Category: Classroom

Introduction

The section of psychology that studies human development is based on building theories with a help of observing behavior. According to Miller (2011), the critical distinction of a developmental theory is its focus on changes that happen over a certain period. Its tasks include describing changes that happen in a chosen behavior area, comparing them to other areas, and explaining them. Developmental theories are valuable since they organize facts and give meaning to them while offering direction to future research works (Miller, 2011).

The process of formulating a theory starts with making assumptions and hypothetical constructs, which are not tested and cannot be observed, though they relate to visible behavior (Miller, 2011). The next step in creating a theory is to formulate hypotheses – “tentative statements about the relations among events, objects, properties, or variables” (Miller, 2011, p. 3). Finally, when a hypothesis is supported by research, it becomes a statement or a law. Most developmental theories deal with the issues of human nature, quantitative and qualitative factors of psychology, the effect of nature and environment, well as discuss the object of development.

Main body

The general idea behind building a developmental theory is observing an individual’s behavior, making notes about it, and putting distinguished traits as a basis for supporting a hypothesis. It must be said that psychologists often belong to one of the so-called schools of thought, or perspectives, which explain human behavior from different systems of scientific beliefs. For instance, the Piagetian focus on behaviorism contradicts at some point with Freud’s psychodynamic approach. In this way, theory construction is initially influenced by the culture and beliefs of a researcher.

Some researchers believe that previous studies in the field of developmental psychology focused on objectives that could not be properly evaluated. For instance, Newman and Holzman (1997) propose that, instead of studying conversations, theorists must switch focus to the performance of conversations. Children learn the language through a “relational activity of creatively imitating others” (Newman & Holzman, 1997, p. 129).

Traditionally, psychological research on development is carried out in groups of children or adults that need to solve a number of problems. Researchers design a method of testing those groups before the event, collect data and analyze it to find results that match or contradict their hypotheses. Based on how well participants deal with a problem, conclusions are made on their mental abilities. However, models for research are often formal and their main limitation is that the psychology of participants is evaluated using the same characteristics for everyone. This approach might work well with neuroscience studies, but development theories should also consider the individual and collective differences of people.

As Miller (2011) mentions, theories in textbooks do not fully describe the real behavior of people, which usually “proceeds in a much messier, irrational fashion” (p. 5). This fact is especially important when connecting development theories with education. Teachers often believe that a child gains knowledge from formally organized studies. However, the process of gaining knowledge by children is not systematic (Newman & Holzman, 1997). Keeping this idea in mind should help educators in planning their lessons in a way, which would give more opportunities for students to learn rather than simply follow a pre-determined plan. Sometimes improvisation lets children understand new concepts better than a structured lecture.

Finally, the important thing is to make children understand that they are learners by nature, and that “learning is what human beings do” (Newman & Holzman, 1997, p. 131). This notion is rather important not only for children students but also for adults. People gain knowledge their whole life and seeing this process as essential may help in building a successful career in the future.

Classroom Behavior and Theories

As has been mentioned previously, there are many psychological theories that can explain the students’ behavior, which is observed in the classroom. Different opinions give explanations based on biologically determined possibilities, individual specifics, and other characteristics of people’s psychology. To better understand the differences between these theories, it is better to apply them for explaining the real-life cases that were happening in the classroom.

Learning how to count is one of the fundamental skills given to young children in school at the beginning of their educational path. A group of first-graders was given a problem, where they had to determine the number of apples they would have if a friend gave them two apples, and they had seven of them before. Every teacher knows that there is more than one way to solve this problem. Most children counted the total number from the beginning, while some of them started from the bigger digit. Those who used the second strategy solved the problem faster.

There are several theories that can be applied to this situation. For example, the theory of cognitive development stages proposed by Jean Piaget describes that children of this age group can perform basic concrete operations (Hock, 2009, p. 136). The important notice, however, is that mathematical operations done by children of this age group must relate to things that they are familiar with from real life. Apples are objects that all children have seen in their life, which makes them appropriate for use in a mathematical problem. However, if students had to count abstractly, it would take them more time and create additional difficulties.

Piaget believed that there are four stages of development that every child reaches at a certain age (as cited in Hock, 2009). He explained that development is a natural process, and children have internal means for psychological growth. Piaget’s belief was extended by the idea that since development is natural, everyone should develop in the same manner and same age even with little or no instruction. However, this theory does not explain why every class has students with different learning results. For example, some children in kindergarten already develop an understanding of an area, while Piaget gives this characteristic to school students.

The theories of information processing can also be applied to analyzing classroom behavior. Their core idea is that human brain functioning resembles an algorithm of a computer program, and thinking itself is an information process (Siegler, 1997). Thinking is limited but at the same time, it can adapt to changing conditions. The structural characteristics of this system include different types of memory – sensory, working, and long-term (Siegler, 1997). For example, theories state that children that are younger than ten years old cannot divide verbal and spatial information, both of which are a part of working memory. Long-term memory is interesting by the fact that people remember several characteristics of an object, and only some of them may be partially recalled in the future to help to bring up the whole (Siegler, 1997).

This idea is often seen in class when children try to remember a secondary book character by listing his or her appearance elements or activities, or some items with names that are difficult to keep in mind. For example, one of the first-graders was re-telling a plot of a book that he had read the previous week, and he could not remember what had been the job of the main character. He remembered things like “she looks for old things buried in the ground”, “she sometimes finds treasures”, and “she travels many places like deserts.” Apparently, the main character was an archaeologist.

Automatization and encoding also characterize information processing (Siegler, 1997). These two processes explain what happens with information after it was received by a person. Automatization is very important because it gives an opportunity for the brain to put leave more memory resources for performing various tasks. For example, first-graders from the example about counting apples spent relatively much time on this problem. However, older students have the process of adding one-digit numbers automated, which leaves them more time to solve other problems.

The ideas of Piaget were combined by some scientists with the information-processing theories of human development (Siegler, 1997, p.72). The main objective of this combination is that children develop in stages as Piaget claimed, but cognitive growth is reached by increasing the capacity of working memory (as cited in Siegler, 1997). Automatization is believed to be one of the reasons for this transition. Children who just start their education path in school have to spend a lot of memory resources to solve problems. However, as they learn, students start to perform problem-solving algorithms automatically, which allows them to build up knowledge by adding new information into the freed space.

Relationship Between Learning and Development

After studying different theories of development, I have understood that there is no single approach that can describe all sides of this process. Instead, it is better to use several theories in different situations and combine them to receive the whole picture. The role that development theories play in the education sphere is that they claim that there should be a certain basis for reaching further levels of knowledge. Learning processes are different depending on the development stages of children. This information is valuable to education leaders as they can plan their lessons based on the psychological characteristics of their students.

For example, students of the first grade sometimes whisper to themselves or move their lips when writing a story or solving a mathematical problem. This is an example of speech that they have running in their heads. This is an example of egocentric speech – a term first introduced by Piaget (as cited in Crain, 2011). Another psychologist, L. Vygotsky, also worked with the concept of internal speech. However, he disagreed with Piaget about its role and transformation in the development process. Piaget believed that egocentric speech has no value and disappears as a child grows up. Vygotsky viewed this element as a tool for planning and organizing thoughts, which transforms from a spoken version to a silent monologue led inside a person’s mind (as cited in Crain, 2011).

The idea of egocentric speech has given me the understanding that it is important for children to plan their words and actions before they make them in reality. Sometimes parents and teachers discourage little children from talking out loud to themselves and tell them to keep quiet. The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky about egocentric speech show that this is not a correct order. Moreover, Vygotsky introduced the concept of metacognition – “the awareness people have of their own thought processes” (as cited in Crain, 2011, p. 226). Adults always have thoughts running in their minds, many of which are shortened. They are aware of the inner thinking processes they conduct all the time. However, they forget that young children have not yet mastered this idea.

One of the most important differences between the ideas of Piaget and Vygotsky is the level of spontaneously acquired knowledge. Piaget believed that every child has inner resources to make discoveries and develop thrstorylineough invention (as cited in Crain, 2011).

However, I find Vygotsky’s theory better as it focuses on the importance of formal instruction. Vygotsky did not argue with the idea that some development is spontaneous, but he added that schooling is also important for this purpose (as cited in Crain, 2011). When a teacher gives lectures about different things that are a part of children’s everyday life, their understanding of words and ideas becomes more classified and structured. In the long run, it helps a child to develop conscious thinking skills.

As an educational leader, I have experience in seeing how the children’s process of formulating their thoughts increased gradually as a result of attending school. Little children often do not have the pattern of interconnections between their ideas. They often say whatever comes to their mind, changing subjects rather quickly, and their supporting evidence for things that they describe can be irrelevant or even misleading. However, in school students learn to present their thoughts in a structured way so that everyone else can understand the plot. They develop the skill of building a storyline, which is supported by valuable details that help to get a bigger picture of described events.

While schooling is important to make the thinking process structured, I cannot disagree with Piaget that a child must reach a certain stage before he or she can learn new things. The example of students structuring their thoughts as a result of studying in school cannot be applied to younger children. Babies cannot tell stories no matter how much effort their parents put into teaching them. The stages of development determined by Piaget offer guidance about which skill can be learned by a child based on his or her age. As a teacher, I would not ask first-graders to understand difficult abstract concepts like the theory of changing mass, since not all of them are even familiar with the term. All examples given in class to this age group must relate to objects that they often meet in real-life conditions.

According to Piaget (1952), children are capable of making inventions by using familiar means in new situations. His series of experiments showed that it is not necessary for some situations to instruct children on how to use certain objects. Instead, they can figure out problems themselves after trying several times. In this way, improvisation in class is important because it lets children develop naturally by using inner resources. Teachers should not focus so much on bringing everyone to the same pattern of thinking, but rather praise creativity and let development a bit more individual. In fact, abstract thinking is a skill that cannot be easily taught and requires inner resources for it to develop.

Individual and Cultural Differences

My experience with individual and cultural student differences was received in a bilingual class of first-graders. Each of the children had to create a story after learning about its elements – place, characters, the main problem, and others. The class was conducted in English, and the instructions were also given in English. One student spoke Spanish as her mother tongue, and that appeared to create difficulties for her in understanding the assignment. Instead of creating a story, she was talking to her friends in Spanish, while ignoring everyone who spoke English. I tried to help her with solving the issue, but there was not much time left.

The conclusion that I have made as a result of this situation is that teachers must find an approach to each student. Every child may have reasons that stand in the way of gaining knowledge. Apparently, the girl was not motivated to study English, and every task that required knowledge of this language was difficult for her. Instead of judging students as slow learners, a teacher should be well aware of developmental psychology theories to notice any reasons why a child falls behind the group.

Social factors like environment influence human development just as nature does, which is a part of what Vygotsky proposed in his theory. Children develop through a program that is biologically determined by brain functioning characteristics. However, it is obvious that people from different social groups show different behavior. It can be seen in their speech manner, reactions to different situations, life choices, and other traits. Language is one of the elements of this system that can serve as an example of this idea. In the introduction to his book, Gee (1990) offers a concept of discourse, which is “much more than a language” (p.xv). He gives an example of two settings, where different social groups of people use the same language, but in a different way.

The discourse, in its general understanding, is used to show differences between how various groups of people communicate. What is acceptable and usual for one social group, may sound awkward for another. Gee (1990) offers an example of how two girls of different races and backgrounds tell stories to their class. The White girl uses a formal approach and offers a structured storyline, while the Black girl uses a rhythmical pattern and repetitions. The first story was told to inform, the second one – to get an emotional reaction. This difference came from the discourses of social groups that the girls belonged to. However, the teacher did not recognize the value of the Black girl’s story.

This example shows that often teachers disregard the socio-cultural background of their students. They make attempts to bring children’s performance to a formal model described in teacher guides. From this point of view, assessment of knowledge and development considers only certain performance as successful, which means that some students may feel unmotivated after being marked as slow learners. As a result, they are not willing to participate in class discussions because they feel that their opinion will not be valued.

While discourse is usually something that characterizes a one-nation community, there are also differences that come between people from various countries. When students from different nations meet in the same classroom, collaborative activities may become an issue. This problem is often associated with the idea of individualism and collectivism. These are the two polar determining dimensions of cultural variation (Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Assai, & Lucca, 1988, p. 323). For example, Western culture is highly individualistic, while people from Asian countries value community. Of course, this is a generalized idea, but it reflects the difference in attitude towards collaboration between these two cultures.

For example, if Americans and Chinese children meet in the same classroom, they are likely to participate differently in group discussions. As Triandis et al. (1988) suggest in their research, Americans value their own goals more than the ones of the group, have a high competitive spirit, and rely on themselves rather than on other members. This observation gives a possibility to state that American students will try to dominate the discussion and prove their point of view. At the same time, Chinese culture values harmony in society. Creating a conflict is something very bad that needs to be avoided. This way, Chinese students will try to agree with the rest instead of proving their point if it may lead to an open argument.

Teachers that evaluate performance in group discussions should take the idea of collectivism and individualism into account. They may assume incorrectly that students who are quiet have nothing to say and, as a conclusion, are less developed than their peers. However, the reason for such behavior may be caused by the cultural background that values modesty and peacekeeping. To properly evaluate students’ progress, teachers should include different methods of sharing knowledge so that children can choose a method that seems the most comfortable for them.

Personal Philosophy of Teaching and Education

The theories of psychological development learned during this course help in understanding what the process of education should be like. They give an opportunity to develop a teaching style that benefits students with different learning needs. Moreover, theories of development offer guidance in assessing children’s performance without being biased. Although I have found several ideas to be better than others for the described purposes, I feel that the combination of elements taken from different theories will work best.

Firstly, I believe that while the formal structure of the learning process is important, teachers should give more opportunities for students to improvise. Since learning is often not linear, but rather spontaneous, sudden ideas and solutions that appear in the process of improvisation may contribute a lot to psychological development. Besides, learning is an ongoing process and people keep gaining knowledge even after graduating from educational institutions. Knowing how thinking works and keeping in mind that humans are learners by nature may help children to act more confidently during brainstorming and solution search in the future.

Secondly, there should be a balance between the level of difficulty of new information given to students and their current stage of development. On one hand, a teacher should not give materials that discuss concepts, which cannot be understood by children of a certain age group. Piaget’s stage model may offer guidance to education leaders about what children can already understand, and what should be left for the future. On the other hand, there can be little progress made if children receive information that only operates the ideas they are already familiar with. There should always be a challenge of finding a new approach to solve a problem. The hardest part of this strategy is trying to find the balance that will keep children motivated and eager to learn.

I would not, however, pay too much attention to the information-processing theory that describes brain capacity with the ideas of different memory types. While these ideas are accurate in how they describe automatization, encoding, and other processes, they do not pay attention to individual differences between learners. Memory capacity is increased over time, as children gain more knowledge and become experienced in its processing. However, every brain functions differently, and the number of neuron connections varies among students. Teachers should not measure development by things like how well students memorize poems and plot lines.

Finally, I agree with Vygotsky’s idea that social context plays a role in a child’s development. A teacher should pay attention to the cultural background of each student and build an educational process that benefits a diverse community. Children of all nations and cultural groups must feel comfortable in school. Their feelings are linked directly with motivation level, performance, and success in general. It is especially important to form a welcoming and positive atmosphere in primary school because it sets the base for future life-long learning.

Conclusion

One more thing should be mentioned about using the theories of development. Like all theoretical information, they do not focus on the great variety of people’s behavior. In fact, they present generalized models of development that try to classify people according to a set number of factors. However, real-life situations are often irrational and require flexibility to work with them. This fact adds the last element to my philosophy of education, that learning must be a naturally flowing process directed by students’ needs rather than be structured to meet guidelines drafted on the basis of theories.

References

Crain, W. C. (2011). Theories of development: Concepts and applications (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Gee, J. P. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. London, UK: The Falmer Press.

Hock, R. R. (2009). Forty studies that changed psychology: Explorations into the history of psychological research (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Newman, F., & Holzman, L. (1997). The end of knowing: A new developmental way of learning. New York, NY: Routledge.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. (M. Cook, Trans.). New York, NY: International Universities Press, Inc.

Siegler, R. S. (1997). Children’s thinking (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Triandis, H., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M., Assai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives of self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 323-338.

Classroom observation is one of the most important quantitative methods used in giving instructions and measuring behavior of learners. As the term suggests, learners observe behaviors and events which are then recorded.

According to de Abreu and Interpeler (2015), observation facilitates effective understanding and articulation of classroom behaviors and therefore creates a platform for collecting data. Through observation, an in-service nurse educator is able to gain knowledge and make new discoveries on specific classroom behaviors in regard to the frequency of occurrence.

Systematic classroom observation is an effective teaching method and has been widely used since 1970. Through it, techniques such as narrative descriptions, checklists, rating scales and charts are used to examine effective teaching. Classroom observation uses an interactive coding system.

An instructor is able to observe teachers and students and determine all their activities after recording them. The coding system is an interactive platform which gives vital highlights and does not require complex inferences or judgment to be made by an observer. It is highly objective and specific and can be used to easily code observed behavior.

Motley and Dolansky (2015) explain that classroom observation in learning is very critical in providing the needed reactionary response that either points at learning as a process or outcome. Therefore, the behavior of a learner acts as a key facilitating factor towards acquisition of the new sets of information either under specified or normal circumstances.

Under this consideration, a learner provides instantaneous reactionary response towards the learning process which cumulatively culminates to effective assimilation of the required data. Classroom observation theorists indicate that progression in learning follows a reciprocating model whereby both the immediate environment and the learner operates in a complementary mode. The behavior of the learner partially controls the process since he/she inclines towards considerations that have the highest positive impacts.

Classroom observation employs various instruments so as to facilitate effective collection of data. Some of the instruments are also used in research and they may include classroom observation schedule, stalling observation schedule and Brophy-Good Dyadic Interaction System. Through these instruments, educators are able to stimulate change, gather more valuable information while providing precise evidence and collect information from naturalistic education settings. Accordingly, this improves education and enhances understanding.

According to de Abreu and Interpeler (2015), classroom behavior acts as a checkpoint for the learning process because it serves as an indicator of the learning extent. Therefore, it creates the need or progression. Hence, behavior becomes a pointer of the success achieved in the learning process and therefore outlines the remaining outset in the attainment of original objectives.

Moreover, by using classroom observation instruments during the learning process, an individual’s behavior is cumulatively enriched. As a result, information on the new behavior contributes to the pace that the actual learning takes place. Indeed, understanding learning process becomes a bit faster for an instructor and this enhances behavioral changes.

Furthermore, classroom observation as a research method provides findings that assist in acquiring well-substantiated knowledge and data which is coherent. Research indicates that a student’s achievement is pegged on classroom behavior, a consideration that points towards the practice of conducting monthly reviews, weekly reviews, and independent practice (de Abreu & Interpeler, 2015).

Agreeably, these practices alongside providing feedback, guidance to students, fresh and new material as well as conducting daily reviews, tend to enhance performance of learners.

The classroom theory used entailed a systematic classroom observation. It refers to an empirical method of assessing students’ response to learning outcomes from direct observation. Both the behaviors’ and events are specified during the classroom observation. Besides, events are recorded in a systematic manner based on data gathered from classroom behaviors (Ing, 2010). Therefore, an observational system that uses this theory may comprise several elements in order to achieve specific and broad learning objectives.

The objective of an observational classroom theory is to establish variability principles using the system of interactive coding (Ing, 2010).The observer is given a certain time to record behaviors and everything he views from students and teachers in a classroom environment. The classroom observation theory aids in acquiring substantial knowledge on students’ performance.

The purpose of classroom observation is to investigate teachers’ performance and therefore enhances their performance, description of instructional materials of different categories to students and also defining the activities that take place in a classroom. The latter can take place while merging the complex practicals faced by learners (Ing, 2010).This method can also be used to aid in professional growth of the teachers.

The classroom observation theory has substantial important findings even though it lacks clarity and consensus( Ing, 2010).Epistemological critics explain that classroom observation theory cannot accurately define the outcome of students’ behavior when instructed to do certain exercise and at times, only the tutors can explain and probably understand certain aspects of the theory (Ing, 2010).

Some critics argue that there are no justifiable resources due to lack of theoretical assumption. It is against this backdrop that qualitative and quantitative methodologies should be combined in order to improve the classroom observation theory (de Abreu & Interpeler, 2015). Besides, observational instruments should be keenly developed.

References

de Abreu, W., & Interpeler, S. (2015). Effective mentorship to improve clinical decision making and a positive identity: A comparative study in Turkey and Portugal. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 5(1), 42–46.

Ing, M. (2010). Using informal classroom observations to improve instruction. Journal of Educational Administration, 48(3), 337-358.

Motley, C., & Dolansky, A. (2015). Five steps to providing effective feedback in the clinical setting: A new approach to promote teamwork and collaboration. Journal of Nursing Education, 54(7), 399–403.

Introduction

Jing Peng and Lili Zhang published their work entitled ‘An eye on target language use in elementary English classrooms in China’ in an edited book by M. Nikolov titled ‘Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes’ which was published in the year 2009.

There is a general agreement among researchers in second language learning that target language input plays a critical role in acquiring second and foreign language (Peng and Zhang, 2009). This essay will offer a critique of the research that was conducted and published by the two authors in which it can be argued that they made positive contribution to the teachers’ use of TL in elementary schools in China.

Summary

There is general agreement among researchers in second language acquisition which asserts that target language (TL) is critical in learning of the second and foreign language. Since learning often happens in a classroom environment, the use of TL by teachers is crucial as it becomes resourceful for students in obtaining knowledge in TL (Ellis, 1997; Ellis, 1984).

The study by Jing Peng and Lili Zhang aimed to establish how the Chinese teachers made use of TL in elementary school English classes.

The sample population for the study included fifty-four English teachers and two hundred and three students in elementary schools in China. Of the fifty-four teachers, four were subjected to observation whereas the rest were given questionnaires which they were required to fill (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The study aimed at finding out the manner in which teachers used TL in English classes. More emphasis was laid on the quantity and suitability of target language usage.

It was hoped that the information gathered would be of great help in generating recommendations for English teachers to enhance their understanding of the significance of using TL while teaching. The data collected was also aimed at facilitating effectiveness among teachers in using TL in elementary schools while conducting foreign language classes (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

A naturalistic model was used, and the results were subjected to statistical analysis. The investigation was conducted for a period of three months. The investigation made use of various methods that included interviews, questionnaires and observation methods in gathering data.

In analyzing the results of the study, it was found out that significant variations existed in respect to the amount of TL used by the Chinese teachers. The results revealed that, in most instances, the teachers used less than 60% of their talk time on TL (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

It has to be noted that, the time used by teachers on TL was not commendable for the students who were learning a foreign language. In addition, from a pragmatic point of view, the used of TL by teachers was not sufficiently differentiated, and in most instances, was found not to be appropriate.

From the findings of the research work, it was concluded that the usage of TL in foreign language classes, as observed in the study of elementary schools in China, was not reasonable (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

Critique

The researchers aimed to positively contribute to effective use of target language among teachers in elementary schools in China. This study relied on various methods of data collection including observation, interviews and questionnaires. However, it can be noted that the use of observation as a tool for data collection was not conducted in an appropriate way.

This is because the four teachers who were observed were all from the main city areas of Shapingba District in Chonqing. This sample was not representative as the typical elementary schools were avoided (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The reason given for selecting the four elementary school teachers in city areas is that these schools put a lot of emphasis on English learning compared to other schools (Peng and Zhang, 2009). It is always recommended that the study population must be representative of the whole population.

In this regard, there was bias in selecting the four teachers and their students to be subjected to the observation methods. Nonetheless, the other fifty teachers who were issued with questionnaires were sampled randomly which is plausible in any research undertaking (Kumar, 2005).

There is another weakness that can be noted in this study. This is particularly in respect to the observational method used in studying the four teachers and students. In this regard, the views by the students from the questionnaire seem to be contradicting what had been observed in class.

It was found out that over 80% of the students were of the view that the TL usage by the teachers was relatively scarce, contrary to what had been recorded from observation, especially in respect to teacher A and B (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The other weakness was noted in the manner in which the study was undertaken where focus was put on the relationship between the teacher and students in respect to TL usage. The study failed to explore the relationship amongst students in respect to the same (Ellis, 1997). It has been noted that social aspects cannot be separated from the learning process (Kirshner and Whitson, 1997).

Socio-cultural contexts in the learning process cannot be ignored as emphasized by Hall (1993) who noted that, “the ability to participate as a competent member in the practices of a group is learned through repeated engagement in and experience with these activities with more competent members of a group” (p 148).

Besides the weaknesses that have been noted, generally, it can be pointed out that the study was insightful in shading some light on the TL use by teachers. The methodology used can be hailed to have been effective as it was diverse considering that it included observation, interviews and questionnaires. This enabled the researchers to capture all the necessary information for the study (Kumar, 2005).

For instance; from the observation, it was noted that the use of TL among teachers from the student perspective was in contrast with what was observed in class. This was after the students responded to the questionnaire in which over 60% indicated that TL use in class was quite at a low scale (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The research is also presented in an insightful language that can easily be understood by scholars who are interested in TL issues, and this adds to the strengths of the study. The findings of the study were also useful in the sense that they provided useful tips which can be exploited to improve the learning of foreign language in elementary schools (Ellis, 1984).

It was established that there was need to raise the teachers’ effectiveness in the use of target language. Also, the study recommends course coordinators to facilitate more workshops and teacher training courses which emphasize on strategies aimed at enhancing TL use by teachers. This will be aimed at helping teachers in facilitating the learning of students through the emphasis on the varied use of English (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The study points out some of the weaknesses identified in the system which can be improved to enhance learning of the English language in elementary schools.

This includes the insufficient use of TL in respect to teaching of foreign language in elementary schools, and insufficient variations in teachers’ TL use which was also unsuitable (Peng and Zhang, 2009). Having pointed out these issues, the study brings forth the necessity required to correct the mess so as to improve on how foreign languages can be learnt effectively.

Therefore, it was necessary for the study to be conducted as it enabled the Chinese education system know about the performance of their system, which they might have been thinking to be on the right track.

For instance, in the observation of the classroom presentations, it was discovered that some teachers allocated substantial time communicating in English to the students. However, in most occasions, more talk time was dedicated on repetition and short commends which added little value to the learning process (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

Conclusion and Recommendations

It can be observed that the contributions made by the research were insightful and appropriate in boosting the use of TL in elementary schools offering foreign language in China. This is because the study highlighted the TL use among the elementary school teachers with the aim of making suggestions and recommendation on how it could be improved.

From the revelation of the study, it can be recommended that more time should be dedicated on effective TL use in class so as to realize good results. Also, more use of TL in elementary schools should be fostered to reach satisfactory levels. There is need to raise the teachers’ awareness in respect to TL use in class.

There is no doubt that the main objective of the study was achieved as it gives a clear picture of the TL use among teachers in English classes. This can be replicated to other classes teaching foreign languages. The study also gives suggestions on how the efficiency of TL usage in class can be enhanced.

References

Ellis, E, 1984, Classroom Second language Development: A study of Classroom Interaction and language Acquisition. Oxford [Oxfordshire]; New York: Pergamon Press.

Ellis, R, 1997, Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hall, J K, 1993, The role of oral practices in the accomplishment of our everyday lives: The socio-cultural dimension of interaction with implications for the learning of another language. Applied Linguistics, 14(2): 145–165.

Kirshner, D and Whitson, A, 1997, Situated cognition: social, semiotic, and psychological perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Kumar, R, 2005, Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. London: Sage.

Peng, J and Zhang, L, 2009, ‘An eye on target language use in elementary English classrooms in China’, in M. Nikolov (ed.), Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes, Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp. 212-228.

Introduction

Code-switching is a definition in linguistics denoting using more than one language or dialect in dialogue. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages as native, have the capability to use components of both languages when having a conversation with another bilingual. What is mentioned is syntactically and phonologically suitable; that denotes that even if utterances from another tongue are involved in the sentence, they will be acclimatized to the grammatical regulations of the primary language. Code-switching can take place between sentences (inter sentential) or inside the only sentence (intra sentential). Code-switching is now regarded to be a regular and normal product of contact between the bilingual (or multilingual) narrator’s languages.

Code-switching can be differentiated from other language contact paradoxes such as advance conversion (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transport or meddling.

Key matters

There are various standpoints on code-switching. A key advance in sociolinguistics concentrates on the societal incentives for switching, a line of inquest focusing both on instantaneous conversation components such as lexical necessity and the theme and setting of the conversation, and on more remote components such as narrator or grouping individuality, and relations-grounding (commonality). Code-switching may also be thoughtful of the regularity with which a personality applies exacting appearances from any language in his everyday contacts; thus, an appearance from one language may more willingly approach to mind than the corresponding expression in the other one.

Another viewpoint principally relates to syntactic restraints on switching. This is a line of examination that has states grammatical regulations and precise syntactic frames within which a switch may take place.

While code-switching had beforehand been studied as a substance of unimportant significance within the narrower institution of investigation on bilingualism, it has now shifted into a more universal concentration of awareness for sociolinguists, psycholinguists and usual linguists.

Code-switching can be connected with and analytic of group association in scrupulous categories of bilingual language societies, such that the timekeeping of the irregular application of two or more languages within one dialogue may diverge to a substantial amount between language societies and that intra-sentential code-switching, wherever it takes place, maybe limited by syntactic and morph syntactic components which may or may not be widespread in character.

Hong Kong English

For a characteristic diversity of English to survive and be recognized in Hong Kong, localization is not sufficient. Indigenization by the means of all-over reception is also significant, but will not effortlessly be approaching, in spite of of the maintains and declarations of linguists in Hong Kong or somewhere else taking into account the existence of a typical ‘Hong Kong English’. Moreover, Hong Kong tutors of English will not recognize or assume typical local usages in their classrooms, without taking into account the daily use of such applications. A leading ideology of linguistic purity forces public to search exterior ordinaries with regard to both English and Putonghua, and to refute that there is a practical local diversity of English, in spite of the span of time that the language has been applied in Hong Kong.

Code-switching is rather evident in the verbal Cantonese of Hong Kong. Having been under British dominion for over 150 years, Hong Kong speaks Cantonese (and from time to time written Chinese) is still hardly impacted by English, chiefly the dictionary, which includes plenty of English expressions.

Code-switching in Hong Kong is typically intra-sentential – changing within a sentence or section. The grammar of the sentence pursues Chinese grammatical rules and relates to the English expressions or words that have been introduced into the sentence. For instance, being a diagnostic language, Chinese uses subdivisions as an alternative for verb intonation. There are few probable motivations for Hong Kong citizens to code-switch in their daily lives. First, it is communicatively significant. When code-switching is regarded as the custom in a language society like Hong Kong, it can reinforce contacts, particularly when both parties of the conversation understand English that is being used. Generally it is viewed as a shortcut to communication.

Code-switching can be accepted as an instrument to evade awkwardness. It is a tactic to evade sheering words or thoughts which people might be painful to use in Cantonese. For instance, it is easier to say “I love you” in English than its Cantonese equivalent. Other instances in this grouping comprise susceptible words like underwear, lavatory, gay or emotions such as pride or appreciation.

As code-switching is more famous in Hong Kong than in other Cantonese regions of China, code-switching is perhaps accepted as linguistic habits of Hong Kong. The matter is that Hongkongers use code-switching, go on using conventional Chinese features, and agree high outstanding value to English, and is to differentiate themselves from the rest of continental China.

References

Chiu, L. C., Yi, D., Kim, S. J., Kim, W. B., Kwok, R. Y., Lee, H. Y., et al. (1995). Emerging Patterns of East Asian Investment in China: From Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (S. J. La Croix, M. Plummer, & K. Lee, Ed.). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Du-Babcock, B., & Babcock, R. D. (2000). Adapting an American-Based Simulation to a Hong Kong Classroom. Business Communication Quarterly, 63(2), 9.

Understand Language Learning Strategies for EFL Learners (60 minutes)

Learning Objectives

A student will be able to:

• Understand different language learning strategies;
• Assess learning strategies in the context of cognitive theories, as well as appropriate models of foreign language acquisition;
• Understand the concept of learners’ autonomy
• Integrate instructed foreign language learning into second language acquisition;
• Develop cooperation and recycling vocabulary;

The teacher’s mission is to:

• To present information about the leading theories that will help students understand the importance of developing language learning strategies;
• Evaluate the level of students’ readiness to accept the new information;
• Draw student’s attention to the important issues of the subject;
• Find out strategies for checking students performance;

Areas Reflected for Learner Choice and Decision-Making

To improve learners’ autonomy, it is highly necessary to understand students’ attitudes concerning their language learning experiences. At this point, it is purposeful for a teacher to conduct a set of interviews that will seek to define student’s decision-making processes in EFL learning, reflect students’ attitudes and perceptions regarding the current and previous language learning strategies. During the interview, the teacher should be able to adequately evaluate the difficulties and challenges that each student faces while developing a set of learning strategies. More importantly, the role of the teacher is also confined to monitoring the students’ feedback on developing learners’ autonomy.

Description of the Activities and Justification

During this activity, the teacher should provide information about the leading strategies for memory training, as well as define the main aspects of successful communication and cooperation. It is also highly important to engage students in discussion and find out which strategy they use to improve their language and learn vocabulary.

Instructors should make use of Power-Point presentation representing the main points of the theoretical material, using various charts, graphs, and images. These materials would encourage the active participation of EFL students in discussion. As per the structure, the first 15 minutes should be dedicated to interrogation and brain-warming activities. For the next 30 minutes, the instructor should give explanations to the main theoretical and practical issues. Finally, the remaining quarter of an hour will be spent on revising what learners have understood after the materials have been introduced.

Available Resources

Textbooks

Takac, V. P. (2008). Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language Acquisition. US: Multilingual Matters.

Vocabulary learning approaches are highly important for EFL learners who can have difficulties that premise on socio-cultural differences. The textbook identifies the role of the teacher in shaping vocabulary learning techniques that can allow EFL students to realize the importance of the contextual environment.

Hurd, S., & Lewis, T. (2008). Language Learning Strategies in Independent Setting. US: Multilingual Matters.

The textbook is a valuable resource for understanding what theoretical frameworks are involved in understanding the main aspects of learner autonomy. Specifically, the authors put forward the social-constructivist theory, according to which self-regulation is represented through three phases: social speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech. This structure should be implemented while straining the autonomy of EFL students in Saudi Arabia.

Lamb, T. E., & Reinders, H. (2008). Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concept, Realities, and Responses. US: John Benjamins Publishing.

Koch, A. (2008). What Are Language Learning Strategies and How Can They Contribute to Better Learning. US: GRIN Verlag.

Sung, Ko-Yin. (2009). Language Learning Strategy Use and Language Achievement for American College Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language. US: ProQuest.

O’Rourke, B., & Carson, L. (2010). Language Learner Autonomy: Policy, Curriculum, Classroom. US: Peter Lang.

Felicity, K., Peter, V., Naoko, A., & Yoshiyuki, N. (2009). Mapping the Terrain of Learner Autonomy: Learner Environment, Learning Communities, and Identities. US: University of Tampere.

Journal articles

Alhaisioni, E., (2012). Language Learning Strategic Use of Saudi EFL Students in an Intensive English Learning Context. Asian Social Science, 8(13), 113-127.

The article provides a valuable theoretical framework that outlines future directions in learners’ training in the Saudi Arabian context. The article also provides the classification of students with different proficiency levels, as well as how each group employs strategies.

Role of Teachers and Learners in the Activity

While delivering a lecture, the major responsibility is imposed on the teacher’s ability to highlight the main points in the available resources, as well as grasp the learner’s attention to the main learning objectives. Furthermore, the instructors should also make sure that the materials they are delivering are easy to grasp for all the students. Specifically, introducing a center-oriented approach is preferable in this situation. While asking a question to separate students, the teachers should pay attention to the less attentive and passive students.

Method of Assessment

To define the degree of students’ comprehension of the lecture materials, it is possible to work out a questionnaire with multiple-choice questions that could be handed out at the end of the lecture or at the beginning of the practical assignment. In such a manner, the teacher could also understand the level of students’ participation in discussion, as well as their attitudes to learning and listening. Additionally, the task of the teacher is to verify the psychological and emotional responses of learners to the lecture structure and context to define whether they have been engaged in lecture discussion

Opportunities for Reflection

Students should think over new strategies for second language acquisition concerning cultural and social context. They should also develop sufficient communication skills for managing the learning process independently. Additionally, reflection should be strongly associated with the inner speech, which in turn requires self-honesty, attentiveness, and quietness of mind.

Developing Learner Autonomy through Developing New Vocabulary Learning Strategies (120 minutes)

Learning Objectives

• Understanding vocabulary learning strategies (interacting with peers and self-monitoring);
• Ability to check and correct home assignments independently;
• Ability to work out questionnaires and tests for evaluating performance;
• Developing speaking and listening.

Areas Reflected for Learner Choice and Decision-Making

Students should make use of their critical thinking and creative thinking skills to be able to learn a new vocabulary.

Description of the Activities and Justification

The activity will be split into three parts. The first part will be a discussion of the major concepts learned during the lecture. The brain warming activity will involve a game in which one student should ask a question related to the topic to another student and determine whether the letter answers correctly. The role of the teacher is to check that both students make the right statements. This activity will take no more than 20 minutes.

Introduction to the New Vocabulary. The second phase will be working with online tests during which ESL learners will be acquainted with the new words. For instance, a student can take an online test to learn more about the vocabulary related to movies. The test will take no more than 5-7 minutes. After the test, the teacher should discuss with the students the words they do not know and the ones they have already been familiar with.

Presentation

The teacher can write down several expressions on the blackboard. Similar expressions should be handed out to students. The workout could look as it is presented in Appendix 1. When students are familiar with the phrases, they can work in pairs to develop a dialogue about their favorite movies. They should spend no more than 15 minutes composing their dialogues and presents them to the audience. The process of presenting dialogues will take 35 minutes.

Table 1: At the Movies

Revision (50 minutes)

Students should internet for research phrases online and presenting them to their peers and their teachers.

Available Resources

Journal Articles

Al-Asmari, A. M. (2005). Use of the Internet among EFL Teachers at the Colleges of Technology in Saudi Arabia. ETD. Web.

Alyousef, H. S. (2005). Teaching Reading Comprehension to ESL/EFL Learners. The Reading Matrix. 5(2), 143-154.

Internet Resources

The Internet TESL Journal. (2005). Games and Activities for ESL/EFL Classroom. Web.

The online activities could serve as the basis for compiling a set of exercises that presuppose spelling comprehension activities, as well as communication with peers. As an example, it is possible to use the last assignment called “What’s the Meaning” for introducing group activities.

Activities for ESL Students. (2012). Web.

The online source provides a great variety of activities and exercises for a teacher to select the most appropriate one. Specifically, the site contains the vocabulary quizzes section that leads to various online links, which in turn offer different assignments on vocabulary.

Role of Teachers and Learners in the Activity

Apart from internet resources, teachers should make sure that all students have sufficient technical skills to work with computers. They should also be able to work with PowerPoint Presentations and other types of documents to present their written assignments. Additionally, while introducing a PowerPoint presentation, it is also necessary for the student to have sufficient speaking and communication skills to draw the audience’s attention.

Method of Assessment

The teacher’s evaluation of the students’ skills will start from the first multiple-choice test with the help of which he/she can define EFL learners’ background. Further assessment will be developed as soon as the teacher starts listening to the composed dialogues. Research skills will also be assessed after the lesson.

Opportunities for Reflection

Teachers should make sure that the setting in which the activities take place is well-equipped for conducting the activities.

Constraints that an EFL Teacher Might Face in terms of facilities availability, educational policy in Saudi Arabia

While conducting the activities, the use of a computer is important and, therefore, the Computer Laboratory will be the perfect place for students to learn. Using online resources and libraries will allow students to sophisticate their research skills. The Computer Lab is also necessarily conducting the above-presented activities. Finally, students can pursue my presentation on their monitors, which will facilitate their understanding of the material.

As per educational policies in Saudi Arabia, specific attention should be given to information and communications technology that has recently been introduced to higher education. To successfully embrace the changes, teachers should also take on the training course to obtain a qualification in the successful operation of technology and equipment. Besides, the role of the teacher is to enhance students’ integration into the use of technology. The proposed activities also premise on the ICT application and, therefore, it is highly important to teach learners to successfully use the information technologies and enhance their experiences and skills. Information technologies are especially beneficial for conducting classes in groups whose number exceeds 40 students. Instant messaging online increases the success of communication and, therefore, using ICT can solve the problem.

References

Activities for ESL Students.(2012). Web.

Al-Asmari, A. M. (2005). Use of the Internet among EFL Teachers at the Colleges of Technology in Saudi Arabia. ETD. Web.

Alhaisioni, E., (2012). Language Learning Strategic Use of Saudi EFL Students in an Intensive English Learning Context. Asian Social Science, 8(13), 113-127.

Alyousef, H. S. (2005). Teaching Reading Comprehension to ESL/EFL Learners. The Reading Matrix. 5(2), 143-154.

Felicity, K., Peter, V., Naoko, A., & Yoshiyuki, N. (2009). Mapping the Terrain of Learner Autonomy: Learner Environment, Learning Communities and Identities. US: University of Tampere.

Hurd, S., & Lewis, T. (2008). Language Learning Strategies in Independent Setting. US: Multilingual Matters.

Koch, A. (2008). What Are Language Learning Strategies and How Can They Contribute to Better Learning. US: GRIN Verlag.

Lamb, T. E., & Reinders, H. (2008). Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concept, Realities, and Responses. US: John Benjamins Publishing.

O’Rourke, B., & Carson, L. (2010). Language Learner Autonomy: Policy, Curriculum, Classroom. US: Peter Lang.

Sung, Ko-Yin. (2009). Language Learning Strategy Use and Language Achievement for American College Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language. US: ProQuest.

Takac, V. P. (2008). Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language Acquisition. US: Multilingual Matters.

The Internet TESL Journal. (2005).Games and Activities for ESL/EFL Classroom. Web.

A number of SEI strategies exist that can be beneficial to ELL students of different proficiency levels. This paper covers five of these strategies and how they can be applied to three different content areas.

Always establish the language objective

This is one of the most important strategies because it becomes the fundament for the further education of the ELLs. By establishing the language objective, the teacher is able to construct their lesson according to the language needs of the ELL students (Glueck, 2017).

In the case of a history class, it could be used to teach students older words that can be encountered in historical documents. A mathematics class can have a language objective of learning terms specific to mathematics equations and theories. Literature class can have the objective of writing an essay that can improve comprehension and writing ability of the ELL students.

Always use the 50.50 rule.

To provide speaking practice to the ELL students, students should be allowed to speak as much as the teacher. By having them summarize texts, answer questions, and present reports, students further develop their language skills (Glueck, 2017).

A history class can have students do reports on historical figures and events. A mathematics class can ask students to talk through their calculations while working in front of a blackboard. Also, the literature class can present questions about students’ opinions of the current text they are reading.

Always push students to their productive discomfort level

To facilitate the growth of students’ language skills, they must always deal with slightly unfamiliar material. If students only use what they already know, their education might stagnate, so new topics and objectives should be frequently implemented (Glueck, 2017).

For example, a history class can introduce new words and terms related to the current topic and ask students to use them in their school work. A mathematics class can give exercises that involve scenarios that have not been previously encountered by students. Subsequently, a literature class can cover different styles of writing to broaden the vocabulary of students.

Always have students respond in complete sentences

This is a simple but important strategy. When answering a question, students can practice sentence structure if they respond in full (Glueck, 2017).

The implementation of this rule is uniform across all classes. However, to make the mathematics class more helpful to students, they can be asked to fully explain equations while reading their answers.

Always remember the teacher does nothing that students can do themselves

It is important to consider the current ELP level of students. If they can understand the material without the help of a teacher, they should show some independence. It should improve their confidence and language skills (Glueck, 2017).

If an older term has a new definition or can be understood through logic, the teacher should either not address it, or ask a student to explain it. During the mathematics class, students can attempt to use previously learned terms to describe new topics. Finally, students of a literature class can learn new turns of phrase by putting them into the context of the text, without an explanation from the teacher.

Reference

Glueck, J. (2017). Super SEI Strategies. High Powered Strategies. Web.

In modern society, multilingual classes are often found in which representatives of various nationalities, languages, and traditions study. This makes it necessary to study the ways of their training in order to achieve the most effective results. This work aims to identify three main aspects that affect the educational process when teaching bilingual students. Moreover, it will consider applying the deduced points both in pedagogical practice and in personal life.

The first important point is to take multiculturalism into account in teaching students. The source emphasizes the importance of language as a fundamental component of a person’s social and environmental development. Moreover, it plays a role in shaping the correct perception of other cultures and children’s cultural identities. This aspect helps to effectively socialize in society and develop such critically important concepts as diversity and inclusion. Children should gain an understanding of what the representatives of different nationalities who carry different views on the world, traditions, and customs will do.

Another critical point is the ability of children at an early age to learn more than one language. This is also due to the difference between the language spoken in their immediate environment and the language provided and used in the educational institution. The advantage of learning two languages at once is improved brain development, that is, the promotion of neurotic activity (Robles-Melendez & Vesna, 2019). The last important aspect that is important in the dual language classroom is the stage of formation of the second language. Their understanding is valuable for educators, as they help shape the learning process more effectively.

These key points can provide great assistance both in teaching practice and personal life. Hence, when teaching, it can be helpful to me to better understand the children from the foreign household and their perception of the world. Moreover, it will help to understand the possible difficulties they may face both educationally and socially. Similarly, in personal life, this knowledge can provide an opportunity to realize the existence of different cultures and their characteristics.

Reference

Robles-Melendez, W., & Vesna, B. (2019). Teaching young children in multicultural classroom. Cengage Learning.

Instilling discipline in early childhood entails acquisition of important skills because children at this age are not able to fully express themselves. In most cases, their actions will speak more than their words. Children will use whatever is available to express their feelings; for example, children will seclude themselves from the rest if there is something bothering them. Alternatively, they may draw what they think or are bottling up within themselves. Hence, they are deemed inventive, and reflective, resourceful.

In addition, this is the time when children reflect what they obtain from their interactions with adults. A very keen teacher is able to identify if a child is on the right track or not in reference to good behavior. This timely identification can only be achieved through high-quality training programs for early childhood teachers. Attainment of discipline and acceptable behavior within a child is important; hence, the purpose of this paper, which is to give insight into the strategies that educators can adapt to discipline and guide behavior during early childhood in the classroom.

The first step towards discipline enhancement in children is establishing ways to lexicon acquirement. One-to-one interactions between children and the educators are very effective (What Early Childhood Teachers Need to Know, 2000). During this childhood period, a one-to-one relationship with a child helps to know what he or she feels, and in so doing, the child learns to express his or her feelings through writing, drawing or talking.

These one-to-one interactions can be guided by discussing topics on relationships, for example, child-mother relationship, child-teacher relationship, and child-child relationship, and what is expected of each individual in the relationship. In addition, such a relationship builds trust and confidence in a child to the extent that he or she will be willing to take in whatever you give her. Storybooks have proven to have a way through to children. During childhood, children do not have the capacity to fathom unhappy endings, or endings that have suspense. The choice of story to read to children, therefore, requires early childhood teachers to have the knowledge and skills of selecting appropriate reading materials for children.

Educating children is a very sensitive area that requires a very creative educator. The cognitive ability of young children is still developing; thus, their comprehending ability is not high. Young children will utilize their eyes and the sense of touch to interact with the environment, and will not have a second thought. They are in fact referred to as noble savages. The background environment of a child is very important in defining their comprehension ability.

In an incidence provided by Harlin (2008), use of blocks by two boys from low socioeconomic classes revealed this concept. The stage when discipline should be taught to children gives rise to different schools of thought; whereas some scholars will argue that teaching discipline should begin at birth, others will argue that it should begin at conception. During pregnancy, the mother is asked to take care of herself and avoid stressful situations. After birth, the manner of language and care given to the child determines how the child responds to the environment. For example, if a child is brought up in a home defined by violence, it may have an extreme positive effect whereby the child will seek for peace and change, or an extreme negative outcome might result where the child becomes antisocial and harsh. It is because of such adverse effects from a child’s background that an early childhood educator should have adequate skills to counteract these negative attitudes and perceptions obtained from home.

Family involvement, thereby, becomes an essential component for consideration in the provision of early childhood education programs. Morrison (2012) highlights that building family and community relationships is among the six standards of professional development for individuals involved in an early childhood program. A child spends equal times at home and in school; therefore, understanding the behavior of a child when exposed to different stimuli is important for both teachers and parents in molding a child’s behavior. Hence, the reason for the collaborative efforts of both the family and the school.

Harlin’s (2008) study indicates the varying opinions of the early childhood teachers and the parents. Such differences are not beneficial in guiding behavior because they may end up confusing a child due to different treatment from the people who matter most in a child’s life at the moment. Hence, the need for teamwork between the parents and the early childhood educators. Subsequently, whatever a child learns while in the class is the same as what the parents say at home, and this helps to reinforce good behavior.

The current education processes during early childhood have a basis from early theorists, who realized the need for prebirth and early childhood care and education. Initially, no importance was given to children as they grew up. Despite the belief that nature is able to take care of its own, it is the responsibility of adults to take care of children by guiding them in the right manner while simultaneously, nurturing their abilities (Platz & Arellano, 2011). High-quality education programs have proven effective for children between the ages 0 to 5. A teacher should allow children to set their own goals and ways to achieve these goals. In the classroom, children will not just understand by telling them what to do. They need to interact and get a feel of what an educator aims at achieving, and the best way through which this can be achieved is self-discovery.

Children will also learn best from one another. Unfortunately, and especially in situations of multiculturalism, children will be segregated, and this limits learning from each other. Despite the notion that children require instruction at this stage, some cultures have very strong morals and virtues that can be learned by children from other cultures (New York State, 2012, p. 41-43). The teacher can objectively pair students so that they can work together, for example, do coloring together, make some drawings, or do some mathematics. Watching their peers perform a particular task prompts a child to accomplish what his or her peers can accomplish.

The training and experiences of a child since conception determine his or her nature and learning in the long term. The first learning environment is a child’s home. Rousseau emphasizes the importance of a liberal environment where toddlers can learn (Platz & Arellano, 2011). Childhood is the time when children can make mistakes without having to face severe punishment as an aftermath because the parent or educator is yet to develop a mode of communication. During this time, children make their own discovery of pain, and an educator can associate wrong behavior with pain. Every experience in a child’s life is a learning experience, and it is necessary that parent, educators and the entire community take part in modeling acceptable behaviors.

Play might seem trivial, but it is a very effective learning tool. Play has both emotional and psychological benefits; it is not just for the amusement and fun of children (Platz & Arellano, 2011). Play exposes children to challenging environments and an outcome because at the end of every game, there is either a winner or a loser. Children learn what they have to do in order to win, and also get to learn their mistakes in the event of failure. In such a scenario, children learn the element of consequences, which can be used in guiding behavior. Play usually meets the requirements of a natural environment, which is advocated as the ideal mode of learning, including learning acceptable behavior.

Literature stresses the importance of effective baccalaureate-level training for teachers to meet the needs of children between the ages 0 to 4. Unfortunately, this is yet to be achieved because not all teachers in early childhood programs have attained baccalaureate degrees. In addition, the depth and breadth of the baccalaureate degree programs do not meet the recommendations given by Fillmore and Snow as far as language preparation is concerned (What Early Childhood Teachers Need to Know, 2000).

The pre-school years determine the communication ability of most children. Unfortunately, there is disparity in the provision of attention. It has been found out that children who are good communicators at kindergarten receive more attention compared with poor communicators, yet the converse should be the case. Subsequently, this leads to deterioration in a child’s development, and social issues, which disrupt attainment of discipline at this level and in later years, begin to set.

Currently, the start off point for education is the kindergarten, but this has been deemed to be too late for early childhood programs. Too many details and complex information is not beneficial to children, and may thwart learning efforts during early childhood. As a result, children-friendly activities such as coloring and block plays have a significant impact, and are deemed more beneficial in instilling discipline and guiding behavior.

References

Harlin, R. P. (2008). Research into practice: Identifying variables that enhance or interfere with children’s learning. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 23(2), 252-261. Web.

Morrison, G. S. (2012). Early childhood education today (12^th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Web.

New York State. (2012). Early learning guidelines. Web.

Platz, D., & Arellano, J. (2011). Time tested early childhood theories and practices. Education, 132(1), 54-63. Web.

What Early Childhood Teachers Need to Know about Language. (2000). Eric Digests. Web.

Six Kinds of Power For The Effective Classroom Management

Raven (2008) names six kinds of power that influence student behaviour. They include coercive, legitimate, expert, reward, ‘referent’, and informational resources. Coercive power is the ability to control the behaviour of challenging students using punishments or by the withholding of privileges (Canter & Canter, 1992). A teacher’s role as an instructor earns is a source of legitimate power in the classroom. Referent power stems from a teacher’s attributes that earn him/her trust and respect in the classroom. In contrast, ‘reward’ is the teacher’s power to honour or recognise a student for good behaviour or other achievements (Kohn, 1993). On the other hand, expert power arises when students perceive their teacher as being intelligent and skilled in the subject. Informational power is the influence teachers have over students that enable them to induce certain beliefs in the learners. The writer believes that referent, legitimate, coercive, and expert resources are important in classroom management because they are more interventionist and group-oriented than informational and expert power bases.

Model of Group Management Comparing to Student-Oriented and Teacher-Oriented Models

Proponents of the group-oriented approach would criticise the student-oriented and teacher-oriented models for various reasons. Concerning the teacher-oriented approach, one would argue that it is deficient because it forces children to conform to the teacher’s instructions (Lovegrove & Lewis, 1991). In this regard, the student has no right to make choices, which makes it difficult for him/her to learn to control his/her behaviour. Such students lack self-discipline as they depend on the teacher’s guidance at all times (Pearl & Knight, 1998). In contrast, in a group-oriented approach, students have the freedom to make their own choices, which, however bad they may be, allow them to develop self-discipline. Proponents would also criticise the student-oriented model because it allows children to be entirely responsible for their own decisions. This can motivate students to behave inappropriately in a bid to gain recognition, especially if they believe it is impossible to achieve the same through normal channels (Lee-Manning & Bucher, 2012).

Kinds of Power in Relation to the Models of Classroom Management

Power is an important factor in classroom management. Teachers employ different types of power depending on the model of management in use. In the control model, which is teacher-oriented, teachers use punishments to deal with challenging students and commend good behaviour (Canter & Canter, 1992). Since the teacher uses various interventions to curb inappropriate behaviour, the kinds of power relevant to this model include legitimate, coercive, and reward. On the other hand, the ‘influence’ model is non-interventionist (student-oriented), i.e., the teacher does not intervene; rather, he or she influences students to be self-controlled (Gordon, 1974). Thus, he or she only serves as a consultant. The kinds of power that resonate with this model are expert and referent resources. Group management model entails the use of student-teacher interaction in controlling student behaviour. As Glasser (1988) puts it, the group management model entails teacher mediation in setting student rules. In this regard, the kinds of power used in this model include referent, legitimate, coercive, and expert.

Students’ ‘Mistaken Goals’ and Their Causes

Dreikurs, Grunwald, and Pepper (1982) explain student misbehaviour in the classroom, attributing it to the development of ‘mistaken goals’. In their group-centred approach, they list four ‘mistaken goals’ developed by students who misbehave in class. One of these goals is attention-getting, which is defined as the intention to catch the interest of others (Santa, Havens & Macumber, 1996; Kohn, 1996). The second one is ‘power-seeking’, which describes the desire of a student to get what he or she wants by forcing others to act in a certain way. The third mistaken goal is revenge-seeking, which describes the intention to retaliate to get even on something one feels is an injustice to him or her. The fourth goal is ‘withdrawal’, which is the desire to shun any form of interaction with others. Students develop these goals to earn recognition and approval from others. They believe that by misbehaving, they will win peer recognition and acceptance.

Teachers’ Instructional Techniques That Lead to Student Misbehaviour

Kounin (1970) introduces several ideas on instructional techniques that prevent student misbehaviour and enhance effective lesson management. According to him, the effectiveness of instructional techniques depends on the teacher’s ability to curb classroom problems. Teachers who display greater awareness of classroom activities, hold student attention well and plan their lessons do not experience student misbehaviour. Thus, skills in withitness, lesson transition, and group orientation can help curb inappropriate behaviour in the classroom (Charles, 2008; Braithwaite, 1989). An example of how teacher behaviour contributes to student misbehaviour is the failure to name and correct a misbehaving learner with clarity and firmness. This creates a ‘ripple effect’ that causes more learners to misbehave. Another example is a teacher’s lack of awareness of the activities happening in the classroom at all times. The lack of ‘withitness’ or consciousness of what the students are doing makes it difficult to identify the ‘initiator’ and intervene appropriately to stop the misbehaviour from spreading (Glasser, 1990).

Counterproductive Teacher Classroom Control Behaviours

Research findings indicate that teachers often use coercive power to curb student misbehaviour. Lewis’ (2001) survey of 42 schools offering secondary and elementary education revealed that teachers often employ coercive discipline to tame misbehaviour. However, this approach is largely counterproductive because coercive punishment stifles growth in responsibility in the learners and disrupts classwork resulting in poor performance. Other counterproductive classroom control behaviours include unconstructive criticism, angry outbursts, and student humiliation (Lewis & Riley, 2009). These teacher misbehaviours are counterproductive because they make learners develop feelings of fear and resentment towards the teacher, which affects learning. Another study by Roache and Lewis (2011), which involved a survey of teachers’ views on the effect of coercion versus reward-based power-on behaviour, found that the use of punishment coupled with an unfriendly attitude increases student misbehaviour. These techniques do not build trust relationships essential in fostering responsibility on the part of the student.

Theoretical Explanations for Teacher Misbehaviour

Lewis and Riley (2009) give three theoretical explanations for teacher misbehaviour, namely, attribution, efficacy, and attachment theories. Attribution theory attributes people’s actions to internal qualities of the teacher or learner. A teacher can ascribe misbehaviour to a student’s personal qualities or characteristics such as upbringing. Efficacy theory posits that teacher misbehaviour stems from a misplaced perception of one’s efficacy when responding to inappropriate behaviour from a student. Teachers can misbehave if they feel less effective concerning their ability to deal with a situation (Arthur-Kelly, Lyons, Butterfield & Gordon, 2007). On the other hand, the attachment theory attributes teacher misbehaviour to the strength of the attachment between a leaner and an instructor. The writer favours the attachment theory because he believes that the teacher-student relationship is reciprocal and anything that disrupts it can elicit aggression or misbehaviour from teachers.

References

Arthur-Kelly, M., Lyons, G., Butterfield, N. & Gordon, C. ( 2007). Classroom Management. Creating positive learning environments. Melbourne: Cengage.

Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Canter, L. & Canter, M. (1992). Assertive discipline: A take-charge approach for today’s educator. Los Angeles: Canter and Associates.

Charles, C. M. (2008). Building Classroom Discipline: From Models To Practice. Pearson. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

Dreikurs, R., Grunwald, B. & Pepper, F. (1982). Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom. New York: HarperCollins

Glasser, W. (1986). Control therapy in the classroom. New York: Harper & Row.

Glasser, W. (1988). Choice Theory in the Classroom. New York: HarperCollins.

Glasser, W. (1990). The Quality School: Managing Students Without Coercion. Melbourne: Cengage.

Gordon, T. (1974). Teacher Effectiveness Training. New York: HarperCollins.

Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise and other bribes. Boston: HarperCollins.

Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York: Pearson.

Lee-Manning, M. & Bucher, K. T. (2012). Classroom Management: Models, Applications and Cases. New York: Pearson.

Lewis, R. (2001). Classroom discipline and student responsibility: the students’ view. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 307-319.

Lewis, R. & Riley, P. (2009). Teacher Misbehavior. In L.J. Saha, & A.G. Dworkin (Eds.), International Handbook of Research on Teachers and Teaching (417–431). New York: Pearson.

Lovegrove, M. N. & Lewis, R. (1991). Classroom Discipline. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire Publishers.

Pearl, A. & Knight, A. (1998). Democratic Schooling: Theory to Guide Educational Practice. New Jersey: Hampton Press.

Raven, B. H. (2008). The Bases of Power and the Power/Interaction: Model of Interpersonal Influence. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 8(1), 1-22.

Roache, J. & Lewis, R. (2011). Teachers’ views on the impact of classroom management on student responsibility. Australian Journal of Education, 55(2), 44–58.

Santa, C., Havens, L. & Macumber, E. (1996). Creating Independence Through Student-owned Strategies. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Group Learning

In classrooms, students have to cooperate and work in groups from time to time. It is not always possible for a teacher to check if all students succeed in group learning. Lakey (2010) admits that students can learn in a variety way: they can listen, observe, participate, analyse, etc. A research can develop a project in a class with the students of the fifth grade. A teacher has to divide students into several groups. Each group consists of four-five students. The aim of the project is to clarify the conditions under which students should work, evaluate the conditions students create independently (a choice of a leader, division of the activities, etc.), observe how different students can work in groups, and introduce new approaches to how it is better to promote cooperative learning.

Action research plays an important role in an education program. It helps to identify the problem, choose the most effective ways to collect and analyse data, and use the real-life examples to give the answers to the posed questions (Cohen et al., 2011). With the help of such kind of research, it is also possible to improve the situation. As soon as the researcher observes students’ behaviour in the classroom and makes conclusions, effective activities take place.

Academic Cheating

The culture of cheating is not always easy to comprehend. Sometimes, students are eager to cheat because they are not able to learn the required material. Some students are too lazy to get ready for tests. And some students are eager to cheat just to check their possibility of doing so. In fact, people like the idea of cheating in different spheres, and education is not an exception (Jowanna, 2012). It is very important to think about some strategies that can prevent cheating in classrooms, and action research can help to give the answer to the question concerning the effectiveness of cheating measurements in the classroom.

Teachers have to observe the conditions under which students can cheat, analyse their decisions, pose questions, and think about the preventions that do not hit some personal or professional aspects. Of course, students will not answer how they like to cheat; still, it is possible to clarify the reasons they want to do it.

Action research is the best option for such kind of project because it helps to involve students and teachers to solve the current problem (Cohen et al., 2011). Besides, action research can help to change individuals and observe the effects of their actions from different points of view. It is not enough to observe and analyse. It is more effective to involve students and discuss the problems aloud.

References

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

Jowanna, C.B. (2012). Academic integrity: Preventing cheating with the implementation of an honor code. I.E.: Inquiry in Education, 3(1), 1-30.

Lakey, G. (2010). Facilitating group learning: Strategies for success with adult learners. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.