Category: Classroom

Summary

The author, James Allen stated that teachers do not realize that they use an invalid method of grading their students. He said that this is due to the fact that the teachers were former students also and they used to be the recipients of a flawed grading system. He was referring to the way teachers evaluate the learning outcome and the ability of the students to absorb learning material is not being graded on skill or competence alone but also by the amount of effort given by the students. Allen said that this is not the way to give grades to students and that teachers must learn to use a more objective way of evaluating the performance of their students.

Allen stressed that the most important thing to consider is the validity of the grading schemes. He was emphatic when he said that “Validity is important because the sole purpose of grades is to accurately communicate to others the level of academic achievement that a student has obtained” (Allen, 2005, p.1).

Allen acknowledged that this is easier said than done because most teachers wanted to communicate not only the academic achievement but also the “ancilliary features of achievement” such as effort and desire to learn (Allen, 2005, p.1). But he countered that this should not be done and he argued that it is impossible to communicate the student’s effort through and academic excellence or the lack of it in one grading system.

Allen traced the problem to sixteen years of exposure to a subjective means of obtaining grades. He even said that teachers often find effort to be the best indicator of academic excellence and not the specific amount of knowledge gained in the classroom. Allen therefore suggested that in order to remedy this problem there must be a conscious effort to change this mindset at the undergraduate level.

Those who are studying to be teachers must be introduced to the concept of validity and that they must understand and accept the theoretical foundation as to the real purpose and significance of the grading system. Allen said that he is not raising something new. This problem he said has been addressed and yet it persists even in the 21^st century.

It is imperative that teachers learn how to communicate and interpret grades. It is imperative that teachers learn how to evaluate a student’s knowledge about a particular subject. This can be achieved by initiating and sustaining teacher education programs that will teach them the principles of making valid grades.

Analysis

It is a radical approach to understanding the importance of a grading system. However, Allen has a point in saying that a student’s grade in a particular subject must clearly communicate only one thing and one thing alone. A student’s grade must not communicate two ideas at once.

It must not say that he or she is a good student or that his or her effort was something to be acknowledged and appreciated. Allen said that it must only communicate the level of competency in that particular subject. This is powerful argument that if understood correctly will transform the way schools are run and the way students are educated.

It will give the teachers an effective tool to correctly gauge their student’s performance and their effectiveness as a teacher. Allen’s criticism of the current method of giving grades may even expose the lack of skills of the teachers and may be the reason why there are those who find it difficult to implement the new scheme. A valid method of assigning grades communicates to fellow teachers, the parents, and even to the students himself as to his or her current level of skill, knowledge, and capabilities in a particular subject.

Without a valid method of determining what was learned in the classroom then there is no room for improvement and if a high grade was given but not based on knowledge content but effort then this will mislead and confuse the student. This is the strength of this article.

The weakness of this article is that it failed to provide a detailed blueprint on how to tackle the problem. It simply succeeded in criticizing the current problem and the way teachers are grading their student. But when it comes to solutions the author went on to describe generalities and nothing specific.

Surely he was correct when he said that there must be educational programs for teachers so that their wrong mindset regarding the giving of grades without including effort is an outstanding suggestion but the mindset of including ancillary features of student achievement and learning into the final grade is to ingrained that an educational program may not be enough to force them to change their ways.

Key Elements

The most striking elements in the article are the suggestion that the current grading system used by teachers are not valid and secondly that the grades that teachers give must communicate only one fact alone. This is the essence of the article. It is the validity of the grades that must be questioned and that if the teachers are unable to produce valid grades then their grading systems, including the grading sheet are useless because it did not produce the expected results.

It is also important to stress that the grade must communicate something specific. It is also important to point out that too many teachers are trying to use one grading system to describe two different and opposite features of the learning environment. They try to grade the student’s ability to absorb learning materials and at the same time their attitude while in the classroom. This should not be the case.

Reflection

This is an important and significant contribution to learning because Allen is giving people a means of achieving excellence. A biblical perspective encourages people to become the best that they can be and a wrong and non-valid way of grading their effort will lead to mediocrity and not excellence.

It is therefore important to show teachers that Allen is talking about something not to criticize them but to help them produce better students. This method that he proposed will bring out the best in both students and teachers.

The power to change is in the hands of the teachers. But this power is aided by tools. The tools given them, is noting more than the capability to grade their students. But as Allen had pointed out this tool was misused. If this tool will not be used correctly then it will not be able to show the students and the parents and even the teachers on the areas that needs improvement.

It will therefore result in a broken education system. This is an unacceptable proposition seen from a biblical perspective because humans must continue to strive to be the best for God.

Works Cited

Allen, James. Grades as Valid Measures of Academic Achievement of Classroom Learning. The Clearinghouse. 2005.

Teaching/learning outcomes are largely dependent on various factors within the classroom as well as in the external environment. Consequently, a classroom teacher has to be aware of these factors as much as possible. With such knowledge, a teacher is able to organize and reorganize his/her classroom for the purpose of attaining the set objectives. Even so, reorganizing of classroom organization and grouping for enhanced learning require creativity. A creative teacher is capable of reorganizing his/her classroom organization for effective monitoring and assessment of the learners’ progress.

Reorganizing Classroom Organization

Classroom organization has to do with the arrangement of the various elements of learning. A teacher organizes students’ tables and chairs, teacher’s desk, the position of the projector and other learning aids. He/she arranges how the learners sit in a classroom and the spacing between the learners. A teacher may deem it necessary to reorganize the classroom organization as may be necessitated. For instance, a teacher may rearrange learners’ desks depending on the number of students she/he has in the classroom. This is to say that it is up to a teacher to ensure that the room does not look compressed.

Another factor that influences such an arrangement is the behavior. Many teenagers tend to be cheeky as they grow. It is a teacher’s duty to understand his/her students and reorganize the classroom. For example, it is advisable to have learners with behavior problems sitting closer to the teacher’s desk and the well-behaved ones sitting at the back. This way, learners with behavioral issues hold back their unbecoming behaviors. Such behaviors are usually a distraction to other learners around them. A teacher may also make a modification to be sure that all the learners sit in a way that they are all visible to him/her. This helps a lot when it comes to classroom management. It reduces or eliminates the chances of a leaner being up to something unconstructive during lessons just because the teacher does not keep an eye on him or her. Classroom organization, as one may observe, is all about understanding learners and responding to their individual needs and differences.

Grouping for Enhanced Learning

When it comes to grouping learners, a teacher has to bear in mind a few things. First, it is not advisable to have all lessons conducted in groups. That way, a teacher’s methodology becomes predictable, and the grouping may eventually fail in meeting its objectives. Grouping depends on the content and objectives of the lesson. One of the primary reasons for grouping learners is to encourage students’ participation as much as possible. It also enhances understanding of the topic and offers an opportunity for creativity and communication.

During grouping, a teacher should consider various cognitive abilities of the learners. This is to imply that a teacher should group learners in ability groups. This enables all the learners in a particular group to cope with the assigned tasks. A teacher should not necessarily group fast learners together. He/she should be able to identify them and give them something extra to do. Otherwise, fast learners may become a problem to their group members after finishing the original task. Other groupings that a teacher may also work with include random groups, fish-bowl groups, jigsaw groups or paired groups. Usually, the aim is to promote the acquisition of knowledge through sharing of ideas. Such approaches achieve the best learning outcomes. This is because they are more learner-centered than teacher-centered. The teacher only acts as a facilitator in many cases.

The paper presents the summary and analysis of the observations of the classroom and school environment second grade school. The key issues that the given paper addresses are psychosocial development, motivation, behaviorism, constructivism, cognition, intelligence, and diversity in the classroom and school environment.

The class under analysis was composed of 18 students of diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. Age 6 – 7.

The classroom was big with all necessary equipment for the class activities. It was also decorated with plants, arts, rugs, posters and pictures drawn by students. The layout included five large tables with four seats.

There were also several individual desks for individual assignments. The space provided the opportunity to change the location of tables for various activities. In general, the environment of the classroom was engaging and comfortable for organizing different activities.

In the first grade students are not very independent and not very used to new learning activities. In order to organize and motivate children, teacher used a variety of learning styles taking into consideration group and individual characteristics of every student.

During different lessons, he made use of learning through seeing, using hand-outs, videos, illustrations, etc.; through listening, moving and doing, as well as combinations of these strategies. Assignments that included various physical activities were very effective.

The teacher also successfully used the knowledge about psychological development of children of age 6-7 to incorporate it in lessons. “Perception of differences among other ethnic groups arises between the age of 6 and 8 years. At this time, children begin to group people together to understand what people are alike (Martin & Fabes, 2008, p. 385).

Taking into consideration this characteristic, the teacher used different activities and group work so that children had a possibility to communicate extensively with all children in the classroom.

Applying the theory of multiple intelligence and theory of cognitive levels of development provided by Piaget and Vygotsky, (“as the child develops and goes through the process of assimilation and accommodation, their brain will develop through the natural processes of maturation” (Oakley, 2004, p. 15)) teacher manipulated with different assignments and adjusted tasks to the cognitive level of every student.

Moreover, teacher used different motivation techniques, such as “behavioral management techniques, social skill training, and educational modifications” (Thompson, p. 112) in order to hold the students’ attention during the lessons and engage them in different activities.

Teacher also focused on socio-moral development of students during lessons. He provided the activities that were aimed at developing children’s capacity relate their actions and behavior emotionally, ethically, and intellectually to the environment and social situations in the classroom.

For this purpose, he used tasks that presupposed communication. The tasks were focused on child as a member of the social community and child as an individual. The strategy of classroom meeting was applied and every one could express personal opinion on the “issue of the day”.

As a teacher candidate, I would employ in my classroom the organization techniques used by the teacher to promote socio-emotional development of my students and communication style of the teacher with children. I find the strategy of the class meetings also very effective and useful to develop children’s individuality and hold control over the discipline in the classroom.

Thus, 5 hours in the classroom were really useful for the future career development. I managed to see in practice the application of theoretical knowledge and how it works when working with students of the 1^st grade.

Reference List

Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. (2008). Discovering Child Development. Boston: Cengage Learning.

Oakley, L. (2004). Cognitive Development. London: Routledge.

Thompson, R. (2002). School Counseling: Best Practices for Working in the Schools. New York: Psychology Press.

Classroom policies in a broad social sense are the function of society to prepare the younger generation for life, carried out by the entire social structure: family, school, religious organizations, the media, other public institutions, and educational institutions. In a narrower, pedagogical sense, it is a specially organized and controlled process of formation, formation, development, and socialization of a person carried out by teachers in educational institutions and aimed at personal development. Classroom policies are the transfer of socio-historical experience to new generations in order to prepare them for social life and productive work (Sabol, Ross, & Frost, 2019). Rules, as part of the educational system, create the conditions for the development of personality, its life formation, and self-affirmation.

It is important to note that educating a student cannot occur without setting up strict and precise policies in the classroom. The rules for students in the school establish standards for student behavior in the buildings and on the school grounds. The purpose of the rules is to create a normative working environment in the school that promotes the success of each student, fostering respect for the individual and her rights, developing a culture of behavior and communication skills. The example of such policies:

1. Students strictly follow the established regimen and daily routine.
2. Students comply with the laws of school life.
3. Students follow the orders of the school’s administrative and teaching staff.
4. Pupils show courtesy towards school workers who care about younger students, and do not offend them, do not allow rudeness in relations with them and with each other.
5. Students persistently and persistently cultivate a culture of communication behavior, master moral qualities.
6. Students conscientiously carry out community assignments duties, take an active part in community service household and household labor.
7. Students observe personal hygiene rules, always neatly dressed.
8. Students cherish the property of the school, carefully treat both their own and other people’s property.
9. Students meeting with school staff greet them and use polite words in speech.
10. Pupils give way to adults, older students to younger ones.

The purpose of classroom policies in modern conditions is the preparation of a professionally and culturally oriented person with worldview potential, the ability to professional, intellectual and social creativity, owning strong skills and abilities to perform professional duties (Reinke, Herman, & Newcomer, 2016). The integral expression of the whole set of components of the upbringing process is the educational system, the specific characteristic of which is its complexity, since the main acting and managing subject is the educator, and the object of the educational orientation is the personality, in our case, the student.

The concept of education is connected directly to the classroom policy system. The term “concept” means a cluster of interconnected and one from other views on certain phenomena or processes. It is a way of understanding, interpreting any phenomena, events; the fundamental idea of ​​a theory, the main idea, the general idea. A full-fledged concept of education in the substantive part should fix the interpretation of the role and goals of education at the present stage (Sabol et al., 2019). Its content, the essence of the driving force, and the main mechanism, internal and external conditions for the effectiveness of this process, approaches to designing a model of education.

In conclusion, modern concepts of classroom policies emphasize the determinism of this process by several conditions. The personality and activities of the educator, proper organization of the social development system, and active interpersonal and conventional communication are critical components of the classroom environment. It also includes cooperation with others and the productive activity of the subject of education, correlated with the general context of his leading activities. These conditions can ensure the positive effect of teaching only when presented as an integrated system.

References

Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., & Newcomer, L. (2016). The brief student-teacher classroom interaction observation: Using dynamic indicators of behaviors in the classroom to predict outcomes and inform practice. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 42(1), 32-42.

Sabol, T. J., Ross, E. C., & Frost, A. (2019). Are all head start classrooms created equal? Variation in classroom quality within head start centers and implications for accountability systems. American Educational Research Journal, 20(3), 331-342.

h`e classroom schedule is present and contains all the activities for the day. The intended audience of the schedule are parents and caregivers, and the language of the schedule is appropriate. For example, all of the activities, such as finger-play and outside play are named in a casual manner that would not cause any confusion and require further clarification. The schedule is located close to the classroom door, which makes it visible and accessible to parents, educators, and children. Furthermore, the schedule is rather detailed and includes all activities and transitions throughout the session. Overall, the classroom schedule fulfills all the requirements and provides parents with the necessary information.

Transitions are an essential part of every classroom schedule. However, they are also very challenging to plan and carry out efficiently (Vitiello, Booren, Downer, & Willford, 2012). In the present schedule, transitions occupy around 35 minutes of the session, which is sufficient to ensure a smooth transition between activities. Transitions included handwashing, cleaning up, and bathroom reminders, which are typical activities for transitions (Vitiello et al., 2012). These types of transition help children to maintain good hygiene and behavior, while at the same time allowing them to discuss the previous activity with peers.

+++++74hroughout the transitions, children exhibited positive behavior and returned to the classroom in time for the next scheduled activity. Only two children got distracted during a transition in the morning session, which was due to a minor argument. The teachers helped to resolve the argument, which helped to minimize the delay and prevent the distraction of other children in the group. In the afternoon session, no distractions were noted, which proves that children were able to maintain focus throughout the transition. Overall, transitions were effective and appropriate for the chosen age group. However, some improvements could be made to increase student engagement during the transitions. For instance, setting behavioral expectations contributes to focus and positive behavior (Vitiello et al., 2012). Thus, if the transition involves cleaning up, the teacher must clarify which objects are to be put away and what should the classroom look like by the end of the transition.

Academic play is a crucial part of preschool learning. This approach can be defined as something in between free play and direct instruction (Weisberg, Hirsh‐Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2013). By combining beneficial features of both styles, academic play contributes to positive academic outcomes and help children in their transition to further stages of education. The academic play was the main part of both sessions and included group activities such as finger-plays and storytelling. The latter allowed children to practice their skills in the play pretend, which contributed to the fulfillment of preschool standards 0.3 and 1.3 (NJSDE, 2014). Learning centers, on the other hand, contribute to classroom learning by allowing students to pursue their specific interests and work in groups. Both morning and afternoon sessions involved open choice learning centers, which presented students with an exciting opportunity to learn more about their favorite subject. Although children tended to choose one center they liked most, they also paid attention to activities in other centers, which shows that the activities were interesting and appropriate for the developmental stage.

In the development of the Weekly Planner, observations made throughout the sessions were used to indicate periods and activities. For instance, I found that breakfast time was too small for all children to finish their food on time, which is why breakfast time was extended to 30 minutes. Moreover, I also observed that no activities were encouraging the development of fine motor skills, except for the finger-play, which is why I added the fine motor skills content area to the schedule.

ECH-525 Weekly Planner

References

New Jersey State Department of Education (NJSDE). (2014). Preschool teaching and learning standards 2014. Web.

Vitiello, V. E., Booren, L. M., Downer, J. T., & Williford, A. P. (2012). Variation in children’s classroom engagement throughout a day in preschool: Relations to classroom and child factors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(2), 210-220.

Weisberg, D. S., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2013). Guided play: Where curricular goals meet a playful pedagogy. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(2), 104-112.

Building ties between the members of a community is an essential step in creating the environment in which communication and cooperation will be viewed as the concepts of the highest priority. As a result, the premises for a positive change among the participants as far as their personal development is concerned can be provided. In her article “Building a community in our classroom: The story of Bat Town, U.S.A.,” Keech (n.d.) suggests that the exploration of the history of the city, in general, and the areas that the community inhabits, in particular, should be considered a foundation for enhancing the links between the members of the class as a mini-community. The author’s statement seems rather legitimate since the focus on the history of the city and a better understanding of what the origin of their culture is creates the foil for the feeling of unity. Therefore, suggesting that the learners should learn more about the people that built the local community and became a part of its history will also help integrate them into the local society.

A Unity-Building Exercise

The task involving studying the biographies of the people who contributed to the creation and further development of the community can be viewed from different perspectives and may imply a variety of assignments. For instance, it may start as reading the biographies of the key founders of the community and the further discussion in the classroom. However, as the study progresses, it may evolve into an all-embracing analysis of the factors that affected the choices of the people under consideration. As a result, the learners may engage in the activities that imply an individual essay written in class, a group project with a classroom presentation, communication with the community members and the further report of the results in class, etc.

The issue regarding the location of the necessary information deserves to be listed among the obvious benefits of the exercise. Although a detailed analysis of the historical records provided by the local libraries is an integral part of the project, the students will also have to interview some of the community members, starting with their family members, neighbors, and peers, to discuss it in class later..

Keech’s Argument

The approach suggested by Keech (n.d.) works on a number of levels. For instance, it helps identify the economic, political, and social factors that determine the further progress of the city and the people living in it. However, it clearly lacks the evidence provided by the residents of the city. As a result, the students experience the benefits of group cooperation, yet they may fail to develop a strong connection with their community.

Conclusion

The emphasis on the common history and the identification of the origins of the community to which the target population belongs is likely to serve as the foundation for a more efficient communication process between the members of the neighborhood, as Keech (n.d.) explains. As a result, prerequisites for more efficient cooperation, as well as the relationships based on empathy and compromise, can be built in the target environment. One must admit that the process is fraught with numerous obstacles, the differences in the social status and the ethnicities of the community members, as well as the possible lack of enthusiasm among the students, being the primary reasons for concern. However, by promoting a more active engagement in the process of finding out about the history that the community members share, the learners are likely to become more sociable. As a result, the experiences that they will have in the course of the lesson will serve as the basis for their further personal growth.

Reference

Keech, A. M. (n.d.). Building a community in our classroom: The story of Bat Town, U.S.A. Web.

Memorization has always been seen as an important part of the learning process. Starting from memorizing the spelling of one’s name, one’s address, and a lot of other information without which human life does not seem possible, one constantly practices his or her memorization skills. Education plays an important role in this process, as one of the main teacher’s tasks is to encourage students to exercise their brains. Teachers are empowered to supply the students with the tools that will help them to memorize things better and, consequently, succeed in their studies and in life as a whole.

No one would deny the fact that abilities to analyze and think critically are equally important abilities that the students should develop. But memorization is as significant as other parts of learning, or, to be more exact, this is a step for other learning to happen, and it never loses its value at every level of education.

It is a common practice for modern schools to emphasize many facts and few skills. Students are expected to memorize a large amount of information that often does not seem very appealing to them. But practice shows that teachers simply give their students the task to memorize this or that piece by the next lesson without proper guidance that should go along with the assignment. As a result, students often have to bear the burden of memorization, seeing it as a daunting task they have to cope with.

To change this situation, a teacher should either work out one’s own approach to developing memorization skills with the students or benefit from the existing ones. The key to success here is to combine several memorization methods depending on the material learned, the students’ interests and abilities, and the time at the teacher’s disposal.

The debate around the problem of rote learning as a way to memorize things will never find a unanimous solution with the teachers. There exist both critical and supportive views on this problem. On the one hand.

Rote learning is the process of acquiring material as discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to the cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of meaningful relationships (Brown et al., 1983, p.132).

This definition implies that learning by rote is meaningless, as the newly learned material has little or no association with the previously acquired knowledge. According to this view, rote learning does not have much potential for retention. Meaning learning, on the contrary, is “a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure.” (Brown et al., 1983, 137) Through meaningful learning, a student resorts to the knowledge he or she once acquired and managed to establish the interconnections that help him, or she memorize the material easier and for a long time. As for rote learning, material memorized in such a way enters short-term memory and gets low chances for retention. Brown (1983) claims:

Human beings are capable of learning almost any given item within the so-called ‘magic seven, plus or minus two’ units for perhaps a few seconds, but long-term memory is a different matter (13).

Developing the students’ long-term memory, therefore, becomes the goal of primary importance for a teacher. To achieve this goal, he or she should have a clear-cut system of rules to keep to while teaching memorization. For instance, Marlow Ediger (2000) suggests the following set of principles for a teacher to be ruled by when encouraging students’ memorization:

• Use of higher levels of cognition together with a recall of information;
• Memorization of what tends to be highly utilitarian, such as the basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division facts; basic sight words in developing a reading vocabulary; and essential science and social studies content;
• Memorization should become an enjoyable activity for students. They should clearly see the reasons for memorization. Thus they might feel inclined to memorize;
• Games in the classroom contribute to better memorization;
• Software for student interaction emphasizes memorization of what is important;
• Discussion groups reinforce relevant items committed or should be committed to memory;
• Planning and assessing with students selected items to be memorized increases students’ desire to remember the material needed (503-505).

When a teacher strives for a student’s long-term memory, he or she should give special consideration to the problem of marks in this process. Students should be encouraged to memorize things not because of the purpose of getting an excellent mark but because of the value that the knowledge has in itself. It often happens that students work for marks, as the school itself values them so highly.

Though getting a positive mark often serves as a driving force for the student’s remembering this or that thing, the material retained in this way will never enter the student’s long-term memory. Therefore, teachers should not rely on marks as the dominant factor in the teaching of memorization. To foster in students the burning desire to know and not to simply get a good mark – this should be the final goal of a teacher, and fostering in them the burning desire to remember things for a long time, if not forever, this is a significant factor in achieving this goal.

Making the students involved in what they are memorizing, a teacher will soon observe the results of his or her work. One of the best ways to do it is to encourage the students to reinforce the material in their brains by seeing, hearing, feeling, and even smelling it. For instance, visual prompts turn to be a helpful tool for reinforcing and remembering information. Internal (emotional) or external (tactile) feelings also help to reinforce the material. Sound is also commonly used by teachers as an effective tool for memorization. There exist numerous ways of incorporating sound into the student’s memorization skills.

In general, ways of reinforcing information through the student’s senses are rather diverse. The teacher’s role is to choose the techniques that are appropriate for the specific task the students have to cope with. The more successfully the techniques are combined by the teacher, the more information his or her students are able to retain.

In conclusion, we should say that the students’ success much depends on the teacher’s desire and ability to help them while striving for it. Teaching memorization as an important part of the learning process requires much knowledge and skills from the teacher. The latter should be in constant search of the appropriate techniques to rely on in this process. The results of using the appropriate ones will never keep them waiting.

References

Brown, A. L., Bransford, J. D., Ferrara, R. A., & Campione, J. C. (1983). Learning, Remembering, and Understanding. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 77-166). New York: Wiley.

Derbyshire, J. (2001). Thanks for the Memories: Rote Is Right. National Review, 53.

Ediger, M. (2000). Choosing Evaluation Procedures. Education, 120 (3), 503-505.

Weinert, F. E. & Perlmutter, M. (Eds.). (1988). Memory Development: Universal Changes and Individual Differences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Westreich, G. (2002). Dance, Mathematics, and Rote Memorization. JORD–The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(6), 12+.

Introduction

“Are smaller classes better than larger classes?” continues to be a widely debated question in academic circles. There are advantages of having bigger classes and some other advantages of having smaller classrooms. Small classrooms are appeal to the common sense because they are economically feasible and can be a part of national subsidized programs including special education classes for disruptive or learning-disabled students and Title I interventions for children living in poverty. Moreover, small classrooms are best suited for small groups working with one teacher or tutor such as special programs for students at risk such as Success for All (Slavin & Madden 1995) and Reading Recovery (Pinnell, deFord, & Lyons 1988) (cited in Finn 1)

Discussion

There are three studies conducted within the past twenty years that have comprehensively studied the relationship of classroom size to academic achievement. The most popular study is the classic Meta-analysis of research that focused on studying the link between student performance and class size (Glass & Smith, 1978). The study involved 700 class size comparisons on data from nearly 900,000 pupils. It was found that smaller class size can lead to increased performance academically and benefits are most evident when class size is less than 20 students. Robinson’s (1990) study added an important set of qualifications to the findings of Glass and Smith. According to Robinson (1990), small classes are most beneficial for teaching reading and mathematics in the early primary grades and that students who are economically disadvantaged or from some ethnic minorities perform better academically in smaller classes” (p. 85).

Slavin (1989) focused on just eight high quality studies conducted in this context and concluded that substantial reductions in class size have a small positive effect on students (the median effect size for the eight studies was only 0.13), the effect was not cumulative and even disappears in later years. He reinterpreted Glass-Smith’s findings by saying that large positive effects can be seen only in one to one tutoring (70-86).

Two major statewide studies in the context of class size are Project PRIME TIME and Project STAR. In 1984 the state of Indiana funded an initiative to reduce class sizes in grades 1 through 3 to an average of 18 pupils, or to 24 pupils if an instructional assistant was in the classroom. The results for academic achievement were mixed – at times, small classes were found to have superior outcomes and, at times, the large classes performed better (Finn 1). The limitation of this study is that there is no well defined small class size. Project STAR involved 79 elementary schools in the state of Tennessee from 1985 to 1989 in three different class sizes. This was a classic study of large magnitude, scientific design and careful measurement. This research leaves no doubt that small classes have an advantage over larger classes in student performance in the early primary grades. It was also found that the small-class advantage was consistently greater (almost double) for minority students than for whites. This resulted in a considerably reduced achievement gap (Finn 1).

Based on the positive findings of STAR Tennessee implemented Project Challenge in 17 of the state’s poorest school districts. The project was assessed through an analysis of district rankings on statewide achievement tests (Achilles, Nye, & Zaharias, 1995). The district rankings improved in both grade 2 reading and grade 2 mathematics over the years. These results have been further affirmed by two smaller studies of class size conducted in North Carolina – one was in Burke County in 1991 and the other at Oak Hill elementary School in Guilford County (Northwestern University 1). The results of both projects favored small classes in the context of academic achievement. However, Spyros Konstantopoulos, assistant professor at Northwestern’s School of Education and Social Policy, analyzing the data from Project STAR concludes that the children who already were high achievers were the primary beneficiaries of the extra attention smaller classes afforded. His finding suggests that achievement gap will increase within the classroom as a result of reducing classroom size (Northwestern University 1). Overall the results indicate that class size reduction increases not only achievement for all students on average, but the variability in student achievement as well.

Works Cited

Achilles, C. M., Nye, B. A., & Zaharias, J. B. (1995). Policy use of research results: Tennessee’s Project Challenge. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.

Finn, Jeremy D. (1998). Class Size and Students at Risk – What Is Known? What Is Next? A Commissioned Paper. U.S. Department of Education, OERI, National Institute on the Education of At-Risk Students, 1998. Web.

Glass, G. V., & Smith, M. L. (1978). Meta-analysis of research on the relationship of class size and achievement. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research & Development.

Northwestern University (2008). Class Size Alone Not Enough to Close Academic Achievement Gap. ScienceDaily. 2008. Web.

Pinnell, G. S., deFord, D. E., & Lyons, C. A. (1988). Reading recovery: early intervention for at-risk first graders. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.

Robinson, G. E. (1990). Synthesis of research on effects of class size.” Educational Leadership. 47(7). 80- 90.

Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (1995). Success for all: Creating schools and classrooms where all children can read. NSSE Yearbook, Part 1. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 70-86.

The notion of inclusionary classrooms within special education is one that has been explored extensively within the past decade. It is felt that children with special needs who are made an integral part of general education advance at a greater rate than their counterparts in special education. The researchers have examined this subject utilizing the positive outcomes, the process and influences of educational changes and the specific barriers to initiating and continuing inclusion. Purcell, Horn & Paliwer (2007) conducted a series of interviews and focus group discussion utilizing special education personnel as subjects. In their research they utilized varying case study methodology to address the initiation and sustenance of such programs. The groups which they utilized were very different in nature. In their case studies, they utilized factors such as the ability of the workers to engage in cooperative efforts and the extent to which they share a common vision, the way in which they utilized their key personnel as well as developing a framework on which the program can work. Surveys were administered utilizing factors such as: collaborative relationships, community influence, family, key personnel and organizational structure. It was determined that in all cases, these factors asserted a positive influence on the children in inclusionary classes. This body of research is important in that it was able to show the validity of the case study methodology at arriving at a clear and concise decision was to whether inclusion works in special education.

Another promising method of teaching children with learning disabilities is one which involves peer-mediated instruction. Harper & Maheady (2007) utilized a case study approach in order to examine the efficacy of peer-mediated instruction within special education. They conducted case studies utilizing three very different programs in which peer-mediation was utilized. These programs varied in structure and instructional approaches but it was found that irrespective of the approach, the programs facilitated active engagement among the children, offered many opportunities for the students to respond to inquires, provided immediate reinforcement by correcting errors immediately, welcomed feedback on whether the response was appropriate or not and offered many elements which served to motivate the children. In addition to this, the authors offered guidelines on how to implement such a program as well as considerations which should be addressed. This body of research proved to be very helpful in that it was able to show varying case study methods and how they can be practically applied.

Long, MacBlain & MacBlain (2007) examined the notion of inclusionary education among teenaged students with dyslexia who resided in Northern Ireland. This study was conducted based on the notion that the number of case studies involving inclusion of teenagers has been limited. This study aimed to assist secondary-school teachers in providing support for their dyslexic students utilizing a strength-based model which is aimed as exploiting their strengths as a means of meeting the added needs of these students. An integral part case study involved the recognition of the stresses and frustration faced as a direct result of having special educational needs. It utilized an adaptive learning methodology and was able to arrive at clear and concise guidelines for meeting all of the needs of dyslexic teenagers.

Bateman (2007) examined the notion of compensatory education. In his case study, he examined whether private schools should be reimbursed for providing educational services for children within their schools when the same level of services are absent within the public school system. It relates to the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act and examines a single case of a thirteen year old child whose Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) indicated that a certain set of services were needed in order to offer her the optimal set of circumstances for success. The public school in the area was unable to provide the level of service for her while the private school could for a great deal of money annually. The case study indicated that in order to make an informed decision, it is prudent that each of the cases be examined on an individual basis. This case really exemplifies the necessity for individual case studies as a valuable research tool in qualitative research.

Jones, Lignugaris-Kraft & Peterson (2007) examined the notion that there is a correlation between the demands placed on a student and their problematic behaviors. The authors set out to create a clear and concise body of research which determines the variables that influence the demands placed on students and their inability to engage in prosocial behaviors in light of very demanding activities. This body of research utilizes a case study design wherein the difficulty of the reading materials utilized was systematically changed in order to either slow the student’s down or to facilitate sounding out. The students were asked to read aloud and the exhibition of problematic behaviors was examined in correlation with the difficulty of the materials. This body of research is important in that it was able to determine one of the factors that influence overt behavior.

Nowacek & Mamlin (2007) utilized the case study methodology to examine the understanding of general education teacher with regards to students with attention deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD). In their examination they were specifically looking for a conceptual understanding of the characteristics of individuals with this condition. The aim of this body of research was to discern the level of academic and behavioral modifications necessary to assure an optimal learning environment for the individual sufferers. The findings of this study indicated that the teachers were not cognizant of the implications of the characteristics of individuals with this disorder and as direct results, they teachers made very few modifications. Additionally, in cases where modifications were made, those modifications were very individualized. This case study was very instrumental in pointing out the need for general education teachers to be cognizant of the dynamics of disorders within their student population.

Halle & Meadan (2007) conducted a case study of five young children with autism with the goal of arriving at a clear and concise protocol for assessing requests for services, rejecting, and correcting the behaviors of young children who suffer from autism. Additionally, they aim to establish a guideline for prosocial behavior. The findings of the study illustrated that there was a dire need for a conceptual basis on which the building of prosocial behaviors can begin. I feel that this study is important in that it illustrates that individuals with autism can integrate seamlessly into society and can be taught to only engage in prosocial behaviors.

Xu (2007) examined the notion that there is a great disparity in the provision of early intervention special education services of minority children. This disparity is evident in the fact that many of the services are rendered in a culturally incompetent manner. The researchers conducted a case study utilizing culturally diverse families with children with disabilities as study subjects. The aim of the case study is to establish a scientific exploration of the disparity in the level of services and to offer a clear and concise method of empowering families with special needs children. The research delineated a strength-based model the authors referred to as the double ABCX model. This model was operationally defined as an adaptive model for family functioning in light of stressors. This body of research was particularly useful in that it was able to resort to a case study to answer a complex question.

MacLeod & Johnston (2007) conducted a single case study of a young lady who was suffered from Asperger syndrome. This particular young lady wrote and spoke openly about her condition and the need for support. The authors focused on the need for group discussion and support for young women afflicted with this ailment. The authors utilized a self-reporting scale and essentially assessed the difficulties faced by one individual. As a direct result of the self-report, the authors were able to see the necessity for supportive services rendered in a group setting. It is prudent to point out that this body of research is very lacking in that it utilizes only one case. This case may not be typical of other individuals who suffer from this disorder as such, its utility as both a reliable and valid measure of individuals with this disability is extremely limited. As a method of qualitative research, a single case study offers the lowest degree of reliability and validity.

Mattie & Kozen (2007) utilized case studies as a means of assessing the behavioral states of individuals within the special education program based on the information contained in their Individual Education Programs (IEPs). In their investigation they attempted to establish whether the IEPs were effective in minimizing negative behaviors. The findings indicated that the IEPs served as an effective tool for the measuring of behaviors as well as the establishment of corrective action. Based on the results of this series of case studies, the authors have determined that it is vital for special education teachers to incorporate an understanding of the child’s behavioral states in the consideration of daily planning especially for individuals with multiple disabilities. This case study was very effective in that it utilized children with a wide variety of disabilities as well as children with multiple disabilities. It does show one of the positive aspects of the case study methodology—the ability to gather anecdotal data and impact changes based on that data.

References

1. Bateman, D.F. (2007). Compensatory Education. Teaching Exceptional Children. 39(6), 62-65.
2. Halle, J. & Meadan, H. (2007). A protocol for assessing early communication of young children with autism and other developmental disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(1), 49-52.
3. Harper, G.F. & Maheady, L. (2007). Peer-Mediated teaching and students with learning disabilities. Intervention in School & Clinic. 43(2), 101-107.
4. Jones, M.M., Lignugaris-Kraft, B. & Peterson, S.M. (2007). The relation between task demands and student behavior problems during reading instruction: A case study. Preventing School Failure. 51(4), 19-29.
5. Long, L., MacBlain, S. & MacBlain, M. (2007). Supporting students with dyslexia at the secondary level: An emotional model of literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 51(2), 124-135.
6. MacLeod, A. & Johnston, P. (2007). Standing out and fitting in: a report on a support group for individuals with Asperger syndrome using a personal account. British Journal of Special Education, 34(3), 83-89.
7. Mattie, H.D. & Kozen, A.A. (2007). Consideration of Behavior States and Patterns in IEP Development and Daily Planning: A Multiple Case Study Approach Involving Students with Multiple Disabilities. Education & Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(1), 38-47.
8. Nowacek, E.J & Mamlin, N. (2007). General Education Teachers and Students With ADHD: What Modifications Are Made? Preventing School Failure. 51(3), 28-36.
9. Purcell, M.L., Horn, E. & Paliwer, S. (2007). A qualitative study of the initiation and continuation of preschool inclusion programs. Council for Exceptional Children. 74(1), 85-99.
10. Xu, Y. (2007). Empowering Culturally Diverse Families of Young Children with Disabilities: The Double ABCX Model. Early Childhood Education Journal. 34(6), 431-438.

Introduction

The process of adaptation to new conditions might be considered a great challenge for a person as it demands certain communication skills. Thus, the interaction with a faculty beyond the classroom should be given great attention as it preconditions the further success of an individual. For this reason, the article Exploring College Men’s Perceptions about Interacting with Faculty Beyond the Classroom revolves around the most important perspectives of the given topic.

Research Question

In the study, the author conducts a comprehensive analysis of the issue and provide credible information. The question of how and why men come to interact with faculty outside the class is posed. Moreover, the researcher also tries to explore the most commonly chosen communication and behavioral patterns that are used for individuals to talk to their counterparts and establish relations (Viaden, 2009). These questions predetermine the structure of the whole paper and methods that are used to obtain credible data.

Significance of Research Question

The importance of these concerns could be evidenced by the fact that the lack of understanding between counterparts and inability to socialize or establish certain relations might have a great negative impact on a students academic success and his/her ability to acquire new information (Roulston & Anne-Shelton, 2015). The author provides the fact that socially active pupils have more chances to obtain good marks and graduate from a certain educational institution (Vianden, 2009). In this regard, it is vital to understand the patterns that might help students to overcome the majority of difficulties.

Qualitative Methodology and Rationales

The research question and the aim of the article also condition the choice of the methodology that is used to collect data. For this reason, a qualitative design of the study is explored to improve the comprehension of this topic and identify how individuals respond to the appearing challenges (Brown, 2010). The study rests on the die design of the basic interpretive qualitative study with the focus on respondents’ feelings related to the process of their adaptation to new conditions and demands.

Proposed Alternative Methodology

The choice of this methodology is rather logical. The author provides a clear rationale for adherence to the given approach. The fact is that adaptation to new conditions is a very personal process that depends on an individuals peculiarities and his/her ability to communicate with counterparts (Stevens & Van Houtte, 2010). For this reason, the collection of personal data and analysis of a pupils attitude to a certain factor should be considered the only possible way (Botcheva, Feldman, & Leiderman, 2002) to answer the above-mentioned research question.

Authors’ Writing Style and Presentation

When reading the article, a reader could easily follow the authors thoughts and assumptions. Vianden organizes the paper in a clear and concise way. He starts with the description of the given problems background and continues to the evaluation of the basic ideas related to it. His thoughts are clear and understandable so everyone could trace his main idea and realize the importance of communication with a faculty beyond the class.

Questions Other Scholars Might Ask

However, when reading a study, a scholar might also ask several questions related to its results. It is important to trace the way a persons attitude to his/her counterparts alter in the course of adaptation (Wiles, Crow, & Pain, 2011). Moreover, a researcher might also focus on the way better relations with other students influence a persons academic success (Leko, 2014). Finally, an investigator could discuss the results of the given study by asking what methods or tools a common individual might use to guarantee better adaptation rates.

How the Findings Can Further Knowledge

The findings of the discussed study could be used for further research related adaptation rates and efficient communicational patterns. These could also be used to answer the question of whether the unsuccessful adaptation to new conditions might result in academic failure or even the refusal to continue studying and obtain the diploma.

Other Approaches to Investigating Questions

However, there is obviously a certain need for further investigation of the given issue. A researcher should be ready to collect the new data to continue the exploration of this research question to improve the comprehending of the correlation between adaptation and an individuals development (Darbyshire, MacDougal, & Schiller, 2005). Yet, it is possible to use a survey and a questionnaire to understand a students attitude to his/her success in adaptation and communication with counterparts (Archibald et al., 2015). However, a scholar might also ask students about a newcomer and his/her ability to communicate with them (Twine, 2016). It will help to understand another perspective on the given issue.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the paper provides credible information related to the usage of qualitative methods to determine the state of a person and his/her ability to perform various activities and attitudes to them. The research questions posed by the author precondition the structure of the article and contribute to the acquisition of credible information that is needed for the discussion.

Theoretical foundations

The given research explores the theory which states that the environment and the adaptation to its main peculiarities are crucial for the academic success of a student (Stevens & Van Houtte, 2010). The author efficiently integrates the basic ideas of the theory into the real-life conditions by investigating the correlation between the quality of relations with counterparts and the level of knowledge acquisition. This approach conditions the feasibility of findings and improved the importance of this scholarly article.

References

Archibald, M., Radil, A., Zhang, X., & Hanson, W. (2015). Current mixed methods practices in qualitative eesearch: a content analysis of leading journals. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,14(2), 5-33. Web.

Botcheva, L., Feldman, S., & Leiderman, P. (2002).Can stability in school processes offset the negative effects of sociopolitical upheaval on adolescents’ adaptation? Youth Society, 34(1), 55-88. Web.

Brown, A. (2010). Qualitative method and compromise in applied social research. Qualitative Research, 10(2), 229-248. Web.

Darbyshire, P., MacDougal, C., & Schiller, C. (2005). Multiple methods in qualitative research with children: more insight or just more? Qualitative Research, 5(4), 417-436. Web.

Leko, M. (2014). The value of qualitative methods in social validity research. Remedial and Special Education, 35(5), 275-286. Web.

Roulston, K., & Anne-Shelton, S. (2015). Reconceptualizing bias in teaching qualitative research methods. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(4), 332-342. Web.

Stevens, P., & Van Houtte, M. (2010). Adapting to the system or the student? Exploring teacher adaptations to disadvantaged students in an English and a Belgian secondary school. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(1), 59-75. Web.

Twine, F. (2016). Visual sociology in a discipline of words: racial literacy, visual literacy and qualitative research methods. Sociology, 50(5), 967-974. Web.

Vianden, J. (2009). Exploring college men’s perceptions about interacting with faculty beyond the classroom. The College Student Affairs Journal, 27(2), 224-241.

Wiles, R., Crow, G., & Pain, H. (2011). Innovation in qualitative research methods: a narrative review. Qualitative Research, 11(5), 586-604. Web.