Category: Classroom

Since technologies make a significant part of peoples lives in todays society, it is necessary to teach children to adequately apply them in every sphere so that they can integrate them into their future routines. Teachers at the kindergarten may use technologies to assess students performances effectively and evoke their interest in getting an education (Danniels et al., 2020). However, the development of digital competence in kids, as well as encouraging them to use ICT tools during the educational process, may seem unnecessary. It is so because children often do not understand that computers or tablets may be used not only for fun. The present essay is aimed at explaining the positive and negative aspects of using ICT technologies in kindergartens as well as establishing the aims of their implementation.

The use of informational technologies in preschool education at kindergartens expands the teachers ability to manifest creativity and positively influences different aspects of childrens development. That is why many kindergartens buy interactive whiteboards, computers, and tablet computers (Hilkemeijer, n.d.). These tools help the educator diversify the forms of knowledge transmission and enhance the quality of communication with the parents. Moreover, digital competence enables the teacher to feel more confident in the fast-changing world. The application of ICT equipment helps the teacher make the lessons more interesting and dynamic and transform them into exciting and entertaining games.

Implementation of technologies into the educational process in different institutions, including kindergartens, makes it more interesting for students. The use of computers and other ICT tools requires much professional knowledge from the teachers, especially in the kindergartens, because it may be hard for kids to develop ICT knowledge themselves. That is why the implementation of modern technologies is one of the crucial goals of the educational system. It is possible to single out two of the most significant advantages of a computer. The first one is interactivity, or the ability to perform certain actions in response to the students actions. The second one is multimedia, which is the ability to display texts and pictures (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Multimedia facilitates memorization and enables the teacher to make the lesson more interesting and dynamic. It helps the teacher immerse children into the atmosphere of a certain place no matter what it is  either a fairy tale or a really existing city or town.

Technologies application at kindergartens is advisable because it allows the teacher to give children more knowledge during lessons that are quite short. Technology reinforces interest in children and activates their thought processes, and broadens their horizons (Dore & Dynia, 2020). That is why its use helps develop psychological processes in children as well as their mindsets and memory, which contributes to the further formation of worldview. In addition, children like pictures, videos, and other materials which may be shown with the help of electronic devices. It stimulates their interest in learning and makes them enjoy the lessons.

In addition, the use of ICT tools in the educational process helps in the development of other useful skills in children. They are the ability to memorize things, attention span, and fine motor skills, enhancing the development of clear and coherent speech and thought processes (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Technologies not only form the intellectual abilities of the children but reinforce such character traits as independence, concentration, and assiduity and teach the child to sympathize with the characters of the games and cartoons.

Computers are most frequently used in classrooms as substitutes for standard posters, which were often used in the educational process several decades ago. Computers evoke interest in children, at first, as a playing-related activity and then as the education-related one (MacDonald. 2019). This interest is the reason for the formation of such important structures as motivation to learn, memory, and attention span. They ensure the childrens psychological readiness to continue education first, in kindergarten and then at school.

As a rule, computers are used in combination with screens and projectors. Materials that are shown with the help of these devices can be prepared with the help of any computer program such as PowerPoint, Canva, Word, or Excel (Acer for education, 2019). The most frequently shown materials are slides made in Microsoft PowerPoint or in other programs. Slides are easy to both use and perceive since information on them is shown in brief and concise phrases, which transmit the message of the lesson. Since children, especially at a young age, possess exogenous attention and cannot consciously memorize the material, it is necessary to explain it in brief and concise form using bright visuals to capture their attention. Computers and interactive whiteboards, in that case, are irreplaceable because they transmit information in a plain form that the child can easily understand and memorize.

Application of the technologies during the process of preschool education in kindergartens helps the teacher boost the quality of the education and change methods of working with children. As was already mentioned, PowerPoint presentations help the educator give exact and brief information on a particular topic and guarantee that children understand it (MacDonald, 2019). It is so because bright and memorable pictures or figures will attract their attention, and they will not get distracted during the lesson. Technologies enable the teacher to implement games with graphic elements, images, or animation, facilitating the process of material explanation and enhancing childrens interest in education.

Cinematographic technologies are the most often used during the educational process, especially with little kids in kindergartens. It is so because they give information not in textual form that may be easily perceived by children but in figurative one. Using a representational form of explanation and material transmission is not only ergonomic but a powerful educational tool (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Implementation of videos, slides, and pictures into the lessons enables the educator to immerse children into the topic they currently study. It reinforces a more profound understanding of the subject as well as memorizing the material through imagery and emotional reaction.

In addition, technologies evoke interest in the studied topic, which contributes to better performances of the students during the lessons as well as their active engagement in the educational process. Sometimes an interesting fragment from a film or cartoon or a YouTube video makes the teacher change the structure of the lesson and bring a new topic into it (Dore & Dynia, 2020). It makes the educational material more profound, understandable, and exciting for children who, especially at a young age, are extremely active, and that is why it may be hard to capture their attention. Integrating modern technologies into the educational process in kindergartens helps educators transmit knowledge to the children and influence their emotions and perception of the materials.

Since informational technologies are the most appropriate instrument for collecting and processing informational data, educators may use them for different organizational purposes. Thus, teachers often use ICT technologies to make different lists for attendance tracking or collecting information about family situations (Dore & Dynia, 2020). In addition, ICT help in tracking childrens educational achievement, creating plans for the lessons, consulting parents on their childrens development, and giving them recommendations to follow in the future. Teachers use different computer programs and the Internet to find illustrative materials for the lessons and other out-of-class activities.

Apart from that, many kindergartens often have their own websites where it is possible to find all the necessary information about the institution, the educators who work there, and the methods of their work. Many kindergartens websites often have a catalog of articles on a wide range of education-related topics written by the teachers who work there (MacDonald, 2019). These articles may help educators from other institutions in their work and give the parents an opportunity to assess the educational methods used by the kindergarten and understand whether their children can attend it. Moreover, some websites often have sections for the parents questions where they may ask the teachers about the aspects of the educational process or the general work of the institution.

Creating a website for the kindergarten contributes to a better involvement of parents in the process of their childrens education and helps them become participants of the process but not just observers. Teachers may post information about the group activities on the kindergartens website or Facebook group, create short reports on the entertaining events or lessons, and post childrens photos. It will help enhance parents competence in education-related matters (Dore & Dynia, 2020). They will be able to see the educators work with the children and get acquainted with the methods they use during lessons, walks, and other out-of-class activities. In addition, communication between the parents and educators will help them establish relationships built on mutual trust, which will be beneficial for childrens development and education.

Another instance of using technologies in kindergartens concerns the constant professional development of the teachers themselves. They should be aware of all the changes in the sphere, and the best way to do it is to communicate with their colleagues in online forums or on social media (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Regular inter-professional communication enables educators to quickly find out about the changes in the field, use the methods and techniques their fellow workers do, and share their own experiences with them.

Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, it is possible to conclude that the application of informational technologies in the educational process in kindergartens is advisable since it contributes to a better understanding and more effective memorization. ICT facilitates the process of knowledge transmission from teachers to children since they enable the former to present the educational material concisely and understandably so that the kids can comprehend it. Apart from that, the use of computers and the Internet helps the teacher communicate with the parents, show them the progress their children make, and give them useful materials for work outside of kindergarten. Many educators use the Internet to find interesting materials and interactive games for their lessons, be aware of the innovations in the area and share their professional knowledge with their colleagues.

References

Acer for education (2019). The benefits of starting to use technology in kindergarten.Acer for education. Web.

Danniels, E. Pyle, A. & DeLuca, C. (2020). The role of technology in supporting classroom assessment in play-based kindergarten. Teaching and Teacher Education, 88. Web.

Dore, R. A. & Dynia, J. M. (2020). Technology and media use in preschool classrooms: Prevalence, purposes, and contexts.Frontiers in Education. Web.

Hilkemeijer, M. (n.d.). How to create an amazing tech-savvy kindergarten today. icte solutions. Web.

MacDonald, K. (2019). Meaningful use of technology in Ontarios kindergarten classrooms. In R. Power Technology and the Curriculum. PressBooks. Web.

Since technologies make a significant part of peoples lives in todays society, it is necessary to teach children to adequately apply them in every sphere so that they can integrate them into their future routines. Teachers at the kindergarten may use technologies to assess students performances effectively and evoke their interest in getting an education (Danniels et al., 2020). However, the development of digital competence in kids, as well as encouraging them to use ICT tools during the educational process, may seem unnecessary. It is so because children often do not understand that computers or tablets may be used not only for fun. The present essay is aimed at explaining the positive and negative aspects of using ICT technologies in kindergartens as well as establishing the aims of their implementation.

The use of informational technologies in preschool education at kindergartens expands the teachers ability to manifest creativity and positively influences different aspects of childrens development. That is why many kindergartens buy interactive whiteboards, computers, and tablet computers (Hilkemeijer, n.d.). These tools help the educator diversify the forms of knowledge transmission and enhance the quality of communication with the parents. Moreover, digital competence enables the teacher to feel more confident in the fast-changing world. The application of ICT equipment helps the teacher make the lessons more interesting and dynamic and transform them into exciting and entertaining games.

Implementation of technologies into the educational process in different institutions, including kindergartens, makes it more interesting for students. The use of computers and other ICT tools requires much professional knowledge from the teachers, especially in the kindergartens, because it may be hard for kids to develop ICT knowledge themselves. That is why the implementation of modern technologies is one of the crucial goals of the educational system. It is possible to single out two of the most significant advantages of a computer. The first one is interactivity, or the ability to perform certain actions in response to the students actions. The second one is multimedia, which is the ability to display texts and pictures (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Multimedia facilitates memorization and enables the teacher to make the lesson more interesting and dynamic. It helps the teacher immerse children into the atmosphere of a certain place no matter what it is  either a fairy tale or a really existing city or town.

Technologies application at kindergartens is advisable because it allows the teacher to give children more knowledge during lessons that are quite short. Technology reinforces interest in children and activates their thought processes, and broadens their horizons (Dore & Dynia, 2020). That is why its use helps develop psychological processes in children as well as their mindsets and memory, which contributes to the further formation of worldview. In addition, children like pictures, videos, and other materials which may be shown with the help of electronic devices. It stimulates their interest in learning and makes them enjoy the lessons.

In addition, the use of ICT tools in the educational process helps in the development of other useful skills in children. They are the ability to memorize things, attention span, and fine motor skills, enhancing the development of clear and coherent speech and thought processes (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Technologies not only form the intellectual abilities of the children but reinforce such character traits as independence, concentration, and assiduity and teach the child to sympathize with the characters of the games and cartoons.

Computers are most frequently used in classrooms as substitutes for standard posters, which were often used in the educational process several decades ago. Computers evoke interest in children, at first, as a playing-related activity and then as the education-related one (MacDonald. 2019). This interest is the reason for the formation of such important structures as motivation to learn, memory, and attention span. They ensure the childrens psychological readiness to continue education first, in kindergarten and then at school.

As a rule, computers are used in combination with screens and projectors. Materials that are shown with the help of these devices can be prepared with the help of any computer program such as PowerPoint, Canva, Word, or Excel (Acer for education, 2019). The most frequently shown materials are slides made in Microsoft PowerPoint or in other programs. Slides are easy to both use and perceive since information on them is shown in brief and concise phrases, which transmit the message of the lesson. Since children, especially at a young age, possess exogenous attention and cannot consciously memorize the material, it is necessary to explain it in brief and concise form using bright visuals to capture their attention. Computers and interactive whiteboards, in that case, are irreplaceable because they transmit information in a plain form that the child can easily understand and memorize.

Application of the technologies during the process of preschool education in kindergartens helps the teacher boost the quality of the education and change methods of working with children. As was already mentioned, PowerPoint presentations help the educator give exact and brief information on a particular topic and guarantee that children understand it (MacDonald, 2019). It is so because bright and memorable pictures or figures will attract their attention, and they will not get distracted during the lesson. Technologies enable the teacher to implement games with graphic elements, images, or animation, facilitating the process of material explanation and enhancing childrens interest in education.

Cinematographic technologies are the most often used during the educational process, especially with little kids in kindergartens. It is so because they give information not in textual form that may be easily perceived by children but in figurative one. Using a representational form of explanation and material transmission is not only ergonomic but a powerful educational tool (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Implementation of videos, slides, and pictures into the lessons enables the educator to immerse children into the topic they currently study. It reinforces a more profound understanding of the subject as well as memorizing the material through imagery and emotional reaction.

In addition, technologies evoke interest in the studied topic, which contributes to better performances of the students during the lessons as well as their active engagement in the educational process. Sometimes an interesting fragment from a film or cartoon or a YouTube video makes the teacher change the structure of the lesson and bring a new topic into it (Dore & Dynia, 2020). It makes the educational material more profound, understandable, and exciting for children who, especially at a young age, are extremely active, and that is why it may be hard to capture their attention. Integrating modern technologies into the educational process in kindergartens helps educators transmit knowledge to the children and influence their emotions and perception of the materials.

Since informational technologies are the most appropriate instrument for collecting and processing informational data, educators may use them for different organizational purposes. Thus, teachers often use ICT technologies to make different lists for attendance tracking or collecting information about family situations (Dore & Dynia, 2020). In addition, ICT help in tracking childrens educational achievement, creating plans for the lessons, consulting parents on their childrens development, and giving them recommendations to follow in the future. Teachers use different computer programs and the Internet to find illustrative materials for the lessons and other out-of-class activities.

Apart from that, many kindergartens often have their own websites where it is possible to find all the necessary information about the institution, the educators who work there, and the methods of their work. Many kindergartens websites often have a catalog of articles on a wide range of education-related topics written by the teachers who work there (MacDonald, 2019). These articles may help educators from other institutions in their work and give the parents an opportunity to assess the educational methods used by the kindergarten and understand whether their children can attend it. Moreover, some websites often have sections for the parents questions where they may ask the teachers about the aspects of the educational process or the general work of the institution.

Creating a website for the kindergarten contributes to a better involvement of parents in the process of their childrens education and helps them become participants of the process but not just observers. Teachers may post information about the group activities on the kindergartens website or Facebook group, create short reports on the entertaining events or lessons, and post childrens photos. It will help enhance parents competence in education-related matters (Dore & Dynia, 2020). They will be able to see the educators work with the children and get acquainted with the methods they use during lessons, walks, and other out-of-class activities. In addition, communication between the parents and educators will help them establish relationships built on mutual trust, which will be beneficial for childrens development and education.

Another instance of using technologies in kindergartens concerns the constant professional development of the teachers themselves. They should be aware of all the changes in the sphere, and the best way to do it is to communicate with their colleagues in online forums or on social media (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Regular inter-professional communication enables educators to quickly find out about the changes in the field, use the methods and techniques their fellow workers do, and share their own experiences with them.

Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, it is possible to conclude that the application of informational technologies in the educational process in kindergartens is advisable since it contributes to a better understanding and more effective memorization. ICT facilitates the process of knowledge transmission from teachers to children since they enable the former to present the educational material concisely and understandably so that the kids can comprehend it. Apart from that, the use of computers and the Internet helps the teacher communicate with the parents, show them the progress their children make, and give them useful materials for work outside of kindergarten. Many educators use the Internet to find interesting materials and interactive games for their lessons, be aware of the innovations in the area and share their professional knowledge with their colleagues.

References

Acer for education (2019). The benefits of starting to use technology in kindergarten.Acer for education. Web.

Danniels, E. Pyle, A. & DeLuca, C. (2020). The role of technology in supporting classroom assessment in play-based kindergarten. Teaching and Teacher Education, 88. Web.

Dore, R. A. & Dynia, J. M. (2020). Technology and media use in preschool classrooms: Prevalence, purposes, and contexts.Frontiers in Education. Web.

Hilkemeijer, M. (n.d.). How to create an amazing tech-savvy kindergarten today. icte solutions. Web.

MacDonald, K. (2019). Meaningful use of technology in Ontarios kindergarten classrooms. In R. Power Technology and the Curriculum. PressBooks. Web.

Nowadays, the importance of incorporating science into the preschool curriculum cannot be underestimated. Children should be provided with a number of opportunities to get to know the physical world, reflect on the events taking place in it, and develop the basics of scientific thinking (Barnett & Morran, 2002). There exist many practical ways and strategies to assist children in studying science in the preschool classroom. Below, a few practical ideas regarding this will be discussed on the basis of the findings made by the authors of the given readings.

In their article, Barnett and Morran (2002) suggest that children in the preschool classroom may benefit greatly from the studies of the phases of the Moon and lunar and solar eclipses. They propose that children may have short play-based studying sessions on a daily basis devoted to basic astronomical knowledge. To make such study beneficial, preschool teachers may use visual aids, reference materials, and video films. The studies may be held both indoors and outdoors. It is important not to make such environmental studying sessions too long because it would be tiresome for children, and, thus, will fail to attain its aim.

Basile and White (2000) advise that the main goal of environmental studies should be to establish a sense of respect for all living and nonliving elements of the natural world (Basile & White, 2000, p. 2002). This article proposes to incorporate the following elements into the preschool curriculum including (1) teaching about the facts on how living systems work; (2) encouraging students respect for all living things; (3) facilitation of critical thinking regarding environmental matters; and (4) facilitation of environmental stewardship. To put these recommendations into practice, teachers may organize daily environmental sessions outdoors. They may help children familiarize themselves with living beings of the surrounding world such as insects, birds, animals, and plants. Besides, teachers may organize daily debate sessions when students may ask them different questions regarding the functioning of all living creatures and natural phenomena. One more idea on how to incorporate environmental studies into the daily curriculum is daily tracking the weather.

Charlesworth and Lind (2010), and Robbins (2005) concentrate on the importance of the studies of maths and science in the preschool classroom. They recommend facilitating scientific and math experiments into the curriculum with the purpose of developing an outside the box way of thinking. Furthermore, on a daily basis, maths studies can be incorporated into the curriculum in play form. In particular, students may build with blocks and count them, sort objects within the frames of different games such as Find it first, count toy money during a game of shopping, etc.

References

Barnett, M., & Morran, J. (2002). Addressing childrens alternative frameworks of the Moons phases and eclipses. International Journal of Science Education, 24(8), 859879.

Basile, C., & White, C. (2000). Respecting living things: Environmental literacy for young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28(1), 57-61.

Charlesworth, R., & Lind, K. L. (2010). Math & science for young children (6th ed.). New York: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Robbins, J. (2005). Brown paper packages? A sociocultural perspective on young childrens ideas in science. Research in Science Education, 35(2), 151-172.

Introduction

Jing Peng and Lili Zhang published their work entitled An eye on target language use in elementary English classrooms in China in an edited book by M. Nikolov titled Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes which was published in the year 2009.

There is a general agreement among researchers in second language learning that target language input plays a critical role in acquiring second and foreign language (Peng and Zhang, 2009). This essay will offer a critique of the research that was conducted and published by the two authors in which it can be argued that they made positive contribution to the teachers use of TL in elementary schools in China.

Summary

There is general agreement among researchers in second language acquisition which asserts that target language (TL) is critical in learning of the second and foreign language. Since learning often happens in a classroom environment, the use of TL by teachers is crucial as it becomes resourceful for students in obtaining knowledge in TL (Ellis, 1997; Ellis, 1984).

The study by Jing Peng and Lili Zhang aimed to establish how the Chinese teachers made use of TL in elementary school English classes.

The sample population for the study included fifty-four English teachers and two hundred and three students in elementary schools in China. Of the fifty-four teachers, four were subjected to observation whereas the rest were given questionnaires which they were required to fill (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The study aimed at finding out the manner in which teachers used TL in English classes. More emphasis was laid on the quantity and suitability of target language usage.

It was hoped that the information gathered would be of great help in generating recommendations for English teachers to enhance their understanding of the significance of using TL while teaching. The data collected was also aimed at facilitating effectiveness among teachers in using TL in elementary schools while conducting foreign language classes (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

A naturalistic model was used, and the results were subjected to statistical analysis. The investigation was conducted for a period of three months. The investigation made use of various methods that included interviews, questionnaires and observation methods in gathering data.

In analyzing the results of the study, it was found out that significant variations existed in respect to the amount of TL used by the Chinese teachers. The results revealed that, in most instances, the teachers used less than 60% of their talk time on TL (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

It has to be noted that, the time used by teachers on TL was not commendable for the students who were learning a foreign language. In addition, from a pragmatic point of view, the used of TL by teachers was not sufficiently differentiated, and in most instances, was found not to be appropriate.

From the findings of the research work, it was concluded that the usage of TL in foreign language classes, as observed in the study of elementary schools in China, was not reasonable (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

Critique

The researchers aimed to positively contribute to effective use of target language among teachers in elementary schools in China. This study relied on various methods of data collection including observation, interviews and questionnaires. However, it can be noted that the use of observation as a tool for data collection was not conducted in an appropriate way.

This is because the four teachers who were observed were all from the main city areas of Shapingba District in Chonqing. This sample was not representative as the typical elementary schools were avoided (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The reason given for selecting the four elementary school teachers in city areas is that these schools put a lot of emphasis on English learning compared to other schools (Peng and Zhang, 2009). It is always recommended that the study population must be representative of the whole population.

In this regard, there was bias in selecting the four teachers and their students to be subjected to the observation methods. Nonetheless, the other fifty teachers who were issued with questionnaires were sampled randomly which is plausible in any research undertaking (Kumar, 2005).

There is another weakness that can be noted in this study. This is particularly in respect to the observational method used in studying the four teachers and students. In this regard, the views by the students from the questionnaire seem to be contradicting what had been observed in class.

It was found out that over 80% of the students were of the view that the TL usage by the teachers was relatively scarce, contrary to what had been recorded from observation, especially in respect to teacher A and B (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The other weakness was noted in the manner in which the study was undertaken where focus was put on the relationship between the teacher and students in respect to TL usage. The study failed to explore the relationship amongst students in respect to the same (Ellis, 1997). It has been noted that social aspects cannot be separated from the learning process (Kirshner and Whitson, 1997).

Socio-cultural contexts in the learning process cannot be ignored as emphasized by Hall (1993) who noted that, the ability to participate as a competent member in the practices of a group is learned through repeated engagement in and experience with these activities with more competent members of a group (p 148).

Besides the weaknesses that have been noted, generally, it can be pointed out that the study was insightful in shading some light on the TL use by teachers. The methodology used can be hailed to have been effective as it was diverse considering that it included observation, interviews and questionnaires. This enabled the researchers to capture all the necessary information for the study (Kumar, 2005).

For instance; from the observation, it was noted that the use of TL among teachers from the student perspective was in contrast with what was observed in class. This was after the students responded to the questionnaire in which over 60% indicated that TL use in class was quite at a low scale (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The research is also presented in an insightful language that can easily be understood by scholars who are interested in TL issues, and this adds to the strengths of the study. The findings of the study were also useful in the sense that they provided useful tips which can be exploited to improve the learning of foreign language in elementary schools (Ellis, 1984).

It was established that there was need to raise the teachers effectiveness in the use of target language. Also, the study recommends course coordinators to facilitate more workshops and teacher training courses which emphasize on strategies aimed at enhancing TL use by teachers. This will be aimed at helping teachers in facilitating the learning of students through the emphasis on the varied use of English (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

The study points out some of the weaknesses identified in the system which can be improved to enhance learning of the English language in elementary schools.

This includes the insufficient use of TL in respect to teaching of foreign language in elementary schools, and insufficient variations in teachers TL use which was also unsuitable (Peng and Zhang, 2009). Having pointed out these issues, the study brings forth the necessity required to correct the mess so as to improve on how foreign languages can be learnt effectively.

Therefore, it was necessary for the study to be conducted as it enabled the Chinese education system know about the performance of their system, which they might have been thinking to be on the right track.

For instance, in the observation of the classroom presentations, it was discovered that some teachers allocated substantial time communicating in English to the students. However, in most occasions, more talk time was dedicated on repetition and short commends which added little value to the learning process (Peng and Zhang, 2009).

Conclusion and Recommendations

It can be observed that the contributions made by the research were insightful and appropriate in boosting the use of TL in elementary schools offering foreign language in China. This is because the study highlighted the TL use among the elementary school teachers with the aim of making suggestions and recommendation on how it could be improved.

From the revelation of the study, it can be recommended that more time should be dedicated on effective TL use in class so as to realize good results. Also, more use of TL in elementary schools should be fostered to reach satisfactory levels. There is need to raise the teachers awareness in respect to TL use in class.

There is no doubt that the main objective of the study was achieved as it gives a clear picture of the TL use among teachers in English classes. This can be replicated to other classes teaching foreign languages. The study also gives suggestions on how the efficiency of TL usage in class can be enhanced.

References

Ellis, E, 1984, Classroom Second language Development: A study of Classroom Interaction and language Acquisition. Oxford [Oxfordshire]; New York: Pergamon Press.

Ellis, R, 1997, Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hall, J K, 1993, The role of oral practices in the accomplishment of our everyday lives: The socio-cultural dimension of interaction with implications for the learning of another language. Applied Linguistics, 14(2): 145165.

Kirshner, D and Whitson, A, 1997, Situated cognition: social, semiotic, and psychological perspectives. New York: Routledge.

Kumar, R, 2005, Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. London: Sage.

Peng, J and Zhang, L, 2009, An eye on target language use in elementary English classrooms in China, in M. Nikolov (ed.), Early Learning of Modern Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes, Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp. 212-228.

Introduction

Code-switching is a definition in linguistics denoting using more than one language or dialect in dialogue. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages as native, have the capability to use components of both languages when having a conversation with another bilingual. What is mentioned is syntactically and phonologically suitable; that denotes that even if utterances from another tongue are involved in the sentence, they will be acclimatized to the grammatical regulations of the primary language. Code-switching can take place between sentences (inter sentential) or inside the only sentence (intra sentential). Code-switching is now regarded to be a regular and normal product of contact between the bilingual (or multilingual) narrators languages.

Code-switching can be differentiated from other language contact paradoxes such as advance conversion (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transport or meddling.

Key matters

There are various standpoints on code-switching. A key advance in sociolinguistics concentrates on the societal incentives for switching, a line of inquest focusing both on instantaneous conversation components such as lexical necessity and the theme and setting of the conversation, and on more remote components such as narrator or grouping individuality, and relations-grounding (commonality). Code-switching may also be thoughtful of the regularity with which a personality applies exacting appearances from any language in his everyday contacts; thus, an appearance from one language may more willingly approach to mind than the corresponding expression in the other one.

Another viewpoint principally relates to syntactic restraints on switching. This is a line of examination that has states grammatical regulations and precise syntactic frames within which a switch may take place.

While code-switching had beforehand been studied as a substance of unimportant significance within the narrower institution of investigation on bilingualism, it has now shifted into a more universal concentration of awareness for sociolinguists, psycholinguists and usual linguists.

Code-switching can be connected with and analytic of group association in scrupulous categories of bilingual language societies, such that the timekeeping of the irregular application of two or more languages within one dialogue may diverge to a substantial amount between language societies and that intra-sentential code-switching, wherever it takes place, maybe limited by syntactic and morph syntactic components which may or may not be widespread in character.

Hong Kong English

For a characteristic diversity of English to survive and be recognized in Hong Kong, localization is not sufficient. Indigenization by the means of all-over reception is also significant, but will not effortlessly be approaching, in spite of of the maintains and declarations of linguists in Hong Kong or somewhere else taking into account the existence of a typical Hong Kong English. Moreover, Hong Kong tutors of English will not recognize or assume typical local usages in their classrooms, without taking into account the daily use of such applications. A leading ideology of linguistic purity forces public to search exterior ordinaries with regard to both English and Putonghua, and to refute that there is a practical local diversity of English, in spite of the span of time that the language has been applied in Hong Kong.

Code-switching is rather evident in the verbal Cantonese of Hong Kong. Having been under British dominion for over 150 years, Hong Kong speaks Cantonese (and from time to time written Chinese) is still hardly impacted by English, chiefly the dictionary, which includes plenty of English expressions.

Code-switching in Hong Kong is typically intra-sentential  changing within a sentence or section. The grammar of the sentence pursues Chinese grammatical rules and relates to the English expressions or words that have been introduced into the sentence. For instance, being a diagnostic language, Chinese uses subdivisions as an alternative for verb intonation. There are few probable motivations for Hong Kong citizens to code-switch in their daily lives. First, it is communicatively significant. When code-switching is regarded as the custom in a language society like Hong Kong, it can reinforce contacts, particularly when both parties of the conversation understand English that is being used. Generally it is viewed as a shortcut to communication.

Code-switching can be accepted as an instrument to evade awkwardness. It is a tactic to evade sheering words or thoughts which people might be painful to use in Cantonese. For instance, it is easier to say I love you in English than its Cantonese equivalent. Other instances in this grouping comprise susceptible words like underwear, lavatory, gay or emotions such as pride or appreciation.

As code-switching is more famous in Hong Kong than in other Cantonese regions of China, code-switching is perhaps accepted as linguistic habits of Hong Kong. The matter is that Hongkongers use code-switching, go on using conventional Chinese features, and agree high outstanding value to English, and is to differentiate themselves from the rest of continental China.

References

Chiu, L. C., Yi, D., Kim, S. J., Kim, W. B., Kwok, R. Y., Lee, H. Y., et al. (1995). Emerging Patterns of East Asian Investment in China: From Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (S. J. La Croix, M. Plummer, & K. Lee, Ed.). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Du-Babcock, B., & Babcock, R. D. (2000). Adapting an American-Based Simulation to a Hong Kong Classroom. Business Communication Quarterly, 63(2), 9.

Introduction

Code-switching is a definition in linguistics denoting using more than one language or dialect in dialogue. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages as native, have the capability to use components of both languages when having a conversation with another bilingual. What is mentioned is syntactically and phonologically suitable; that denotes that even if utterances from another tongue are involved in the sentence, they will be acclimatized to the grammatical regulations of the primary language. Code-switching can take place between sentences (inter sentential) or inside the only sentence (intra sentential). Code-switching is now regarded to be a regular and normal product of contact between the bilingual (or multilingual) narrators languages.

Code-switching can be differentiated from other language contact paradoxes such as advance conversion (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transport or meddling.

Key matters

There are various standpoints on code-switching. A key advance in sociolinguistics concentrates on the societal incentives for switching, a line of inquest focusing both on instantaneous conversation components such as lexical necessity and the theme and setting of the conversation, and on more remote components such as narrator or grouping individuality, and relations-grounding (commonality). Code-switching may also be thoughtful of the regularity with which a personality applies exacting appearances from any language in his everyday contacts; thus, an appearance from one language may more willingly approach to mind than the corresponding expression in the other one.

Another viewpoint principally relates to syntactic restraints on switching. This is a line of examination that has states grammatical regulations and precise syntactic frames within which a switch may take place.

While code-switching had beforehand been studied as a substance of unimportant significance within the narrower institution of investigation on bilingualism, it has now shifted into a more universal concentration of awareness for sociolinguists, psycholinguists and usual linguists.

Code-switching can be connected with and analytic of group association in scrupulous categories of bilingual language societies, such that the timekeeping of the irregular application of two or more languages within one dialogue may diverge to a substantial amount between language societies and that intra-sentential code-switching, wherever it takes place, maybe limited by syntactic and morph syntactic components which may or may not be widespread in character.

Hong Kong English

For a characteristic diversity of English to survive and be recognized in Hong Kong, localization is not sufficient. Indigenization by the means of all-over reception is also significant, but will not effortlessly be approaching, in spite of of the maintains and declarations of linguists in Hong Kong or somewhere else taking into account the existence of a typical Hong Kong English. Moreover, Hong Kong tutors of English will not recognize or assume typical local usages in their classrooms, without taking into account the daily use of such applications. A leading ideology of linguistic purity forces public to search exterior ordinaries with regard to both English and Putonghua, and to refute that there is a practical local diversity of English, in spite of the span of time that the language has been applied in Hong Kong.

Code-switching is rather evident in the verbal Cantonese of Hong Kong. Having been under British dominion for over 150 years, Hong Kong speaks Cantonese (and from time to time written Chinese) is still hardly impacted by English, chiefly the dictionary, which includes plenty of English expressions.

Code-switching in Hong Kong is typically intra-sentential  changing within a sentence or section. The grammar of the sentence pursues Chinese grammatical rules and relates to the English expressions or words that have been introduced into the sentence. For instance, being a diagnostic language, Chinese uses subdivisions as an alternative for verb intonation. There are few probable motivations for Hong Kong citizens to code-switch in their daily lives. First, it is communicatively significant. When code-switching is regarded as the custom in a language society like Hong Kong, it can reinforce contacts, particularly when both parties of the conversation understand English that is being used. Generally it is viewed as a shortcut to communication.

Code-switching can be accepted as an instrument to evade awkwardness. It is a tactic to evade sheering words or thoughts which people might be painful to use in Cantonese. For instance, it is easier to say I love you in English than its Cantonese equivalent. Other instances in this grouping comprise susceptible words like underwear, lavatory, gay or emotions such as pride or appreciation.

As code-switching is more famous in Hong Kong than in other Cantonese regions of China, code-switching is perhaps accepted as linguistic habits of Hong Kong. The matter is that Hongkongers use code-switching, go on using conventional Chinese features, and agree high outstanding value to English, and is to differentiate themselves from the rest of continental China.

References

Chiu, L. C., Yi, D., Kim, S. J., Kim, W. B., Kwok, R. Y., Lee, H. Y., et al. (1995). Emerging Patterns of East Asian Investment in China: From Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (S. J. La Croix, M. Plummer, & K. Lee, Ed.). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Du-Babcock, B., & Babcock, R. D. (2000). Adapting an American-Based Simulation to a Hong Kong Classroom. Business Communication Quarterly, 63(2), 9.

Philosophical perspectives embody a collection of attitudes and values that have been used by many individuals in evaluating alternative options, thereby deciding on the preferred one. For one who has never considered his or her own personal philosophy, and the effects of its actions, then conscious thought is the option in helping them make consistent and purposeful decisions on learning and teaching (Copeland, 2005, p.3). Ones philosophical position help in explaining different responses to educational questions like the purpose of education, the worth of knowledge, how to treat students, the role of teachers and the contents of the curriculum among others.

Consequently, Copeland, (2005) states that educational practices are affected by education-related systems of philosophy; which have helped many, clarify peoples beliefs on the goals of education. While explaining the roles of philosophical perspectives in classroom, it is vital to seek the views of progressivism, an important educational philosophy. This is an alternative philosophy that was designed to prepare individuals face the realities of the contemporary life. The philosophy emphasizes on the importance of science as it deals with change and, therefore, progressivism puts more stresses on change as the essence of reality (Copeland, 2005, p. 9). In addition, the philosophy emphasizes on the commitments to democracy ad its values in preparing students for their roles as good citizens in the democratic world.

On the other hand, essentialism as a field of philosophy states that the primary objective f schools is to transmit some selected elements of culture from one generation to another. Basically, essentialism is a conservative approach that emphasizes the need of an organized and well structured curriculum that considers the traditional values like respect to the authority. Lastly, the educational perspective of perennialism views human nature and truth as constant factors. The philosophy of perennialism also emphasizes on intellect, tests that assess thinking, deeper levels of leaning and dimensions not easily measured.

Five ways in which technology can be used

Technology entails the application of scientific processes and inventions to different resources for the aim of extending ones capabilities in meeting their wants or needs. Technology has been used to alter the limits of what one can do (Roblyer, 2003, p. 6). However, according to Roblyer, (2003), it does not guarantee one to do whatever it is intended to. New technologies have presented opportunities for the education profession to alter so many instructional practices and traditional organizations. The only problem is that one cannot be sure that the kinds of radical transformations envisioned by new technology supporters will be experienced by education.

The communication technology of today has made it possible for one to arrange for individual or learner groups to work on varying assignments with respect to their needs in particular. Such kinds of individualized teaching were pretty hard to put into practice. To the teachers, technology can now give them the ability to function mostly as an instrumental guide as opposed to being the primary source of such information (Roblyer, 2003, p. 7). In addition to what technology can do, new technologies have relieved the need of having many school days and organizing time so rigidly. With respect to this, it is predicted that students would be spending more time at home.

Additionally, when new technologies are used to develop learners research capacities, the instructor has the opportunity to accommodate their learning preferences and styles. Modern communication technologies are being used in schools to bring instruction to the learners. Finally, the range of simulations available to the pubic school learners has been enabled by the new digital technologies (Roblyer, 2003, p. 9). However, new technologies have been described in some instances as learning distracters while others are literally expensive to acquire.

Works Cited

Copeland, M. Socratic circles: Fostering critical and creative thought in middle and high schools. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. 2005: p.1  9.

Roblyer, M. D. Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. 2003, p 1-10.

Introduction

The study titled Developing a Comprehensive, Empirically Based Research Framework for Classroom-Based Assessment was conducted in 2011 by Kathryn Hill and Tim McNamara. The central themes of the article revolve around decentralizing responsibility for assessment to classroom teachers, dimensions and scope of the classroom-based assessment, and underscoring the immense significance of assessment on learning.

Summary

This study used a qualitative research design (ethnographic methods) to develop a comprehensive framework for conducting research on classroom-based assessment (Hill and McNamara 395). The proposed framework was based on two themes namely dimensions (evidence, interpretation, and use) and scope (how language teachers carry out CBA, what they look for when evaluating students, and what theory or standards do they employ in assessing students). The qualitative design was employed to investigate and broaden the variety and type of questions that should be included in CBA research. A summary of the results demonstrates that the classroom-based assessment framework was effective in helping language teachers to (1) plan, frame, conduct, and use assessment, (2) know what to look for in advance learning, feedback, and reporting, (3) understand the standards to use in teaching Indonesian as a foreign language, and (4) comprehend learner understandings of language learning and assessment.

Critique

The main argument of the article is that a classroom-based assessment framework based on the summarized themes (assessment dimensions and scope) may be effective in assisting language teachers to assess a whole range of issues in language learning. The writers perspective is to develop a classroom-based assessment model that innovates in considering epistemological basis for observed assessment practices, allows for the inclusion of a diverse range of data including the more intuitive forms of teacher decision-making, and uses a school-based foreign language setting. These ideas are more inclusive than those of other writers and they help shape the writers argument about the validity and viability of the framework.

The authors are university professors, hence are qualified to write in this area. Although the writers appear unbiased in their arguments and reporting, it is difficult to agree with their argument that a process-oriented classroom-based assessment model represents an improvement from earlier models that used criteria and standards. As reported in the literature, criteria, and standards of assessment still represent some of the best approaches used in evaluating language learners (Parker et al. 34). Although the introductory sections of the study are easy to understand, it is generally felt that the findings and discussion should have been presented in a much simpler format for ease of understanding. A good practice for presenting the findings revolves around the use of the deductive approach (using a structure or predetermined framework) with the view to achieving a sense of direction and logical flow (Chenail 67). Although the writers use reputable sources to strengthen their arguments, they nevertheless seem to make simple concepts harder based on their way of analyzing the qualitative findings. Overall, the work can be recommended to researchers and classroom practitioners with an interest in language learning and assessment.

Conclusion

The study has been effective in demonstrating how the actual classroom processes revolving around assessment dimensions and scope can be effective in researching classroom-based assessment. This article is useful in assisting teachers to develop effective standards and benchmarks for language assessment in a school-based foreign language setting.

Works Cited

Chenail, Ronald J. Conducting Qualitative Data Analysis: Reading Line-by-Line, but Analyzing by Meaningful Qualitative Units. Qualitative Report. 17.1 (2012): 266-269. ERIC. Web.

Hill, Kathryn, and Tim McNamara. Developing a Comprehensive, Empirically Based Research Framework for Classroom-Based Assessment. Language Testing. 29.3 (2011): 395-420. ERIC. Web.

Parker, David C., Mathew K. Burns, Kristen L. McMaster, and Edward S. Shapiro. Extending Curriculum-Based Assessment to Early Writing. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 27.1 (2012): 33-43. Academic Search Premier. Web.

This paper aims to review extant literature on the inclusion debate, with particular reference to children with special educational needs. In their seminal article, De Vore & Russell (2007) perform a case study using a cooperative inquiry process &to facilitate the expansion of inclusive early childhood education and care practices in a rural community in the Midwest. They researchers not only use credible primary sources in their literature review, but collect field data for two years using the case study approach and cooperative inquiry to demonstrate that inclusion results in more coordinated preschool options for young children with and without disabilities.

Through representative synthesis of information and comprehensive analysis, the authors contribute immensely to the study of inclusion by concluding that: 1) Effective team building and problem solving are cornerstones of successful inclusion, 2) developing child-focused instructional strategies embedded in daily schedules can effectively teach children functional skills that they practice and reinforce daily, and 3) teaching explicit social and organizational skills avail children with more competence to enter new and challenging learning environments.

In another article that supports inclusive education, Obiakor et al (2012) use qualitative research method (studying phenomena in their natural settings) to evaluate a teachers effort in attempting to realize the curriculums vision of inclusive education. Although this particular study employs credible and reliable primary sources to synthesize literature on the topic, the authors fail to make a clear distinction between fact and opinion because they study the teacher in her natural environment, leading to subjective reporting of experiences on inclusion. Overall, however, the authors interpret the themes from the study to demonstrate that not only is inclusion regarded as an overarching principle in contemporary schools, but teachers must take into consideration the individual children, the context, and the relation between the children and the learning environment (Obiakor et al., 2012).

A number of articles talk about the drawbacks of inclusive education, particularly in terms of poor implementation. For instance, Graham & Slee (2008) conduct secondary research on inclusion using authoritative and reliable sources, and employ strong analytical skills to demonstrate the factors that influence schools from implementing authentic inclusive practices. The authors have successfully differentiated facts from opinion by employing adequate citations where necessary, but the language used is not conducive to the average learner. Overall, however, they contribute new knowledge into the debate by demonstrating that practitioners must not engage in implementing some cosmetic forms of inclusion that only serve to widen the learning gaps of children with disabilities; rather, they must first understand what is actually meant by inclusion, how this may differ from being inclusive, and what interests may be served by practices that seek to encompass inclusion (Graham & Slee, 2008).

Lastly, Lindsay (2007) conducts secondary research by reviewing credible journals on the topic of inclusion and children with special needs. The researcher analyzes reliable and well conducted studies that are mostly primary-based in scope to conclude that majority of the existing literature do not provide a clear endorsement for the positive effects of inclusion in general education settings. The author, therefore, contributes to the debate by suggesting that the most important issue for educational practitioners is to research more comprehensively the mediators and moderators that support the most favorable education for children with disabilities and other special education needs (Lindsay, 2007).

Reference List

De Vore, S., & Russell, K. (2007). Early childhood education and care for children with disabilities: Facilitating inclusive practices. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(2), 189-198.

Graham, L.J., & Slee, R. (2008). An illusionary interiority: Interrogating the discourse/s of inclusion. Education Philosophy & Theory, 40(2), 277-293.

Lindsay, G. (2007). Educational psychology and the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 1-24.

Obiakor, F.E., Harris, M., Mutua, K., Rotatori, A., & Algozzine, B. (2012). Making inclusion work in general education classrooms. Education & Treatment of Children, 35(3), 477-490.

Introduction

Classroom interactions have been a fascinating study for many psychologists and sociologists alike. The issue and question that comes to mind is that of the role of gender in the interaction. This applies to both instructors and students genders. Ideally, there should be an equal chance at interacting among all the students and tutors in a University setting. However, too many studies have revealed that this is hardly the case. It is very important to point upfront that these same studies have revealed that this kind of experience is often very subtle (Teaching Resource Center, 2007).

To a large extent, the lecturers have been found to be ignorant of their biases in dealing with their male or female students. The gender roles and expectations are sometimes too deeply integrated that the instructors are amazed to even realize they have them. At the same time, the gender roles play out among the students as well (Sadker, 2002). Interactions in a class room situation entails factors such as the course content, the multi-cultural issues in any classroom, and therefore the way students are grouped for learning. In addition, the lecturers knowledge of the diverse background experiences of the students is critical. His or her decisions, remarks, and behaviors become the key to the kind of interactions experienced in the classroom (Tannen, 2001).

It is because of this complexity experienced in analysis of this aspect that this observation seeks to contribute to the unfolding debate. It seeks to consider whether male and female instructors relate differently to their classes. Further, it seeks the students and instructors responses based on gender dynamics in the classroom.

Methodology

In social research, several methods or a combination of them can be employed to arrive at the desired answer. Representative classes from each faculty and college were randomly selected and then purposive sampling employed to arrive at the sampling unit. The aim of the selective sampling was to ensure that only classes who had both male and female instructors as well as those with male and female students were selected for this exercise. At the same time, preference was given to classes which had an almost equal number of males as were females. In the event that this was not possible, the alternative was to administer the questionnaires to those in classes in which the minority gender was not less than one-third. The assumption was that the number of a particular gender will also create a dynamic in the interactions. To avoid any bias based on this, the selective or purposive sampling was utilized (Hyde, 2005).

To answer the overarching question regarding gender roles and classroom dynamics, an observation was instigated with the view to understanding the ethnographic behavior of both teachers and learners with regard to interactions during learning. Semi-structured questionnaires were given to students and instructors. The questionnaires were distributed at the beginning of the semester and students were encouraged to make their observations throughout the training sessions to capture all aspects of the interactions with the instructors. The targeted target was at least a 55% response which was above the required rate of response (Erica, Heidi, & Stephen, 2007). This was to safeguard against failure to draw valid conclusions due to low response. The resulting data was subject to data analysis using excel spread sheet and represented as descriptive statistic with graphs to illustrate the nature of responses.

Findings and Analysis

Classroom interactions are very unique experiences. Even given the same instructor and same students, the interaction can be markedly different. Generally, the interactions vary from time to time and it can never be predicted with precision. Fundamentally, students and instructors who come to the university normally do so against a background of earlier schooling experience which shapes their choices when it comes to interacting with others (Bennett, 1982). Given that this earlier interaction goes beyond the scope of this research, the responses were limited to the last two classes with the aim to limit any influence of prior biases among the students. The assumption was that after the last two years at the University, the students have adapted to the classroom dynamic and culture at the university. They can therefore interact with minimal influence from their high school day experiences.

The percentage response was above 55.8% which was a number agreeable for results to be valid. The pie chart below shows the sample size and distribution per year of study and by gender. More graphs are given in the Figure 1 and Figure 2 below.

In response to the question, do male and female instructors relate differently to their classes? Our observation was very revealing and enlightening. The key variables in this question were: How do male and female instructors approach their students based on gender? Are they likely to ask more questions, demand more responses, expect quicker and competence from one gender than the other based on their own gender orientation? Our observation and the responses, reveal that at the surface both teachers and students are unaware of any such prejudice in conducting their day-to-day learning activities. On further probing and observation though, a pattern is revealed in which the following issues come out more clearly. First, in terms of attention devoted to male and female students, there was a discrepancy.

The overall tendency was that male students received much more attention from their instructors than did their female counterparts. This observation was on both male and female instructors. There was a general emphasis on the instructors to ask more questions directed to the males than to the females. In responses to the questions asked, there was a tendency by instructors to follow through with the male students who were on the wrong path and offer early positive feedback that reinforced their confidence and gave them the impetus to arrive at the correct response. On the other hand, it was observed that the instructors were not as patient with the female students who attempted to answer the questions asked. More often than not, they diverted their attention and the questions to the male students rather than wait to guide the female students to the desired answer.

In response to the question; do students respond differently to male versus female instructors? The respondents all expressed the fact that there is normally a hidden biased expectation when they first meet a particular tutor based on their gender. The male students for example, always viewed female instructors as mean and at times condescending. However, this perception changes depending on the atmosphere the instructor cultivates with his or her class over the learning period. On the other hand, male instructors were viewed by both male and female students as being more businesslike and as a result, were unlikely to entertain any misconduct during the class sessions (Rodriguez, 2002).

In response to the question; are the male and female students given same kind of attention by the instructors irrespective of the instructors gender? The male and female instructors both concurred that they generally found themselves giving more attention to the most responsive students. Unfortunately, these more assertive students have predominantly been males as compared to female. In this regard the study found the male and female instructors giving biased attention to the different gender albeit, unconsciously (Ravel & Webber, 2012, p. 153).

Lastly, to establish how praise and criticism was distributed to male and female students by male and female instructors respectively, the answers were most liberating. The distribution of praise and criticism was differently offered by the male and female teachers. Generally, the female instructors were found to give more praise compared to their male counterparts who were seen to offer most critical feedback. In terms of the distribution of praise and criticism, this study established that the male and female students received praise and criticism but for different reasons. For example, the male students were praised more for competent answers while the females were praised more for good behavior.

Discussion

Generally, the gender of the instructors is a key factor that determines the nature and extent of interaction (Sadker, Sadker, & Bauchner, 1984). Even though the female student has made remarkable progress regarding enrollment to universities, the expectations of the society as embraced in the course content and how the content is delivered in class has a role to play in shaping out the interactions between students and their instructors.

This work reveals that there is a tendency to give much attention to the male than to female students in a class situation. This was corroborated by the kind and frequency of answers expected of male students as opposed to their female colleagues. This shows that even with the best intentions if the instructor fails to constantly evaluate his or her teaching experiences, they may contribute much to the discrepancy in treatment of their students based on their gender. For this reason, the instructor ought to deliberately choose a mode of presentation that allows for an inclusive participation of the students in his or her class. This may be achieved by: Seeking out the female students to give their responses, giving immediate feedback that reinforces their confidence and hence their participation. The instructors must also be on the lookout against the dominating students who could easily take all the time and respond to all the questions without allowing others to do the same (Teaching Resource Center, 2007).

It was also interesting to note that the students have far-reaching perceptions regarding the nature of interactions they expected from their instructors based on their gender. This perception almost fits any tutor into a bracket and it depends on the instructors ingenuity during the course of the interaction to either dispel or reinforce this stereotype. This revelation leaves the success of the nature of students and instructors interactions purely to the capability of the instructor. This agrees with a study by Parker-Price and Claxton (1996) about motivation that suggested that it was solely in the instructors ability to capture and motivate the students in a class situation rather than to focus on other external factors that affect students responses. Initially, my expectation was that the students had the upper hand in determining the nature of interaction in a classroom situation. This perception was however dispelled by this work.

The other interesting aspect of this research was the revelation that the tutors often give more attention to the attention-seeking or the more assertive students. I imagined that they would be interested in paying more attention to the visually weak or very elusive students. It becomes even more interesting that this unintentional response puts the instructors at a place where their attention is diverted to a particular gender of students (Wilkinson & Marrett, 1985).

Finally, the revelation about how praise and criticism are awarded is very important for enhancing better interaction in a classroom situation. The best way to motivate students is through the kind of behaviors and feedback that the instructors give to their students. It is for this reason that the instructors must strive to give balanced feedback (criticism and praise) across both genders (Ravel & Webber, 2012).

Conclusion

This research has shown that there are a number of issues that affect the classroom interaction in the university. Based on responses and observations from the 200third and fourth-year students at the university, the gender roles and expectations of the students and instructors determine to a large extent the kind of dynamics that go on in a given classroom. It shows that the instructors devote more attention to most assertive students and less to the less assertive ones. Interestingly, the study reveals that the male students tend to be more assertive and domineering and hence end up as the recipients of much attention than their female counterparts.

Second, the students respond differently to their instructors based on their gender. This was found to be particularly true at the beginning of the interaction. However the actual perception of the interaction is revealed through the time spent during the learning hours. The initial perception is either discarded or reinforced at this stage. The students response to their instructors is therefore determined by the gender of the instructor. With regard to distribution of praise and criticism, the study revealed that the keen determinant was the gender. This was same for teachers as well as the students. Most male instructors were found to give more critical feedback and less praise compared to their female colleagues. Furthermore, the male students were the major recipients of praise whereas competency questions were the concern. The females, on the contrary, were major recipients of praise where decency and good behavior were the focus however much such behavior was irrelevant to the subject at hand.

There were some limitations however to this study. First, the assumption that there must be dynamics depending on the size of a class and the gender fractions resulted in some classes being left out of the sampling exercise. Second, the subject was most sensitive and required a series of observations to validate our findings. Last, the dynamics in the early University classes were excluded from this study while they may have a bearing on the current class dynamics. In future research, it may be important to classify or categorize the response group in terms of size and then study the interactions in the first two years of the university and correlate with the interactions in the last two years of the university education.

References

Bennett, S.K. (1982). Student perceptions of and expectations for male and female instructors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 170-179.

Erica, A.W, Heidi L.L, & Stephen, E.D. (2007).Gender differences in learning style preferences among undergraduate physiology students. AdvPhysiolEduc, 31, 153157.

Hyde, J. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6), 581- 59.

Parker-Price, S., & Claxton, A. (1996). Teachers Perceptions of Gender Differences in Students. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Atlanta, GA.

Ravel, B., & Webber, M. (2012). Exploring Sociology: A Canadian Perspective (2nd ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Education Canada.

Rodriguez, N., (2002). Gender Differences in Disciplinary Approaches. Web.

Sadker, D. (2002). An educators primer on the gender wars. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(3), 235-240.

Sadker, M., Sadker, D., & Bauchner, J. (1984). Teacher Reactions to Classroom Responses of Male and Female Students. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.

Tannen, D. (2001). You just dont understand: Men and women in conversation. New York: Quill.

Teaching Resource Centre. (2007). Teaching a diverse student body: practical strategies for enhancing our students learning. Web.

Wilkinson, L., & Marrett, C. (Eds.). (1985). Gender influences in classroom interaction. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.