and literacy.
The area provides several opportunities for group reading, discussions, writing, and collaboration with other learners so that learners can develop abilities to read and understand written materials. In all, the area must facilitate the acquisition of language skills like “reading comprehension, language, social, and writing skills” (Morrow, 2003).
The teacher introduces various books to learners. Learners can choose interesting books for reading purposes. The teacher then reads the book as children listen. He may then ask the children what they can remember from the book. At this stage, the teacher only provides minimal support to the children so that they can understand the text on their own. Children must take turn in reading the book as the teacher guides them.
Learners must read loudly for the whole class to hear. The teacher must also provide opportunities for learners to recap the book. The teacher may introduce verbal skills by asking questions as learners respond. He may also help learners to learn new words and develop their vocabulary skills by defining such words.
Teachers can assess the effectiveness of reading areas by observing reading, comprehension, writing, interaction, and vocabulary usages among learners. Positive results could indicate that the reading center has enhanced language development among learners.
Art Center
Art center has paints, crayons, papers, markers, and other materials for art works. Children have tendencies to express their ideas through drawings and pictures, and use different colors to show different emotions. They also develop motor skills by cutting and fixing materials. At the same time, learners develop their cognitive skills by expressing their ideas on papers or drawing boards. Language development takes place in cases where learns can verbalize various forms of arts.
Teachers can recognize how learners develop their language skills through various actions. For instance, a learner begins to request for art materials in order to create his or her object. They may also call for help from the teacher or other learners. The teacher’s role is to ask if any learner needs help. Consequently, learners will have to request for the teacher’s help in cases of difficulties.
Learners must actively engage in expressing their ideas through drawings and words. The teacher can request a learner to explain the content of the art he or she has created.
The teacher can assess the discussion and verbalization skills among learners in order to understand the effectiveness of the art center in language development.
Technology Center
Technology center for language development should encourage collaboration, learners’ motivation, and encouraging reading and listening. Computers have several programs to help learners acquire language skills. Learners can develop fine motor skills through typing processes. Computers also have games, which can broaden their thinking abilities. At the same time, new terminologies used in computers can help in developing learners’ vocabulary.
Learners have passions for playing computer games. These games are useful in developing language skills. In addition, there are also programs, which teach language skills on computers. Software developers have linked fun and language development skills for learners. The main role of the teacher is to instruct learners and watch them as they read and listen.
Learners can also read e-books. There are also audio versions, which learners can listen to as they follow written words of the text on the screen. This helps learners to develop advanced reading and listening skills. Children have deep interests in machines and technologies. The strategy may develop learners’ interests and help reluctant learners practice new methods of reading. Teachers can assess listening abilities, reading skills, vocabulary usages, and interests in computer-aided classes.
The ideal classroom for language development must have various centers and facilities to encourage the acquisition of social, language, cognitive, reading, and other skills related to learning. Such a floor plan also accommodates needs of other learners. Therefore, such centers have abilities to meet language acquisition needs among learners.
Teachers who understand how learners acquire languages are able to promote effective language development. Provisions of effective learning environments and appropriate materials can ensure that learners acquire new skills in language development (Piper, 2012).
References
Morrow, L. (2003). Organizing and managing the language arts block: A professional development guide. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Piper, T. (2012). Making Meaning, Making Sense: Children’s Early Language Learning. San Diego: Bridgepoint Education.
Technology has created vast opportunities for advancing pedagogy and building the setting in which students are highly motivated and very productive in their work. However, numerous options that innovative technology and especially IT provides are yet to be explored. For instance, the integration of multimedia presentations into the contemporary academic setting and particularly into the environment of flipped classrooms requires a thorough analysis.
Goals
The goals of the paper include studying the nature of FC, their advantages and disadvantages, determining the notion of MP, their components, benefits, and problems, and locating the effects that the identified stools have on students’ ability to learn, think critically, socialize, and communicate both within and outside the classroom.
Research Question
The study seeks to answer the following question: “How does the application of multimedia presentations in flipped classrooms affect literacy practices, students’ perceptions, and social behaviors in the classroom and outside of it?”
Expected Outcomes
It is believed that the adoption of the MP-based technique in an FC environment will contribute vastly to the enhancement of students’ academic and social skills. This paper posits that the use of MP in the FC setting helps to promote autonomy in students, encourages them to think critically and creatively, fosters communication skills in the target demographic, and sets the stage for the further development, both within the classroom environment and outside of it.
Introduction
Technology has altered the landscape of modern communication entirely, and the changes to all domains of people’s interactions are still taking place. Education is no exception to the specified phenomenon, technological innovations being applied to all facets of teaching and learning, and both incremental and non-incremental technology being explored in-depth as possible tools in teaching and learning (Watts & Ibrahim, 2015).
The effects that innovative informational technologies (IT) have on students and the learning process, in general, are twofold. On the one hand, these IT tools are deployed successfully to improve the quality of teaching and assist students in addressing particular learning challenges, such as the need to memorize a vast amount of data (Lin, Hwang, Fu, & Chen, 2018). On the other hand, the application of IT in the classroom also implies a change in learners’ social skills and the use of social practices.
Therefore, the goal of this review is to study the effects that particular innovative technology has on learners’ academic and social skills, as well as the changes that students experience in their communication with the application of these technologies. This paper seeks to answer the following question: the technologies of flipped classrooms (FC) and multimedia presentations (MPs) and their effects on students’ perceptions of communication, as well as their social behaviors both in the classroom and outside of it.
Flipped Classrooms: Definition and Characteristics
Although having been introduced comparatively recently, the idea of flipped classrooms itself does not imply the active use of technologically advanced tools. Instead, it provides a different perspective on the idea of training skills and applying theories to resolving practical issues (Watts & Ibrahim, 2015). However, with the integration of IT devices into the academic setting, the concept of FC has gained a new meaning and extended the opportunities for teaching students.
Due to the opportunities that IT tools provide for managing information and transferring it, the phenomenon of flipped classrooms has given chances for both improving students’ academic skills and extending their social ones. The application of tools such as concept maps, in turn, will allow students to navigate the process.
University of South Dakota
The concept of a flipped classroom (FC) implies that the activities that are traditionally regarded as home assignments and analyzing them in the school setting. With the integration of IT into the FC framework, educators received a chance to coordinate the work of students more effectively, at the same time ensuring that the issues associated with assignments are discussed thoroughly and managed respectively (Çevikbaş & Argün, 2017).
The resulting rise in communication, including cooperation between students and the learner-teacher dialogue has opened a vast array of possibilities for learning (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). Specifically, direct feedback with the further introduction of a learner-specific approach, as well as the promotion of autonomy among learners by placing emphasis on peer assessment, can be seen as critical aspects of the FC setting (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). Therefore, FC as a tool for encouraging communication within the academic setting and outside of it warrants an in-depth exploration.
Multimedia Presentations and Their Opportunities
Along with the changes to shift the roles, the integration of the latest technological tools, including multimedia content, has emerged. The use of multimedia allows making even the mundane elements of classroom activities such as presentations new and exciting. MPs as a specimen of innovative technology and IT allow making FL activities much more engaging for students and enhancing the learning process (Vazquez & Chiang, 2016). Particularly, due to the introduction of the elements that invite students to interact with MPs as opposed to being passive viewers, deserves especially close attention.
Among the MP tools that should be seen as the specimens of stellar integration of IT tools and traditional media to enhance learning, one should mention Prezi (Chou, Chang, & Lu, 2015). Prezi as online software helps arrange all available data, including visual and audial information, into a single experience that learners in the FC will perceive as the incentive to start a dialogue (Martin & Carr, 2015). Similar tools will have to be incorporated into the learning process to prompt critical and organized thinking in students (Yilmaz, 2017).
Moreover, using Prezi as the basis for home assignments will motivate learners to be creative in solving tasks and representing their arguments (Ilhan& Oruç, 2016). MPs offer a plethora of chances for engaging students and rearranging their thinking process, thus improving their academic skills.
Multimedia Presentations in Flipped and Regular Classrooms
The application of multimedia presentations in FC is quite different from their use in the traditional academic setting. While the application of MPs in the traditional classroom environment is also critical to the effective learning process, it serves an especially important function in the FC context (Simpson & Richards, 2015). Particularly, the MP tool allows students to map their progress and ensure that they are fully aware of the goals of the lesson, their role in it, and the principles according to which they should accomplish the tasks (Watts & Ibrahim, 2015). Particularly, the peer assessment techniques will require the presence of consistent guidelines that students will follow.
The adoption of MPs in the FC context will also help approach the issue of the autonomy myth delicately and balance between encouraging learners’ independence and supervising their progress closely. According to the tenets of the theory of the autonomy myth, the idea of autonomy as a notion is tenuous at best (Sun, Xie, & Anderman, 2018). However, by defying learners their autonomy in the academic setting, one is likely to discourage them from participating actively in the FC setting and discussing the issues that may pose significant obstacles in their future learning (Vazquez & Chiang, 2016).
The adoption of the selected combination of FC and MPs, in turn, will encourage students to recognize the intrinsic connection and dependence between the work of each member of the system, at the same time realizing that they play a unique role in it.
Theoretical Frameworks
In order to explore the effects of IT and its application both within a classroom and outside of it on students’ ability to learn and socialize, one will need to deploy several theoretical frameworks. Thus, one will be able to examine the effects of the proposed strategies on changes in learners’ perceptions from a pedagogical standpoint and a sociological stance. In the case under analysis, one will need to consider both traditional theories such as the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), and more recent ones, such as the Conceptual Design Framework. As a result, a profound assessment of the changes that students will experience will be possible.
Conceptual Design Framework
The Conceptual Design Framework (CDF) allows determining the outcomes of using IT tools by teachers on students’ ability to acquire knowledge. CDF is a framework that allows for embracing different aspects of the learning and teaching process (Holmberg, 2017). Therefore, its integration into the analysis will help define the effects that the use of MPs in C will have on learners.
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
The adoption of the PSI technique, in turn, should be regarded as a crucial element of the analysis. The PSI theoretical approach allows exploring the differences in knowledge representation that can be observed during the interactions between learners, as well as during the dialogue between a student and a teacher (Arnold-Garza, 2014). Therefore, the proposed framework needs to be integrated into the analysis.
Design-Based Research (DBR)
The application of CDF enables one to adopt a Design-Based Research strategy (DBR), which helps to build an intrinsic understanding of the manner in which a particular academic program is implemented within the selected setting. Due to the focus on the evidence-based analysis, the proposed technique is expected to produce a vastly positive effect on the analysis and help to obtain crucial results.
Review of Literature
Changes in Social Practices: Effects of Multimedia Technology and Flipped Classrooms
Studies show that the integration of technological innovations into the FC settings has a profoundly positive effect on students’ ability to communicate and apply critical thinking. The issue of peer assessments should be mentioned as one of the critical aspects of the proposed technique that will entail inevitable positive changes in social practices. Specifically, the application of MPs in the FC environment will help learners to explore different social roles. For instance, in the course of using multimedia tools, students will develop the critical skills that will define their ability to process information, share it with peers, and use it to solve problems both in class and as a home assignment (Hwang, Lai, & Wang, 2015).
Furthermore, in regard to the illusion of autonomy discussed above, the MP tools used in the FC setting will help learners recognize not only the intrinsic fallacy in the notion of complete autonomy but also recognize the necessity to depend on each other during teamwork. In the grand scheme of the situation, the scenario involving the use of MPs in the FC environment will encourage learners to cooperate and communicate productively, building their teamwork-related skills.
Moreover, it is likely that the integration of MPs in the FC setting will help students differentiate between their efforts as team members and their personal growth (Vazquez & Chiang, 2016). Thus, the dilemma regarding the autonomy will be partially resolved since the students will perceive the academic process is a cooperation between them and their peers.
It could be argued that the role of a teacher will be reduced since the MP use will imply the minimization of teacher’s commentaries concerning the assignments. However, the role of an educator should not be underrated in the described scenario, either. Particularly, a teacher should adopt scaffolding techniques that will allow students to be proactive during the lesson, at the same time receiving support and assistance from a teacher (Daly, Bulloch, Ma, & Aidulis, 2016). Thus, the significance of cooperation and the promotion of a certain degree of autonomy within the setting of teamwork and collaboration will be possible.
Changes in Students’ Perception: Multimedia Technology in Flipped Classrooms
The application of MPs will also cause a significant shift in students’ perception of learning and communication. According to the existing evidence, multimedia both engage learners and invite them to reconsider their roles in the classroom environment (Basal, 2015). As a result, students can participate as not only team members but also leaders, mediators, and researchers, trying every possible role and acquiring the related communication skills.
Learners’ perception of the information that they receive is also bound to change as MPs are integrated into the FC context. For instance, studies show that the incorporation of multimedia elements into the university setting leads to an increase in both the levels of comprehension among target audiences and the rates of information retention (Vazquez & Chiang, 2016). Consequently, the use of multimedia and especially MPs causes a gradual yet massive change in students’ interpretation of studied subjects and their significance (Lee, 2014). Therefore, researches indicate that the use of multimedia is critical to promoting learners’ motivation and changing their stance on the process of learning, in general.
Changes in Social Behaviors: Multimedia Technology in Flipped Classrooms
The use of multimedia in the context of FC is also known to produce a shift in learners’ interactions and communication patterns. Research proves that, by including multimedia and particularly MPs into the classroom setting, educators instigate a change in the classroom dynamics, causing learners to converse more frequently and actively (DeLozier & Rhodes, 2017). Moreover, the adoption of the proposed technique incites the change in the conflict dynamics among students since they switch from the subjective interpretation of a confrontation to a more objective one (Block, Radley, Jenson, Clark, & O’Neill, 2015). As a result, learners tend to seek a solution to a conflict rather than aggravating the situation with aggression.
Discussion
Addressing Possible Negative Consequences and Maximizing Positive Outcomes
The review of the existing literature has shown that the application of MPs produces an especially powerful impact on learners in the FC set. The phenomenon of MPs leading to better performances among students in FC can be explained by the focus on collaboration and peer support that it provides, as well as the unique challenges that the MP technology offers to students (Surjono, 2015).
Moreover, the adoption of the MP tools in the FC environment is also likely to challenge learners’ perception of studying and communication outside the school environment For instance, with the promotion of a reasonable amount of learner autonomy, students will be able to develop the curiosity needed to gain motivation toward critical thinking and creativity (Leow & Neo, 2014). Apart from helping learners to excel in their academic life, the application of MPs and the use of software such as Prezi will help students to communicate by sharing information and experiences, as well as engaging in emotional discussions of the provided material.
As the review has shown, the issue of autonomy can also be addressed by introducing a middle ground between giving students the full agency and providing rigid supervision of their academic progress. By inviting learners to view the academic setting and their individual learning processes as a mechanism in which each part performs a crucial function, one will foster both a more profound understanding of learning and the importance of cooperation in students (Schrader & Rapp, 2016).
The review has also shown that the adoption of the proposed techniques affects students’ ability to perceive different types of information, thus enriching their experience and having a profound impact on their communication skills. By integrating the elements of verbal and non-verbal communication into MPs, an educator fosters the idea of multifaceted learning in students and invites them to experience the process of learning as a complex phenomenon that requires its every participant to deliver the performance of the appropriate level.
Among the key gaps in the literature, one should mention the lack of focus on how MPs should be integrated into FC. While the positive effects on MPs in the classroom environment are described in detail, the strategies for incorporating MPs into an FC lesson could use more elaboration. Therefore, addressing the specified gaps and studying the strategies for introducing MPs into the FC environment should be seen as an important area of research.
Therefore, it is expected that the application of MPs in the FC context will allow changing students’ perspectives on learning and communication to a considerable degree. In addition, a gradual change in learners’ social behaviors is expected to occur. Due to the promotion of critical and creative thinking, as well as the emphasis on teamwork, which MPs in the FC setting promote, learners are expected to manage conflicts in communication more effectively. For instance, students will accept the roles of leaders and peacemakers by using the skills in shifting from one role to another that they will gain during classes.
Moreover, given the fact that numerous studies view analytical thinking as one of the key effects of MPs in FC, students are expected to extrapolate their skills to manage complex social situations and approach confrontations objectively. The described change does not imply that students will be denied the chance to explore their emotions; quite the contrary, self-directed analysis will be encouraged. However, instead of viewing conflict as a means to an end, using it as a source of important knowledge about them, their opponents, and conflict management will be fostered.
Synergetic Use of Innovative Technology: Opportunities in Multimedia Technology and Flipped Classrooms
Synergy is a crucial aspect of using IT and particularly MPs in the classroom. As the study by Spector (2014) explains, the application of IT tools in the classroom setting provides a chance to establish synergetic principles as the platform for further learning. The adoption of MPs will allow for a seamless transition to the synergetic environment in which students will adjust to using MPs quickly. The proposed approach will create opportunities for game-based learning, which will entice learners into participating and will build their motivation levels accordingly (Spector, 2014).
Possible Challenges and the Means of Managing Them
The adoption of MPs in the FC environment is likely to lead to vastly positive outcomes among learners due to the focus on communication and cooperation. By emphasizing the importance of peer support, educators will encourage learners to change their current behaviors. Furthermore, learners will be able to embrace the unique characteristics of their personalities and grow both as students and as members of society to improve the quality of their interactions.
The shift in behaviors will also imply the promotion of scientific curiosity and the development of academic inquiry (Bae, Kim, Kim, & So, 2015). Thus, the students are highly likely to gain impressive success in both their academic endeavors and social communication.
Teachers, in turn, should assume the role of a support system, mediators, and supervisors, yet their primary goal will be to act as educators. Encouraging learners and building their motivation, at the same time scaffolding them toward the further acquisition of critical skills should be deemed as the top priority for educators (Jensen, Kummer, & Godoy, 2015). Thus, a gradual change in the contemporary academic setting will be expected. However, the analysis of the literature on the topic of MPs in FC has sparked other questions. For example, the means of controlling changes in students’ behavior and introducing a student-specific approach remain unknown. Therefore, it will be necessary to study the methods of ensuring learners’ progress and gearing them toward the expected results.
Conclusion
With the advent of innovative IT and disruptive technologies that have affected every domain of communication, the importance of applying them in the academic setting has grown exponentially. Among the key effects that the specified changes have helped introduce, the multifaceted nature of learning serves a particularly important mission.
By integrating multimedia, in general, and MPs, in particular into the environment of C, a teacher will be able to encourage a significant shift in learners’ perceptions of their academic endeavors, their communication with peers and teachers, and the process of social interactions on a larger scale. Using MPs as a foundation for encouraging dialogue within the FC setting, a teacher will be able to control the process of students’ independent learning. Furthermore, the application of MPs in the FC environment will open students to the possibilities of the multicultural dialogue due to the introduction of several modes of communication in MPs.
Reflection
The overview of the studies shows that the promotion of MPs in FC should be seen as a crucial component of contemporary education. By including the described approach into the array of strategies used in the modern academic setting, one will build the framework for fostering academic and personal development in learners. Thus, next time, the application of the designed technique will lead to the enhancement of students’ ability to think critically, develop motivation for further learning, and participate actively during the learning process will have to be studied. The designed technique will become the basis for creating a synergetic approach toward learning and assisting students in the process of personal growth.
References
Arnold-Garza, S. (2014). The flipped classroom teaching model and its use for information literacy instruction. Communications in Information Literacy, 8(1), 7-22.
Bae, J., Kim, J., Kim, E., & So, K. H. (2015). The effect of elementary free inquiry lessons utilizing flipped learning with smart devices on the elementary students’ digital literacy, 21st century skills and scientific attitude. Journal of Korean Elementary Science Education, 34(4), 476-485.
Basal, A. (2015). The implementation of a flipped classroom in foreign language teaching. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 16(4), 28-37.
Block, H. M., Radley, K. C., Jenson, W. R., Clark, E., & O’Neill, R. E. (2015). Effects of a multimedia social skills program in increasing social responses and initiations of children with autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 3(1), 16-24.
Çevikbaş, M., & Argün, Z. (2017). An innovative learning model in digital age: Flipped classroom. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(11), 189-200.
Chou, P. N., Chang, C. C., & Lu, P. F. (2015). Prezi versus PowerPoint: The effects of varied digital presentation tools on students’ learning performance. Computers & Education, 91, 73-82.
Daly, C. J., Bulloch, J. M., Ma, M., & Aidulis, D. (2016). A comparison of animated versus static images in an instructional multimedia presentation. Advances in Physiology Education, 40(2), 201-205.
DeLozier, S. J., & Rhodes, M. G. (2017). Flipped classrooms: A review of key ideas and recommendations for practice. Educational Psychology Review, 29(1), 141-151.
Holmberg, J. (2017). Applying a conceptual design framework to study teachers’ use of educational technology. Education and Information Technologies, 22(5), 2333-2349.
Hwang, G. J., Lai, C. L., & Wang, S. Y. (2015). Seamless flipped learning: A mobile technology-enhanced flipped classroom with effective learning strategies. Journal of Computers in Education, 2(4), 449-473.
Ilhan, G. O., & Oruç, S. (2016). Effect of the use of multimedia on students’ performance: A case study of social studies class. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(8), 877-882.
Jensen, J. L., Kummer, T. A., & Godoy, P. D. D. M. (2015). Improvements from a flipped classroom may simply be the fruits of active learning. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 14(1), 1-12.
Lee, I. S. (2014). An innovative approach to teaching-learning process through multimedia presentation. Journal of Digital Contents Society, 15(2), 173-179.
Leow, F. T., & Neo, M. (2014). Interactive multimedia learning: Innovating classroom education in a Malaysian university. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 13(2), 99-110.
Lin, C. J., Hwang, G. J., Fu, Q. K., & Chen, J. F. (2018). A flipped contextual game-based learning approach to enhancing EFL students’ English business writing performance and reflective behaviors. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 117-131.
Martin, F., & Carr, M. L. (2015). An exploratory study on K-12 teachers’ use of technology and multimedia in the classroom. Journal of Educational Technology, 12(1), 7-14.
O’Flaherty, J., & Phillips, C. (2015). The use of flipped classrooms in higher education: A scoping review. The Internet and Higher Education, 25(1), 85-95.
Schrader, P. G., & Rapp, E. E. (2016). Does multimedia theory apply to all students? The impact of multimedia presentations on science learning. Journal of Learning and Teaching in Digital Age (JOLTIDA), 1(1), 32-46.
Simpson, V., & Richards, E. (2015). Flipping the classroom to teach population health: Increasing the relevance. Nurse Education in Practice, 15(3), 162-167.
Spector, J. M. (2014). Emerging educational technologies: Tensions and synergy. Journal of King Saud University-Computer and Information Sciences, 26(1), 5-10.
Sun, Z., Xie, K., & Anderman, L. H. (2018). The role of self-regulated learning in students’ success in flipped undergraduate math courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 36, 41-53.
Surjono, H. D. (2015). The effects of multimedia and learning style on student achievement in online electronics course. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 14(1), 116-122.
Vazquez, J. J., & Chiang, E. P. (2016). Preparing students for class: A clinical trial testing the efficacy between multimedia pre-lectures and textbooks in an economics course. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 13(2), 37-46.
Watts, A., & Ibrahim, M. (2015). Examining the effects of employing various multimedia tools in a flipped classroom on pre-service teachers’ self efficacy and knowledge application abilities. In EdMedia: World conference on educational media and technology (pp. 971-977). Las Vegas, NV: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Yilmaz, R. (2017). Exploring the role of e-learning readiness on student satisfaction and motivation in flipped classroom. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 251-260.
Educator Dr. Bernndette Anand communicates with students from diverse parts and each class within their school is weighed up by their race, sex, and intellectual record. The tracking experience they underwent permits students to come together in an organization where all individuals can be heard and are accountable for attaining greater than average scholar principles.
As suggested in the study by Ballantine and Hammack, “sociology of education as a field is devoted to understanding educational systems…” (2); this is why multicultural society should educate students with the help of multicultural setting created at schools and educational institutions of other levels. Students discuss, how being a minor race, they were not good enough to take on progressive classes, and the end results will show what they had argued (ELC381site part 1).
The concerns within their high school was over the years minority students are identified as underachievers and not recognized or put in a more challenging class like white students who are put in to these classes automatically. Furthermore, in order for these minority groups to get into these classes that students are accomplishing because of skin color they must take a look at what they can do to discourage these discrepancies and offer all students a better and more fairer prospect in their own education.
Tracking was intended for the system to look at all students more equal because of their grades and accomplishments rather than their backgrounds and to understand that whites have been recognized as more apt to be admitted in to these classes and prejudice traditions are still in effect and can do to break that cycle. Applying tracking to literature for students to read and discuss concerns openly helps them open up and address their relative concerns, and pupils can strategize opinions.
For instance, in the study by Perez, students are described with regard to their numerous identities but encounter problems related to education as Penelope who cannot go to college because of her status (3-5). Individuals admit they know they are equal in the institution and have the right and are as apt as the next student to accomplish the same grades regardless of history and the color of their skin.
The connection between distinct identities, human status, and tracking is minorities feel they are negatively detached when separated because of their educational performance and feel they are not promoted because of statistics and history. They agree when students are tracked scholastic levels are also taught on a more advanced echelon so it increases their ability to learn and that these strategies are more hopeful and thriving regardless of grades and learning degree.
One purpose of reversing this was to educate students of all backgrounds that skin color and names are only skin deep and to eliminate labeling because of what they look like. Furthermore, each culture is discussed in depth for other ethnicities to understand one another and how they are only uniquely different and all in all the same.
Educators were making an effort to discuss who they are and how important it was for them to be involved in social issues their students face, and by providing cultural knowledge it reveals the only differences in them is physical because one is as capable of succeeding as the next. Culture is unique and will help them to understand that all high school students have the opportunity and can over achieve regardless of where they actually come from.
Works Cited
Ballantine, Jeanne H., and Floyd M. Hammack. The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis. 6th ed. New York: Pearson, 2008. Print.
Values are quite imperative in children’s lives. This is considering the fact that values help children to make proper choices at their tender age and even later when they are adults. Values are aspects that are held with high esteem and things that really matter to concerned parties. (Rubinstein, 2005)
Various people around children usually have the responsibility of instilling values in children. They include parents, older siblings, teachers and the community at large. This paper therefore looks at the values for children and how they can be supported in their development of inner discipline in the classroom. (Dreikurs, 2004)
Values for children
One of the values that are very essential in children is honesty. This is whereby children speak the truth at all times. The twenty first century has been characterised by children as young as two-three years speaking a lot of lies. Honesty is an imperative virtue in children. As children uphold honesty, they also gain the trust of adults around them such as teachers and parents. (Goetz, 1998)
Obedience is also another value that children need to have. Many children all over the world are highly characterised by disobedience to their seniors. This is very common in highly affluent families where children are pampered with all manner of goodies and are given lots of money. Children need to be obedient to their teachers, parents and any elderly person around them. This has to be carried out despite the people’s social income status. (Montessori, 1967)
In addition to obedience, children should have respect for their seniors. They should not be rude towards their parents, teachers and elderly people in general. Respect calls for children acknowledging the authority in people around them. This is a value that is quite essential in children of all ages. (Montessori, 1984)
Children also need to uphold the value of patience even as they interact with other children and with adults. They need to be patient with their parents in times when they are not in a position to provide what they want. They should also be forgiving. This is considering the fact that in their day to day interactions, they may be wronged by other people. (Levin, 1952)
Development of inner discipline in classroom
It is quite essential to develop inner discipline in the classroom. This can be carried out in different ways. One of the ways to develop inner discipline in the classroom is to serve as the best example. Children tend to emulate their teachers on what the teachers do in their presence. In developing inner discipline among students in class one has to practice the discipline while in class together with the students. (Gordon, 1998)
According to Wolf, (1996) students can also be supported in development of inner discipline in class by talking to them on about their indiscipline in class in a caring and loving manner. This needs to be carried out with a lot of confidentiality. The teacher can get to know why a student behaves in an indiscipline manner while in class. (Palmer, 1998)
As the student opens up, the teacher can then correct and instruct the child on how to behave in a disciplined manner while in class. Through constant guiding and counselling, teachers can therefore give relevant support to children in as far as development of inner discipline in class is concerned. (Fields and Debby, 1997)
Another way through which a teacher can support students to develop inner discipline while in class is through rewards. This is by rewarding the most disciplined student or child in the presence of others. Children love gifts. The reward can be in the form of small gifts such as snacks. This will motivate the rest of the children to develop an inner discipline while in class knowing that they will get due rewards. (Curwin and Mendler, 1988)
A teacher can also support children to develop inner discipline in class by giving them relevant books to read. This can include interesting story books, newspapers and magazines that illustrate the correct behaviour that students need to have in class. (Nelsen, 1981)
As they read them they will tend to emulate the character seen therein hence developing discipline in class. Support can also be given by allowing students to visit other schools where there is high discipline in class. In this case, they can be allowed on some occasions to learn together. This will help students to easily emulate the discipline of their peers while in class. (Montessori, 1995)
Conclusion
In conclusion, values are aspects that are usually held with high esteem. Values in children are normally instilled by the people around them. Values for children include obedience. This is where children willingly obey their seniors when they are sent, called etc. Other values include honesty, respect, patience and forgiveness. There are various ways through which support can be given to children so that they can develop inner discipline in class. This is by the teacher serving as the best example to students. Rewards can also be given to the student who is most disciplined. This should be done in the presence of the rest of the students and the reason made very clear to them. Support can also be given to students by simply talking to them about discipline in class in a loving and caring manner. All this will help children to uphold discipline while in class.
Reference
Curwin, R. and Mendler, B. (1988): Discipline with dignity; ASCD
Dreikurs, R. (2004): Children the challenge; New York; Paperback
Fields, V. and Debby (1997): Constructive guidance and discipline. (4th Ed) Prentice Press
Goertz, D. (1998): Children who are not yet peaceful; Free press
Gordon, T. (1998): Parent effectiveness training; CA; Three Rivers Press
Levin, D. (1952): Remote control childhood? New York; Mothering magazine
Montessori, M. (1967): The Montessori Method; New York; Buccaneer Books
Montessori, M. (1984): The secret of childhood; CA Education system publisher
Montessori, M. (1995): The absorbent mind; New York; Buccaneer Books
Nelsen, J. (1981): Positive discipline; New York; Three Rivers Press
Palmer, P. (1998): The courage to teach; New York; Paperback
Rubinstein, G. (2005): Reluctant disciplinarian; New York; Mc GrawHill Press
Wolf, A. (1996): Nurturing the spirit; New York; Paperback
Philosophical perspectives embody a collection of attitudes and values that have been used by many individuals in evaluating alternative options, thereby deciding on the preferred one. For one who has never considered his or her own personal philosophy, and the effects of its actions, then conscious thought is the option in helping them make consistent and purposeful decisions on learning and teaching (Copeland, 2005, p.3). One’s philosophical position help in explaining different responses to educational questions like the purpose of education, the worth of knowledge, how to treat students, the role of teachers and the contents of the curriculum among others.
Consequently, Copeland, (2005) states that educational practices are affected by education-related systems of philosophy; which have helped many, clarify people’s beliefs on the goals of education. While explaining the roles of philosophical perspectives in classroom, it is vital to seek the views of progressivism, an important educational philosophy. This is an alternative philosophy that was designed to prepare individuals face the realities of the contemporary life. The philosophy emphasizes on the importance of science as it deals with change and, therefore, progressivism puts more stresses on change as the essence of reality (Copeland, 2005, p. 9). In addition, the philosophy emphasizes on the commitments to democracy ad its values in preparing students for their roles as good citizens in the democratic world.
On the other hand, essentialism as a field of philosophy states that the primary objective f schools is to transmit some selected elements of culture from one generation to another. Basically, essentialism is a conservative approach that emphasizes the need of an organized and well structured curriculum that considers the traditional values like respect to the authority. Lastly, the educational perspective of perennialism views human nature and truth as constant factors. The philosophy of perennialism also emphasizes on intellect, tests that assess thinking, deeper levels of leaning and dimensions not easily measured.
Five ways in which technology can be used
Technology entails the application of scientific processes and inventions to different resources for the aim of extending ones capabilities in meeting their wants or needs. Technology has been used to alter the limits of what one can do (Roblyer, 2003, p. 6). However, according to Roblyer, (2003), it does not guarantee one to do whatever it is intended to. New technologies have presented opportunities for the education profession to alter so many instructional practices and traditional organizations. The only problem is that one cannot be sure that the kinds of radical transformations envisioned by new technology supporters will be experienced by education.
The communication technology of today has made it possible for one to arrange for individual or learner groups to work on varying assignments with respect to their needs in particular. Such kinds of individualized teaching were pretty hard to put into practice. To the teachers, technology can now give them the ability to function mostly as an instrumental guide as opposed to being the primary source of such information (Roblyer, 2003, p. 7). In addition to what technology can do, new technologies have relieved the need of having many school days and organizing time so rigidly. With respect to this, it is predicted that students would be spending more time at home.
Additionally, when new technologies are used to develop learner’s research capacities, the instructor has the opportunity to accommodate their learning preferences and styles. Modern communication technologies are being used in schools to bring instruction to the learners. Finally, the range of simulations available to the pubic school learners has been enabled by the new digital technologies (Roblyer, 2003, p. 9). However, new technologies have been described in some instances as learning distracters while others are literally expensive to acquire.
Works Cited
Copeland, M. Socratic circles: Fostering critical and creative thought in middle and high schools. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. 2005: p.1 – 9.
Roblyer, M. D. Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. 2003, p 1-10.
The study titled “Developing a Comprehensive, Empirically Based Research Framework for Classroom-Based Assessment” was conducted in 2011 by Kathryn Hill and Tim McNamara. The central themes of the article revolve around decentralizing responsibility for assessment to classroom teachers, dimensions and scope of the classroom-based assessment, and underscoring the immense significance of assessment on learning.
Summary
This study used a qualitative research design (ethnographic methods) to develop “a comprehensive framework for conducting research on classroom-based assessment” (Hill and McNamara 395). The proposed framework was based on two themes namely dimensions (evidence, interpretation, and use) and scope (how language teachers carry out CBA, what they look for when evaluating students, and what theory or standards do they employ in assessing students). The qualitative design was employed to investigate and broaden the variety and type of questions that should be included in CBA research. A summary of the results demonstrates that the classroom-based assessment framework was effective in helping language teachers to (1) plan, frame, conduct, and use assessment, (2) know what to look for in advance learning, feedback, and reporting, (3) understand the standards to use in teaching Indonesian as a foreign language, and (4) comprehend learner understandings of language learning and assessment.
Critique
The main argument of the article is that a classroom-based assessment framework based on the summarized themes (assessment dimensions and scope) may be effective in assisting language teachers to assess a whole range of issues in language learning. The writers’ perspective is to develop a classroom-based assessment model that innovates in considering epistemological basis for observed assessment practices, allows for the inclusion of a diverse range of data including the more intuitive forms of teacher decision-making, and uses a school-based foreign language setting. These ideas are more inclusive than those of other writers and they help shape the writers’ argument about the validity and viability of the framework.
The authors are university professors, hence are qualified to write in this area. Although the writers appear unbiased in their arguments and reporting, it is difficult to agree with their argument that a process-oriented classroom-based assessment model represents an improvement from earlier models that used criteria and standards. As reported in the literature, criteria, and standards of assessment still represent some of the best approaches used in evaluating language learners (Parker et al. 34). Although the introductory sections of the study are easy to understand, it is generally felt that the findings and discussion should have been presented in a much simpler format for ease of understanding. A good practice for presenting the findings revolves around the use of the deductive approach (using a structure or predetermined framework) with the view to achieving a sense of direction and logical flow (Chenail 67). Although the writers use reputable sources to strengthen their arguments, they nevertheless seem to make simple concepts harder based on their way of analyzing the qualitative findings. Overall, the work can be recommended to researchers and classroom practitioners with an interest in language learning and assessment.
Conclusion
The study has been effective in demonstrating how the actual classroom processes revolving around assessment dimensions and scope can be effective in researching classroom-based assessment. This article is useful in assisting teachers to develop effective standards and benchmarks for language assessment in a school-based foreign language setting.
Works Cited
Chenail, Ronald J. “Conducting Qualitative Data Analysis: Reading Line-by-Line, but Analyzing by Meaningful Qualitative Units.” Qualitative Report. 17.1 (2012): 266-269. ERIC. Web.
Hill, Kathryn, and Tim McNamara. “Developing a Comprehensive, Empirically Based Research Framework for Classroom-Based Assessment.” Language Testing. 29.3 (2011): 395-420. ERIC. Web.
Parker, David C., Mathew K. Burns, Kristen L. McMaster, and Edward S. Shapiro. “Extending Curriculum-Based Assessment to Early Writing.” Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 27.1 (2012): 33-43. Academic Search Premier. Web.
While undertaking my duties as a teacher, teaching does not automatically result in effective learning among my pupils. Many teachers can be teaching in a class, but effective learning is low. Managing children to ensure there is a good teaching environment, has been the biggest challenge. As a teacher, I need to make the classroom a good learning environment to ensure that my pupils comprehend everything I teach. To manage the class for effective learning, I need to apply several strategies that create a good classroom environment. Children portray different characters while in and outside the classroom. Each will behave based on both the environment they come from (home) and the environment they are learning in (Classroom). A teacher requires some competence to ensure effective classroom management (Gilbert & LIgnugaris_Kraft, 1997).
My first strategy is to structure the classroom environment to suit learning. This will customize the children’s minds to be positive. When children are disrupted in class, the chances of understanding are reduced. Children have high learning capacity when they are still young, this should be capitalized by creating an environment with the least interruptions. I will customize the class environment to suit the age and the grade of the pupils. I will develop a classroom environment that gives the children a chance to be creative and experimental whatever they learn. The class will be an arena for communication, taking responsibility, teamwork, and exchanging options among the children and myself (Lave et al, 1988).
Children in second grade and those in fifth grade learn different content. I will, therefore, have a suitable arrangement for the class. The arrangement will be based on the subjects being taught. Teaching aids, images of minority groups, role models, and interesting scripts will be displayed on the classroom walls. The portraits and charts will be used easily when giving examples hence, creating a good learning environment. Pupils will be allowed to interact with culturally and socially diverse groups either by visits or exchanges. The classroom will also have a section to display pupils’ work. The pupils will access equipment, teaching aids, and materials that are used for learning in each lesson with ease. The storage area will be within the classroom. Walls will be decorated with bright colors, as young children like them (Smith, 1996)
The other strategy which I will apply is supervising pupils’ engagement in class. When children are engaged in class academic activities, they cannot engage in disruptive activities or tasks which are not in line with the current activity at the same time (Carnine, 1976). When children are engaged effectively, disruptive behaviors are relatively reduced and their minds are engaged with more academic activities (Jones, & Jones, 2007). To increase child engagement, I will use relevant materials in the subject being taught including teaching aids.
When I ask a question and a pupil gives me an answer, I will give him/her immediate feedback to comprehend. Sometimes children give the wrong answers; they should not be told directly that they are wrong. This might discourage the child who has already been engaged. I will find a kind way to tell the child that the answer is not right for that question and encourage him/her to try another answer which is right for the question. I will give the children also an opportunity to respond to questions or issues being discussed by the teacher (Kumar, 2010).
The final strategy I will apply its Implementing Rules and Regulations simply to ensure children remember and follow them. This can be done by generalizing rules to make them few. I will involve my pupils in making the rules and regulations. Pupils will be allowed to brainstorm on the rules for class (Davies, 2009). To make them contribute to the class rules, I will ask them to state/name the things which make them learn well in school. When a pupil mentions something negative, I will correct it and help them understand why it is negative. These rules should be the ones that allow them to make the right choices. A reward system will be used to encourage competition for the best-behaved student in each class.
The rules will be written using simple language to make it easy for children to understand. The terms used in the regulations will not be degrading, abusive, condemning, or judging. Instead, I will use terms and words which are guiding and encouraging. Rules and regulations should not have consequences as negative or threatening to the children. The rules and regulations will not interfere with their social life but rather encourage the learning and order in class. The regulations should include positive attributes (Smith, 1996). For example, instead of having a regulation that says “Do not break glass”, the regulation should say “Handle apparatus with care”. Social, ethical, and moral considerations will be reflected in the rules and regulations in the classroom to encourage students to respect each other, parents, and teachers (Davies, 2009).
Measures to mitigate the effects of pupils disobeying these rules and regulations will be there too. The pupils must be informed of the consequences of disobeying these rules and regulations. The rules and regulations will be universally acceptable to all pupils to be applied evenly (Smith, 1996).
References
Carnine, D. (1976). Effects of two teacher-presentation rates on off-task behavior answering correctly, and participation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9 (2), 239-253.
Gilbert, G. H. & Lignugaris_Kraft, B. (1997) Classroom management and instruction competences for preparing elementary and special education teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 567-610.
Jones V. & Jones L., (2007). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems (8th ed.) Boston MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kumar, S. (2010). Creating Conducive Classroom Climate. Web.
Lave, J., S. Smith, and M. Butler (1988). Problem Solving as an Everyday Practice, in Learning Mathematical Problem Solving. (Report No. IRL88-0006) Palo Alto, CA: Institute for Research on Learning,
Smith, A. (1996) Accelerated Learning in the Classroom, Network Educational Press Ltd.
Code-switching has become a common phenomenon in the education sector. It is widely practised by both learners and instructors. The practice is observed among communities with two or more discrete languages (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). A person may start conversing in one language, but change to another in the middle of the dialogue. Also, the individual may switch idioms within a single sentence. Numerous studies by different scholars reveal that the utilisation of code-switching in English as a Second Language in (ESL) classroom settings enhances the learning process. During their interactions with learners, teachers tend to shift between the first and the target language (Cook, 2001).
In this research, the author examined the form of code-switching that takes place in Oman public schools. The social and cultural meanings associated with the practice were also discussed. Also, the author analysed different types of code-switching and social-cultural aspects that influence the phenomenon. To conduct the research, the author used participants from two ESL classrooms in a public school. Data was collected using several tools. They included questionnaires. Others were interviews and observations. The major focus of the study is to analyse code-switching from a sociolinguistic perspective.
Background
Education System in Oman
The country has a unique education arrangement. For example, the government offers this service for free up to the secondary level. Even though individuals are not charged for schooling, they don’t need to enrol. Today, the education system in Oman comprises of primary, middle, secondary, vocational, and tertiary levels.
Primary schooling is offered to children below the age of ten. Secondary education in Oman lasts for three years (Chau, 2007). At this stage, students can opt to specialise in arts or sciences.
Vocational education comprises of centres, which offer opportunities to individuals in need of professional training. Majority of people who enrol in the institutions are basic school leavers (Kiranmayi & Phil, 2010).
Tertiary or higher education in Oman started in 1986. The system was introduced after the founding of the first public university, Sultan Qaboos. Before the establishment of this institution, university students were sent by the Oman government to study in such countries as Egypt, Kuwait, and Jordan (Saxena, 2009).
English as a Second Language in Oman
Currently, English is one of the most common forms of communication in the world (Alonso, 2011). Due to this, the demand for this language in Oman is high. All learning institutions across the country now teach English as a second language (Heredia & Brown, 2006). Also, language is becoming the main form of communication in public places in the nation, such as hotels and hospitals.
As a second language in Oman, English was adopted in learning institutions in the 1970s (Saxena, 2009). The curriculum in most private schools is in English. Also, French institutions in the Arab country use it as a second language. Due to this, locals and foreigners interested in learning the language enrol in private schools.
The use of English as a second language in Oman is not limited to business purposes. It is the main mode of communication between the locals and foreigners residing in the country. As a result, English is now seen as a unique language that can be used by people from diverse social backgrounds (Schendl & Wright, 2011).
Code-Switching
Code-switching has existed for a long time due to the presence of multilingual and multicultural communities in the world (Holmes, 2013). The concept has been the subject of many studies in the field. Despite the numerous studies that revolve around the phenomenon, scholars seem to lack a common definition of the term.
For a long time, code-switching has been defined variously by different scholars and researchers. In the beginning, it was conceptualised using cognitive terms (Chloros, 2009). It was considered to be an individual’s capability to possess two languages in the brain. Today, the term is analysed from a sociolinguistic perspective.
Definitions
The concept is commonly defined as the unconventional utilisation of at least two languages or varieties of the same language in dialogue. One is often the target language (TL), while the other is the home or embedded language. Based on this description, Cantone (2007) defines CS as a normal trend of switching from one idiom to another in one conversation.
Differences between Code Switching, Code Mixing, and Borrowing
The terms ‘code-switching’ and ‘code-mixing’ are two distinct entities. Code-switching stresses on the multilingual speaker’s tendency to shift from one grammatical mode to another in the same conversation (Al-Khatib, 2003). Code mixing, on the other hand, represents an advanced form of change. The phenomenon highlights the formal elements of language structures. It illustrates stable instances where a wide variety of languages are utilised without pragmatic effects. On its part, code-switching emphasises on sociolinguistic performance. The art is linked to specific realistic effects or social-group membership in bilingual communities (Abalhassan & Al-Shalawi, 2000).
Borrowing differs in both code-switching and mixing. Loanword usage takes place in the lexicon. In contrast, code-switching and mixing are experienced at the syntax stage or the utterance formulation level. In sociolinguistics, loaning refers to the art of one language taking a certain phrase from another and making it a permanent part of its system without translation (Mackey, 1957). For example, several English words are borrowed from the Arabic language. They include algebra, alkali, alcohol, and carat.
Literature Review
Models and Approaches to Code Switching
The study of alternate use of two or more languages has resulted in the development of two primary approaches to code-switching. The two are sociolinguistic and structural systems. A structural approach to the phenomenon focuses on grammatical facets (Milroy & Muysken, 1995). Its major aim is to identify morph-syntactic and syntactic constrictions on code-switching. In contrast, the sociolinguistic approach considers CS to be an occurrence in dialogue. It focuses on such aspects as to how social meaning is generated in CS. Also, it aims at discovering the functions of an alternation. Despite the difference between the two approaches, both complement each other. The structural system aims at identifying the morph-syntactic patterns underlying CS grammar (Metila, 2011). On its part, the sociolinguistic approach builds on the structural concepts to clarify the reason why bilingual speakers converse in the way they do.
To understand the concept of code-switching, two primary models have been developed. The first is Sankoff and Poplack’s model. The second is the matrix language-frame approach. The former is the most comprehensive and detailed of the two approaches. It considers code-switching to comprise of two constraints. The two are free-morpheme and equivalence constrictions. The former informs the nature of the shift between lexical stem and bound morphemes (Isurin, Winford & Bot, 2009). Equivalence model stresses on the alternations that occur at areas where surface compositions of languages overlap.
The second model (matrix language-frame [MLF]) was developed by Carol Myers-Scotton. It applies to bilingual phrases. Also, it stresses the existence of two idioms involved in the alternation process. They are the matrix language (ML) and embedded language (EL). The former emphasises that frame-building comes first before the inclusion of content morpheme. According to Myers-Scotton (2000), ML is often an individual’s first or dominant language. Due to this, it tends to be applied more in a discourse.
Code-Switching and Bilingualism
Sociolinguistic approaches to code-switching have helped scholars to understand the reasons why bilingual speakers opt to change between languages. The term ‘bilingualism’ is used in different ways. The utilisation is based on the context, purpose, and linguistic proficiency of the individual. According to Cantone (2007), bilingualism is the ability to converse in two languages with equal aptitude.
Bilingualism and code-switching are interrelated. To enhance communication, bilinguals engage in code-switching. To examine code alternation and second language acquisition, three forms of bilingualism are used. They include simultaneous, receptive, and sequential bilingualism. The first entails learning two languages as first lingos (Al-Khatib, 2003). It is evident among infants exposed to different languages from birth. Receptive refers to the ability to understand two languages. However, a person expresses themselves using only either the first or the second. The sequential form entails learning a second language with full knowledge of the first (Chau, 2007).
From a sociolinguistic perspective, code-switching among bilinguals exists in three forms. They include tag, inter, and intra-sentential alternation. Tag-switching entails the incorporation of phrases of a different language in a single sentence (Moodley, 2007). Tags tend to have slight syntactic restraints. Due to this, their use does not contravene syntactic rules.
Inter-sentential switching refers to changing from language to another between different sentences. In dialogue, one can speak an entire sentence in a particular lingo then switch to other languages in the next segment. On its part, Intra-sentential switching takes place in a single sentence fragment (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). It creates more complex grammar systems compared to the other tag and inter-sentential switching.
Reasons and Functions of Code-Switching
Reasons
From a sociolinguistic perspective, the practice of code-switching is prompted and limited based on the situation such as personal affection and social context. Also, language, speech, slang, and dialect can all be considered as codes. In a sociolinguistic study, the primary focus is often on the correlation between codes and social situations. According to Sharaf (2014), the primary purpose of code-switching from a sociolinguistic sense is to help people build and influence interpersonal relations.
Other justifications include:
Habitual experience: Some people tend to code-switch because they are used to it. The familiarity with two languages makes alternation seem like a common or ordinary aspect when engaging in dialogue.
Wanting to fit in: In most instances, people change languages either consciously or unconsciously to fit in the group around them. When individuals converse in the same way, they feel like they share values and experiences (Heredia & Brown, 2006).
Lack of facility: Majority of bilinguals or multilingual report code-switching in instances where they fail to find the right term to fit in a sentence (Holmes, 2013). A student in a class, for example, may opt to use an Arabic expression when conversing in English since they cannot figure out the appropriate phrase.
Convenience: in a classroom context, both teachers and students may find the use of English in Arabic discourses to be more convenient (Moodley, 2007). Such a factor can be influenced by a lack of standard and corresponding translations. Besides, some English terminologies may be understood better than when Arabic form.
Functions
There are various functions of code-switching in dialogues. The first is to report what another individual said. When using English, Person A can change to Arabic to report the exact words conveyed by person B (Kiranmayi & Phil, 2010). The switching is also used to clarify what has been said. When addressing a group, the speaker can repeat a sentence in a different language to enhance understanding.
Also, code-switching is used as a communicative strategy. From a sociolinguistic perspective, multilingual people code-switch to enhance communication (Schendl & Wright, 2011). Speakers who cannot express certain ideas in one language can change to a lingo they are more familiar and comfortable with.
Code-Switching also plays a referential function. The phenomenon is utilized in instances where a speaker lacks knowledge of a particular language. To ensure the conversation continues, the person may switch to another language. Besides, an addresser can change lingo in instances where an-expression from a different language seems to fit better (Isurin et al., 2009).
Social and Cultural Factors Associated with Code Switching
Code alternation is influenced by a wide range of factors. They range from cultural to social aspects. The social context of interaction can affect a person’s choice of code. Holmes (2013) argues that setting makes a difference when a bilingual engages in dialogue. While at home, a student may switch language more compared to when in school. The reason is that there are strict rules of the language to be used in school. At home, the child is exposed to a variety of languages, which influence code-switching. New words can be learned from the streets. They can also be acquired by talking to peers and parents (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).
Cultural aspects affect code-switching in a wide range of ways. A certain group of people may develop the ability to alternate between languages to get along in a society where they are a minority. To such people, code change reflects culture and identity. Also, the phenomenon promotes solidarity. According to Isurin et al. (2009), the feeling of belonging plays a key role in influencing switching.
Code-Switching in ESL Classrooms
Code-switching in classroom settings differs from what takes place in natural dialogue. Language change in ESL classrooms is considered to be an interactional resource. It is utilised by both students and tutors in the course of attaining a form of native competence in the second language (Metila, 2011). In such settings, CS has different functions. They include communicative, social, and pedagogical.
Pedagogical role of switching in ESL classrooms comes into play when students’ ability to acquire new language and content is enhanced. The communicative function allows the learners to articulate and present pragmatic meaning (Moodley, 2007). The social role of code-switching in a learning setting is experienced when relationships are created between students from different language backgrounds (Heredia & Brown, 2006).
Besides, code-switching is utilized to show power and solidarity. In a conversation, speech brings out the element of social identity. Also, it depicts the correlation between the speaker and the addressee. From a sociolinguistic perspective, people code-switch to increase their power in discourse (Kiranmayi & Phil, 2010). Besides, speakers who can converse in more than one language are considered to share solidarity. In an ESL Classroom context, the ability code switch enhances the relationship between teachers and students.
According to Holmes (2013), code-switching is used for convenience purposes. in a classroom context, both teachers and students may find the use of English in Arabic discourses to be more convenient. Such a factor can be influenced by the lack of standard and corresponding translations. Also, some English terminologies may be understood better than when Arabic form.
Methods and Procedures
To garner information on the attitudes and significance of code-switching in ESL classrooms, the author incorporated various methods and data collection procedures. They include observation and semi-structured interviews with both teachers and students. Besides, questionnaires were used. Before the study, the researcher took several weeks to plan and negotiate with members of staff at the selected schools. The reason for this was to get permission to select participants and classrooms for the study.
The researcher conducted one classroom observation with Oman-speaking bilingual teachers and another with non-Oman-speaking tutors. Five monolingual and six bilingual educators were interviewed. The group interviewed was different from the one observed. Questionnaires were used on 15 students. The 15 participants were from the two classrooms under study.
Results and Discussion
The findings of the research reveal that code-switching is used for various functions in ESL classrooms. The utilisation of L1 is criticised by some researchers. However, despite this, the study revealed that the use of L1 is inevitable in Oman schools. The language is often used in classrooms where both scholars and tutors share the same first language. L1 is used to explain complex words, illustrate grammatical rules, and help in interpretation (Milroy & Muysken, 1995).
Results from interviews and questionnaires revealed that students have varying attitudes towards code-switching. 10 out of the 15 participants interviewed consider the phenomenon to be a useful tool in learning. The reason behind this is because they deem the ability to switch from Arabic to English is desirable. The capability to shift from the first language to second in ESL classrooms creates an authentic learning atmosphere (Myers-Scotton, 2000).
Further analysis of the results and findings from interviews and questionnaires revealed that most of the students support the use of LI (Arabic) in the classroom. The major reason for this is because it helps in the explanation of new and complex English terms and expressions. Although students favour code-switching, comments in the questionnaires showed that some scholars were more comfortable when conversing in Arabic. Students found it easier to use the first language when they are not competent enough to use the second (Abalhassan & Al-Shalawi, 2000). Besides, it becomes a challenge for learners to dialogue if they do not understand or know the meaning of key terms. While not learning, 9 out of the fifteen students interviewed reported that they prefer using English when communicating with friends. On their part, 4 prefer to use Arabic. 2 opted not to answer the question.
Interviews with bilingual and non-Arabic speaking teachers produced varying results. Not all tutors favoured the concept of code-switching. However, most considered the phenomenon to be vital in teaching English. Only 3 teachers were against the idea. From observations during lessons, it was evident that Arabic and English languages were applied interchangeably. In some instances, a concept was mentioned in English and translated in Arabic. Also, a word relayed in Arabic was repeated in a different language. It was also found that 8 teachers and 13 students reported that the alternation helped in understanding passages and paragraphs. In a classroom, students’ interests are of more important than other elements (Metila, 2011). From observations and interviews made, it was found that teachers sometimes used Arabic to encourage learners and enhance their confidence. None of the tutors supported total avoidance of L1 in the classroom. Their main point of argument was that the exclusive use of English would impact negatively on learning. Their view coincides with the arguments made by Cook (2001). Cook (2001) argues that the use of L1 helps improve language learning and teaching in ESL classrooms.
Conclusion
Code-switching is a widespread phenomenon across the world. In Oman, people understand the need to learn other languages in addition to Arabic. Consequently, the government has made efforts to promote the English language. The introduction of English as a second language in schools has both positive and negative effects on learning. However, the majority of learners favour the initiative. The reason is that the ability to switch between languages helps them to connect better with people from other parts of the world.
References
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What are the benefits for students when teachers use effective questions?
Bloom in his work Taxonomy of Educational Objectives states that one of the main educational objectives is to facilitate communication (xv). With this in mind, new and interactive methods that involve students should be applied. One of these methods is questioning. The usage of effective questions in the teaching process can be very efficient and promote students involvement in the process. First of all, by using effective questions a teacher always holds the attention of students as he/she addresses the affective domain of knowledge (“Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives” n.d). They are not able to perform some other activity because students have to answer the questions of a teacher. Moreover, this method promotes the development of critical thinking among students. However, questions should not be standard and to give the right answer a student should use a creative approach. That is why these questions should be created in advance and a teacher should think about which processes they will stimulate and what abilities develop.
How will you provide opportunities for students to discuss their questions?
Jerome Burner emphasizes the great importance of giving students the opportunity to discuss some questions which need collective thinking or brainstorming (xx). There are several main purposes for it. First of all, by discussing a question together, students will be able to obtain basic skills of team work and develop their collective thinking. Moreover, it is vital for students to obtain tolerance and respect for another point of view and teamwork will be able to promote the development of these qualities. That is why group discussion should be organized. First of all, students should be separated into several groups. These students should sit together and find out the answer during a certain period of time.
How can effective questions help the diverse learner in your classroom?
In the work Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Gardner underlines that “Intelligences are always expressed in the context of specific tasks” (xxxiv). Taking into account that it is one of the main purposes of education, questioning as the method can be used with this purpose. There is no use denying the fact that diverse learner often needs some special approach and way of the presentation of information. That is why the practice of effective questions can be one of the best possible solutions. The reason for this statement lies in the high variability of this method. The teacher can ask different questions that take into account the peculiarities of each student in the classroom and in this way develop different bits of intelligence of students (“Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences” n.d). Moreover, questions could be created in order to help and develop the main aspects of the diverse learner and promote his/her further involvement in the education process. That is why we can use this approach. Additionally, all advantages of questioning, which were mentioned above, can also help a teacher to create his own approach to this issue.
How do good questioning skills help with your teaching students the close reading of the text?
The work The Process of Education by Jerome Burner is devoted to the analysis of the main peculiarities and purposes of education. Moreover, he also suggests some cogitations about the methods of “cultivating intellect” (Burner xi). Another benefit of questioning is its positive influence on the understanding of the main ideas which some books or texts convey. The thing is that reading a book or a text, a student does not think much about their content, trying to reach the end with the intention to think about a book later. However, this approach results in a low level of understanding of a text. The situation can be improved by using special questions created for a better understanding of the main ideas of a certain text. These questions will change the approach to the process of reading. Having the list of questions which are made to understand the idea of a book better, a student will look for answers while reading and that is why he/she will obtain more information (“Jerome Bruner and the process of education”. n.d). With this in mind, it is possible to suggest the creation of a special list of questions for every text which should be analyzed by students. This list can be distributed between them with the intention to discuss the key issues after the reading of the text.
In what ways will you use students’ responses to differentiate your instruction?
John Dewey states the fact that first of all education should be based on the experience of students (Dewey 19). Understanding the great importance of experience in the teaching process, it is possible to say that questioning provides a great number of possibilities for differentiating teacher’s instructions and evaluation of students experience. Their responses to questions can serve as the best indicator of the level of understanding of the topic which is studied now. That is why these questions can be changed under certain conditions. First of all, the level of knowledge in a certain field should be taken into account. It is obvious that questions should be more difficult if students have deep and clear knowledge. However, if there are certain drawbacks in the level of understanding of the topic, questions should be much easier for students to be able to respond and take an active part in the discussion. These questions can be taken as new and modern ways of teaching which combine education and personal experience (“John Dewey’s Philosophy of Experience and Education” n.d).
Works Cited
Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. n.d.. Web.
Bloom, Benjamin. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Book 1: Cognitive Domain. Boston: Addison Wesley Publishing Company. 1984. Print.
Burner, Jerome. The Process of Education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.1976. Print.
Dewey, John. Experience And Education. New York: Free Press. 1997. Print.
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. 2011. Print.
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. n.d.. Web.
Jerome Bruner and the process of education. n.d.. Web.
John Dewey’s Philosophy of Experience and Education, n.d.. Web.
