Category: Classical Conditioning

In psychology there are many different perspectives and they all study humans and animals in very different ways. For example, there is the biological approach, the cognitive approach, psychodynamic approach, and the humanistic approach. Finally, there is the behaviourism approach which was developed within the 20th century. Behaviourism has many weaknesses because when it was studied it showed that animals and humans learnt how to behave from the environment rather than being told direct that they need to follow a certain structure on how they must behave, this means that this is in relation to the nurture side. In addition, the behaviourism approach is a one-dimensional approach and the theories that were carried out did not include the properties of free will and they did not consider the client’s moods, thoughts or feelings.

Pavlov (1902) was a Russian psychologist and he was famous for classical conditioning research. Classical conditioning is when either an animal or object learns through an association, it is a type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus presented. There would be a new stimulus introduced to another type of stimulus that would have already produced a response. After a while when the two have been paired together frequently, the new stimulus should have produced the response regardless if the original stimulus is present or not. Classical Conditioning was first exemplified by Pavlov. When Pavlov conducted his experiment, he noticed that when dogs were introduced with food (unconditioned stimulus) they automatically salivated (unconditioned response). During Pavlov’s experiment, he rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before he presented the dog with food (unconditioned stimulus) which resulted in salivation (unconditioned response). After completing the study, dogs salivated (conditioned response) at the sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus). Pavlov concluded that the dogs had been conditioned by learning through the associated that every time the dogs heard the bell they would automatically pair it with food which will cause the dogs to salivate. (Simply psychology). A few strengths of this research are that it can be found to be very reliable because he measured the dog’s saliva in the measuring tube attached to the dog’s mouth, he ensured that nothing on the outside of the sealed room would jeopardise the controlled environment, they conducted this study for over 25 years. Lastly, it was very well documented, there are many articles, videos and reports on this research. A few weaknesses within this study is that it was very unethical because of how mistreated the dogs were, there is no possibility on generalising animals to humans as they are both completely different species, their brains function differently, and they will also behave in different ways. Also, dogs would be more likely to be motivated by food more than humans. One strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it is based on real life experiments, for example, Pavlov’s dogs. One weakness on the classical conditioning theory is that it is limiting to describe behaviour solely in terms of either nature or nurture and it does this by underestimating the complexity of the human and animal behaviour.

Classical conditioning had a crucial impact on the behaviourist approach within psychology. Pavlov showed that classical conditioning demonstrated how non-human animals was conditioned during his study with his dogs. However, Watson and Raynor (1920) wanted to analyse children to see if they could apply classical conditioning to them by conducting a study. Their aim was to see if they could condition a 9-month-old baby boy to have a fear response associated to a white rat. Watson and Raynor first presented Albert with a white rat, a rabbit, cotton wool (neutral stimuli) to see if he had a fear reaction this was not the case. During the experiment, they presented the rat (neutral stimuli) then they strike an iron bar (unconditioned response which developed fear (unconditioned response). In the final analysis when Albert was presented with the rat (conditioned response) it would cause Albert to have a fear (conditioned response). Watson and Raynor concluded that they had successfully conditioned Albert to have a fear of a white rat and that further down the line he grew his fear response to other white objects. A few strengths of this research are that they tested Albert a month later to check if his responses were the same and this was the case, so they had conditioned him to have a fear. The results and the procedure were consistent. This research was also high internal validity as it was carried out with a scientific approach and is was very well controlled. This would also be easy to replicate. A few weaknesses of this research are that it is low in external validity because Albert had an abnormal childhood as he was bought up in a hospital setting from birth. Furthermore, this research was only carried out using a single child, they did not unconditioned Albert after they had finished the study. One strength of classical conditioning is that it has led to successful therapies and treatments. For example, systematic desensitisation, flooding, aversion therapy, phobias and addiction. One weakness is that it is deterministic theory because it sees people as a product of their environment, external forces and individual experiences and it does not allow for any free will within an animal or human.

Classical conditioning has led to a large amount of research and study on animals and learnt helplessness. In the 1960’s Seligman et al discovered learned helplessness within an animal when it is repeatedly exposed to an aversive stimulus so that it is not able to escape. They wanted to observe helplessness behaviour within the dogs that were classically conditioned after they had learnt to expect an electrical shock after hearing a specific tone. During this experiment Seligman and Maier worked with a group of dogs and they tested what their reactions were like to electric shocks. The dogs were placed within shuttle boxes which was partitioned with two chambers that was separated by a low barrier, they included one side of the shuttlebox floor to be electrified but the other side was normal. The dogs that had been previously subjected to classical conditioning had made no attempts to escape from the shuttlebox, so they completely escaped being shocked by jumping straight over the small barrier. and they were place in three different groups into this experiment and the first group they secured dogs into harnesses for a little while and then they were released. In group two they placed the dogs back into the same harnesses, but they needed to press a panel with their noses otherwise they would have received an electrical shock. Lastly, in group three they dogs would randomly receive an electric shock which was entirely out of their control. (Verywell mind) The results from this study had concluded in that the dogs from the first and second group had learnt that by jumping over the barrier they would not receive a shock. However, from the dogs in group three did not make any attempts to escape because they had learnt that no matter what they did they would not have been able to escape from the shocks. A few strengths of this research are that it would be easy to replicate, it was carried out within a laboratory environment, so it would have followed set variables this would make it a reliable and scientific study. A few weaknesses of this research are that there would be no likelihood that they would be able to generalise dogs to humans. The dogs were also physically and mentally harmed throughout this research. An advantage of classical conditioning is that it can help individual’s modify behaviours. It can make them see and understand the choices they make and if they want or need to approach it in a different way. A disadvantage of classical conditioning is that individuals will respond in different way to the stimulus they come across within the environment around them. (connectusfund, 2015).

Thorndike (1898) is famous for his work as it led to the development of operant conditioning as he claimed that all behaviour is learnt as a result of consequences within our environment. Consequences could be a positive or negative response.

Introduction

There are many great names in psychology. who became so by giving reason and name to everyday things that happen, through theories which needed them to do endless amounts of research and experiments. Those names cannot be mentioned without including Ivan Pavlov, the researcher of classical conditioning which is all about learned behaviour which paved the way for a multitude of behaviour theories. The first part of my assignment is an essay on his classical conditioning experiment, how it was carried out and its findings. As each human being grows up, they reach milestones and are constantly evolving, the same can be said career – wise. The second part of my assignment is about the four different stages of lifespan and career development and how they interlink.

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Process

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Nobel Prize winning Russian physiologist most famous for his discovery of the classical conditioning process. It is one of many perspectives used to explain the learning processes, discovered in 1897 and also known as the Pavlovian Theory (Wikipedia, 2019). In this essay, I will be going into detail about the experiment that served as proof of the classic conditioning process as well as its outcomes. Ivan Pavlov made use of dogs for his experiment to prove the classical conditioning process. The aim of the experiment was to associate an unrelated unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response, which is a behavioural response (Lumen learning, n.d.). The experiment was carried out by using hungry dogs that when showed food, would salivate. During the experiment the dogs were restrained in an experiment chamber where they were given food in the form of meat powder. The dogs had a tube surgically implanted in their saliva glands and this is how their saliva was collected (Learning theories, 2014). The food is seen as an unconditioned stimulus and the saliva, an unconditioned reflex as it is involuntary and untaught. In the second stage a bell was rung whilst food was being served to the dogs, this was done multiple times to condition them and make them associate the ringing of the bell with eating time as that is not what they were accustomed to before, resulting, once again in them salivating. The third stage still showed use of the bell, this time without serving any food. Salivation continued as the dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of the bell with it being eating time. The bell is seen as a conditioned stimulus and saliva, the conditioned reflex (Bergh and Geldenhuys, 2013: 95) the dogs had made an association between the bell and it being eating time which is why they continued salivating even after no food was being served after the bell was rung. Once the dogs realised the ringing of the bell was no longer accompanied by food, they stopped salivating. An example of classical conditioning in human beings can be seen in phobias. If one had a bad experience from a certain stimulus, it will always trigger a negative reaction, which is the conditioned response. The person will react the same way to the stimulus until someone is able to convince them their fear is irrational, which is how that conditioned response will become extinct and no longer elicit a response. Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) state that a traumatic experience can cause learned behaviour to become extinct which affects response to conditioned responses. If the person recovers from the traumatic experience, it is possible for the learned behaviour to return. It is evident that a conditioned response being extinct is not permanent.

Lifespan development, career development and how they interlink

Lifespan development shows how one changes as they grow from conception all the way through to death. Developmental psychologists undertake this psychological field. They see one’s development as a continuous process that covers three areas of development, namely, physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. Physical development consists of growth and body, brain, senses, motor skills as well as health and wellness changes. Cognitive development consists of learning, attention, memory, language. Thinking, reasoning and creativity. Psychosocial development has to do with emotions, personality and social relationships (Lumen learning, 2019) Development can give one a range of capabilities such as knowledge, abilities, skills, behaviours, attitudes as well as values needed for every phase of life. The study of development equips people with the knowledge of pre-determined characteristics in terms of physical, cognitive and psychological behaviour they need to look out for in persons on order to know what stage of development they are in. There are four main phases of development: the early- life stage which covers infancy, childhood all through to adolescence, 0 – 22 years of age. The following stage is the young-adult stage ranging from 22 – 45 years old. Followed by the middle- adulthood stage which starts at 45 and ends at 60 years old. The final stage is the late-adulthood stage which is 60 years old until death. The final three stages are when career development come into play. (Bergh and Geldenhuys, 2013: 69). I will elaborate on each stage at a later point in the assignment.

Career development is a process through which one’s work identity is formed. It goes hand in hand with human development and much like it, in that it is a lifetime process. Career development happens as early as when a child realises that there are different jobs and each person does whichever one is to their liking. Once a child sees and is able to recognize different occupations, such as a nurse, policeman etc. that indicates the commencement of the career development process (The balance careers, 2019). The career development process involves managing learning, working, leisure as well as constant change that suits the future one has in mind for themselves (Wikipedia, 2019) The four life stages that are in lifespan development apply in career development as well. Below I will elaborate on each stage and how they interlink.

Early- life stage (0 – 22 years)

This is a very important period of development in anyone’s life as it forms the basis of many behaviours and events that will affect the type of person one will becomes well into their adulthood (Bergh and Geldenhuys 2013: 69). If a child grew up in a household with strict parents, that will affect the way they see the world and their relationships with people. Essentially it will have an impact on the psychosocial part of their development. He/she will have insecurities and fears because of believing the world is unsafe. This all might manifest itself into a fear of strangers accompanied by social anxiety (2knowmyself, 2017) At this point in one’s life leading up to career adjustment is the combination of an adolescent’s self – identity and career – identity. The adolescent should have the ability to carry out tasks and fulfil roles they are required to play. A vocational concept was put forth by Gottfredson (1981) to explain what shapes a child’s longing for a certain career. He found that the following for four orientations do:

• At age 3 – 5 the child is interested in gender-based jobs as a sign of physical strength
• At age 6 – 8 a child notices that certain jobs are dominated by a certain gender, this is the realisation of sex roles.
• At 9 – 13 the child has a realisation of different classes in society and how one’s job contributes to what societal class they fall under
• At 14 to adolescence is when self- awareness kicks in ad the ability to know one’s interests, abilities to see what job would suit those likes and dislikes (Bergh and Geldenhuys, 2013: 85).

Both forms of development are about finding oneself be it in life or in a career.

Young – adult stage (22 – 45)

This period is about adjusting into adulthood and its responsibilities. Entry into one’s career happens at this stage and with time establishing a place in their career after multiple career changes chasing fulfilment. This stage is characterised by changes from every sphere on one’s life as growth is happening. A young adult’s life starts to pick up, as usually marriage and children come into the picture. Self – identity has been established at this point. Any attachment or abandonment issues faced from the early – life stage will manifest themselves through unsuccessful relationships. Cognitively and physically the young adult is still very active (Bergh and Geldenhuys. 2013: 88). Physical abilities are better than they have ever been as they are fully developed. Both career development and human development are nearing a phase of being established fully (Lumen learning, 2019)

Middle – adulthood Stage (45 – 60 years)

From age 45 – 50 are stages of being settled down and stable. Followed by time to be mellow from 50 years old and beyond. This stage is mostly about maintaining and refining of one’s identity. Maintaining marriage, relationships in the family, being present for children transitioning into adulthood, upholding one’s role in society (Bergh and Geldenhuys, 2013: 88). At this stage the body is becoming tired due to health problems. There is a physical decrease in height and other general signs of aging are visible. Cognitive decline is expected affecting memory, rate at which tasks are performed and learning speed (Wikipedia, 2019). Career wise, it is all about improving oneself, improving their skills, adding to their knowledge and acting as a mentor to others with less experience. There is no change in one’s personality (Bergh and Geldenhuys, 2013: 88).

Late adulthood (60 years and beyond)

At this stage every part of development slows down. Both career and human development reach a stage of slowing down (Wikipedia, 2019). Memory loss is experienced, decreased use of intelligence and increase disease rate. There is a decrease in sharpness of one’s five senses (smell, sight, touch, taste and hearing) and a weakened immune system. Cognitively there is a decrease in brain function. Psychosocially, a great deal of loss is experienced as peers and family members pass away, this could result in feelings of loneliness (Lumen learning, 2019) the elderly may discover new hobbies as there is not much to do since they have retired from work at this point. Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) state that retirement poses a lot of adjusting issues in terms of finances, relationships and idle hours.

Conclusion

By the end of this assignment the reader should have learnt all about Ivan Pavlov’s Classical conditioning process and how he taught his dogs to associate the sound of a ringing bell with it being eating time and how overtime the dogs realised the bell no longer signified feeding time so they no longer salivated. The second part of the assignment shows the four stages of career development and lifespan development, namely, early life, young childhood, middle adulthood and late adulthood and how they interlink and what takes place at each stage.

Reference list

1. Aging: late adulthood. 2019. Available from: courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/aging-late-adulthood/ [16 August 2019]
2. Bergh, Z. & Geldenhuys, D. 2013. Psychology in the work context. Cape Town: Oxford
3. Career development. 2019. Available from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/career_development [16 August 2019]
4. Classical conditioning (Pavlov). 2014. Available from: learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html [13 August 2014]
5. Classical conditioning. 2019. Available from: courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classical-conditioning/ [13 August 2019].
6. Early and middle adulthood. 2019. Available from: courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/early-and-middle-adulthood [16 August 2019].
7. How childhood experiences affect adulthood. 2017. Available from: 2knowmyself.com/how_childhood_experiences_affect_adulthood [16 August 2019]
8. Ivan Pavlov. 2019. Available from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov [13 August 2019].
9. Middle age. 2019. Available from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_age [16 August 2019].
10. Old age. 2019. Available from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old-age [16 August 2019]
11. What is career development? 2019. Available from: thebalancecareers.com/what-is-career-development-525496 [16 August 2019].
12. What is lifespan development? 2019. Available from: courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/what-is-lifespan-development/ [16 August 2019].

Psychology, the study of the mind, the basic understanding of why we do what we do. Contrarily, it is not basic at all, yet it has an abundance of specific terminology and complicated pathways one must learn to understand the true way our minds operate. We act certain ways, and do certain things because of the way our minds are wired. In class, we have learned an assortment of definitions and material about our complicated, yet intriguing mind.

Although some topics have been difficult, studying them has helped me have a deeper understanding of myself and others. In class, we learned about classical conditioning. At first, I did not understand it and I was quite confused, but after some time I got the hang of it. An example of classical conditioning in my life would be a story about pumpkin pie. I hate pumpkin pie. Just the smell of it makes me feel like I have to throw-up. On a chilly fall day, when I was four years old, my mom made pumpkin pie for desert. I used to absolutely love pumpkin pie; It was my favorite desert throughout the year. That night, I threw up. This was not a result of my disgust for pumpkin pie; rather, I had unknowingly had the stomach flu. When I threw up, I could smell the pumpkin pie in a different way now, and ever since then, that is the only way I can think of it. I was classically conditioned by this experience and it has made me think differently of pumpkin pie today. The conditioned stimulus is the smell of pie. I used to love it, but after my experience, it nauseates me. The conditioned response is nausea. This was my uncontrolled response to the pumpkin pie because of the stomach flu. Next, the unconditioned stimulus is the stomach flu. It was naturally triggered because of the bacteria and sickness in my body. Lastly, the unconditioned response is the same as the conditional response which is nausea. This is a natural response that occured from my flu. I experience generalization because pumpkin pie doesn’t just make me sick, anything pumpkin still makes me nauseous.

Ever since I was young, playing basketball has been my hobby; I have played since kindergarten. Discipline has been a prominent action I have received since kindergarten, I learned what to do and what not to do because of it. Foul shots have always been a shot that I make high percentages of, this is because at a young age it was instilled in me to not miss because if I do, I have to run suicides. I will never forget being about seven years old and running sprints after a missed foul shot in practice. This has taught me to not miss, because if I do, it will result in a suicide (or more). Because he disciplined me by giving me a bad consequence after missing a foul shot, my coach used positive punishment on me. He did this to make me decrease missing and make my shooting percentage higher, which worked.

I have learned an assortment of different skills by observing others in different ways. My basketball trainer, for example, demonstrates moves like between the legs or some crazy move. By watching him do certain moves, I can imitate him and learn for myself. There have been multiple times where I watch a player in a basketball game do a superb move. After I watch him/her do a move, I try and imitate the player in my game the next time I play. For instance, I watch Steph Curry intently during his games in the NBA, I try and imitate his shot and his moves to the basket. Lastly, in math, whenever my teacher shows on the board how to do a certain problem, I watch him over and over and then copy what he did. By doing so, I am using observational learning because I am observing and learning.

Overall, learning about the ways our mind works from different types of learning and discipline helps me because I can not only use this information for myself, but for the future whether that may be discipling my own children or in a job I may have. Before taking psychology, I had no idea why my mind did certain things. Learning classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, extinction, generalization, and discrimition has helped me further understand myself since my childhood.

Operant conditioning is a learning principle put forward by an American psychologist B.F Skinner. This type of learning is based on the cause-and-effect relationship between a behavior and its consequences. Operant conditioning in short is based upon the concept that when we reward a behavior, it increases and when we punish a behavior, it decreases. A substance or activity becomes addictive if it is rewarding according to operant conditioning; i.e., if it is pleasurable or enjoyable (at least in the beginning). People who do not like particular substances or activities have less chances of developing an addiction to those activities or substances. Such dislikes are not rare as some people genuinely do not like some activities or substances. This protects them from developing an addiction simply because those substances or activities are not pleasurable and rewarding to them.

Addiction is a learned behavior because of the pleasure or enjoyment being rewarding. According to the concept of operant conditioning, rewarded behaviors will increase and this is alarming because most addictive substances and activities are immediately rewarding for example a person who does drugs such as weed/hash instantly feels the “high/buzz” of the drug intake and the buzz they feel is their immediate gratification. Research has also shed light upon that when a behavior is instantly rewarded people and animals learn it more quickly for example while training a dog to learn the command to “sit” when he listens to the command the dog is rewarded with a treat, this treat acts as positive reinforcement and hence further strengthens the behavior according to operant conditioning.

This also explains why an addictive substance or activity may replace another, healthier source of reward; these other types of rewards are often delayed (for example the return of good health). An unfortunate cycle may also develop as addiction carries on, the availability of natural, healthy pleasures (rewards) may reduce due to the addiction such as strained friendships, loss of meaningful jobs or hobbies. When this occurs, addicted people become very dependent on their addiction as their sole and only source of reward. This leads to creating an unfortunate but powerful addictive cycle. Punishment also plays a significant role in the development of addiction. If there is an early and prominent punishment for example a medical problem at the start of a substance intake or behavior then there is a lesser chance of addiction developing. In most cases, punishments for addiction may occur much later, when the addiction is already prominent and strong. By this time, many chemical and physiological changes have already taken place in the brain making it difficult to break the addiction. Simultaneously, unhealthy cognitive and emotional patterns might have been well-established this too also makes it difficult to break addictive behavior. Hence, in these later stages of addiction punishment on its own is usually not enough to create a lasting change but it is worth a shit.

Operant conditioning has resulted in several effective treatments for addictive patterns. The fundamental idea is to reward addicted people for making healthier, better and recovery-oriented choices. However, research has discovered that the rewards must have value, and the reward has to be substantial. One such treatment for addicts based on operant conditioning may be token economy, which is essentially rewarding people in the forms of tokens for exhibiting a desired behavior and these tokens can later be exchanged for various privileges or treats. An example of token economy being used for breaking an addictive pattern could be a drug addict being given a token for every 2 hours he spends without in taking the drug he is addicted to. Another therapy based on operant conditioning in treating addictive patterns is CRAFT which is a therapy that depends on operant conditioning (Community Reinforcement and Family Training; Meyers & Wolfe, 2004).

The social aspect of the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual model places emphasis on the importance of interpersonal relationships. CRAFT educates the concerned significant others (CSO’s) on how to reward the addicted person’s positive, healthy behaviors, these are the behaviors opposing addiction. The CSO’s also learn how to remove rewards for unhealthy behavior which support addiction. For example, a wife might plan a pleasant evening for her husband when he comes home from office, without stopping at the wine shop. However, if he comes home drunk, her attention and affection for him is withdrawn. In this scenario, she would excuse herself from his company for the remaining of the evening. By rewarding healthy behavior, and withdrawing rewards for unhealthy behavior, the wife is using the fundamentals of operant conditioning. This approach will strengthen the husband’s healthy behaviors but only if he finds quality time with his wife to be rewarding. Some husbands might find time alone to be more rewarding hence it is important to target the rewards of each person to something they actually enjoy.

Barb, a normal, healthy young woman, had a very inconvenient quirk: She was terrified of flying. The mere thought of getting into a plane was enough to make her panic”. (Martin & Pear, 2003, p. 339). A quirk such as this is defined as a phobia. Some phobias are so intense that they can interfere with an individual’s everyday life, leaving them mentally incapacitated. Some phobias cause more anxiety than others, enough to warrant them as a mental health condition. When exposed to a reactive phobia, a person displays physiological indicators that express their discomfort. As set out by the DSM IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) (Martin & Pear, 2003, p. 340), these disorders are characterized by (a) fear/anxiety that results in physiological changes such as sweaty hands, dizziness, or heart palpitations; (b) the escape and/ or avoidance of situations in which the fear is likely to occur; and (c) interference by the behaviors with the individual’s life.

Classical Conditioning

Alternatively known as Pavlovian/Respondent conditioning. According to the (International Encyclopaedia of the Social & Behavioural Sciences 2001, Pages 1942-1945) Classical conditioning manifests itself “when neutral stimuli become associated with a psychologically significant event. When presented with the neutral stimuli, the individual in question begins to evoke behaviors or mannerisms that are associated with clinical disorders. Recent research suggests the concept that conditioned stimuli play a key role in establishing repetitive physiological behaviors conducted by the organism in anticipation of the “psychologically significant event”. In other words; a simple fear or a phobia. A large proportion of individuals in society live and function efficiently with their phobia or fear. Such mild phobias do not interfere with their everyday lives as they can be classified as sub-clinical phobias who do not cause an acute emotional or physiological behavior from the respondent. The American Psychiatric Association uses the (DSM-IV-TR) diagnostic criteria to determine whether the phobia is disruptive enough to be classified as clinical or efficient enough to be classified as sub-clinical. As stated by; (Davey G. C.L, Psychiatry, volume issue 6:6 “Psychopathology and treatment of specific phobias” p. 247-253) Approximately “10% of people will meet criteria for a simple phobia within their lifetime, which suggests that severe and disruptive phobic symptoms can be quite common”. Since phobias are a common ailment, much studies have been placed into them. However, in order to therapeutically treat and alleviate the phobia. It is essential to understand how exactly the phobia is initiated.

Phobias and Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning.

The concept that certain conditioning principles are a contributing factor to phobia development can be traced back to 1920. In particular, the highly publicized “Little Albert” study conducted by Watson and Rayner (Classical Conditioning study, J. Watson & R. Rayner, 1920). The pair set out to condition the young 11-month-old child to develop a phobic response when in proximity with his pet white rat. They were successful in their attempt. Rayner would present Albert with the rat (Conditioned Stimulus-CS) and once the stimulus was presented, Watson would strike an iron bar to produce an exasperating noise (Unconditioned Stimulus-UCS). As the experiment continued, Albert began to subconsciously realize the rat’s presence was certain to be followed suit with the unsatisfactory loud noise. Hence, he would begin to cry in distress whenever he was enticed to interact with the white rat. This phobic response was not limited, he also began to react to other objects who resembled the rat. This study has generally been accepted as a plausible theory as to how phobias develop, “for the past 80 years”. (Davey G. C.L, Psychiatry, volume issue 6:6 “Psychopathology and treatment of specific phobias” p. 247-253).

In old-style shaping, an unconditioned improvement prompts an unconditioned response (a trademark reaction to the UCS). An unbiased redesign (NS) becomes coordinated with an unconditioned improvement (UCS). This is in like manner considered the Pavlovian embellishment in light of the fact that Ivan Pavlov discovered old-style forming in a preliminary including dogs. At last, the coordinating of the NS and the UCS prompts a UCR. The shaped update (CS), which used to be the NS, will be connected with a response (CR). The CS genuinely has no relationship with the response anyway through the trim, the subject makes sense of how to associate their adjusted response with the CS. Old style forming is a sort of learning wherein the subject begins to interface a lead with particular upgrades. This paper discusses old style and operant trim, reconsidering what they are, and explaining them with certified models. Customary and operant embellishment are different methods of learning. The two strategies share the word shaping for all intents and purposes.

What is forming? Embellishment is the getting of unequivocal instances of lead inside seeing admirably described redesigns. Both customary and operant embellishment are basic sorts of learning. Old style shaping is a kind of learning wherein a living being makes sense of how to move a trademark response beginning with one overhaul then onto the following, effectively fair-minded improvement. This is done by controlling reflexes. Operant trim is a kind of learning wherein the likelihood of a lead is extended or reduced by the use of help or order. Operant trim oversees a progressively educated perspective. These two kinds of learning have comparable qualities and differences. Their likenesses are that both of them produce basic marvels. One such wonder is obtainment. The two sorts of trim realize the inheritance of a lead. One of the most acclaimed of preliminaries that diagrams old-style shaping is Pavlov’s Dogs. In this test, Pavlov sat behind a solitary heading reflect and controlled the presentation of a ringer. The ringer was the adjusted lift.

An adjusted improvement was an at first unprejudiced update that could at last produce a perfect response when shown alone. Direct after the ringing of the ringer, Pavlov gave the canine sustenance. The sustenance was the unconditioned improvement. This suggests the sustenance caused a wild response at whatever point it was presented alone. That response would be the salivation of the canine. A chamber that was in the pooch’s mouth by then assessed the salivation. Exactly when the unconditioned lift (US) was coordinated with an adjusted overhaul (CS), it unavoidably achieved a shaped response. Disposal results if there is a reducing in repeat or nature of an informed response in view of the powerlessness to continue coordinating the US and the CS. Destruction can in like manner occur in operant embellishment. The best approach to operant embellishment is supported. Stronghold is the time when a lift is shown that constructs the probability that the previous response will rehash later on. If the fortress is held, demolition will occur in operant trim. Another factor that is locked in with trim is unconstrained recovery. That is the arrival of a smothered response after the movement of time, pushing ahead with no additionally getting ready. If Pavlov’s canines didn’t hear the toll for two or three years, and if when they heard it later they drooled, it would be an instance of unconstrained recovery. Something equivalent occurs with operant trim. In case an animal was adjusted to act in a particular home, yet then their help was stopped, that animal may regardless have a reaction to the lift at a much later date. Life shapes that are being adjusted through operant or old-style embellishment can encounter something that is known as the redesign hypothesis.

This is when there is a trade of an informed response to different yet relative upgrades. A model would be if one of Pavlov’s mutts salivated to the sound of a toll that was not exactly equivalent to the one that they were at first shaped with. Improvement isolation is another marvel that occurs with old style and operant embellishment. Isolation is the time when a living being makes sense of how to respond to only a solitary lift and limit the response to each extraordinary improvement. It is the pivot of theory. If a living thing hears different sounds, anyway is simply given help for responding to only one of the sounds, it makes sense of how to isolate between the sounds. A part of the differentiation among operant and old-style forming lies in how much help depends upon the lead of the understudy. In old-style forming, the understudy is normally braced. That is the way by which it makes sense of how to respond to a once unprejudiced improvement. In operant trim, the understudy must give a correct response to get the stronghold. Another complexity between the two sorts of trim is the sort of direct to which each method applies. Old style shaping applies to a lead that is always required. It was Pavlov’s inspiration to have the mutts salivate on heading. In operant embellishment, a lead can be learned or smothered. In case you expected to set up a pooch not to achieve something, you would use a sort of control. Old style and operant trim are similar, yet they do differ in several different ways. Both are really strong ways to deal with demonstrate how an animal should act in a specific home.

Operant embellishment relies upon the likelihood that learning is a part of progress in clear direct. The modifications indirect are the outcome of an individual’s response to events (upgrades) that occur in nature. A response makes a result, for instance, describing a word, hitting a ball, or dealing with a math issue (Myers, 2004). Direct as often as possible realizes a helpful or hostile result, and people make sense of how to relate the two. One key section of operant embellishment is the standard of a fortress which is a psychological thought reliant on the likelihood that the aftereffects of a movement will affect future direct (Ormrod, 2009).

Right when a particular update response configuration is reinforced (compensated), the individual is adjusted to respond. Compensating conduct is seen as a stronghold since it shows the person that the direction is needed, and encourages the person to go over it (Myers, 2004). B.F. Skinner was the first to depict operant embellishment and used the term operant to insinuate dynamic direct that works upon nature to make results (Coon and Mitterer, 2008). The specific nature of operant embellishment is that the living thing can exude responses as opposed to simply moving a response as a result of an external lift. Urging criticism implies the presence of a lift after a response, or the familiarizing of another overhaul with the person’s condition in order to compensate for the perfect lead (Ormrod, 2009). This stronghold or reward can show up as prizes, verbal acknowledgment, or an assumption of accomplishment. For example, you will undoubtedly continue bantering with someone who smiles at you and compliments you, or you may continue taking a subject at a school since you get incredible stamps in it. Empowering criticism associates a flawless outcome with the perfect outcome (Ormrod, 2009; Myers, 2004).

Nevertheless, backing can moreover be negative. Negative reinforcers can’t avoid being reinforcers that, when removed, realize the direct growing. Thusly, when the horrendous or aversive update is cleared, the direct will grow (Fadem, 2008). For example, a secondary school child’s mother is ceaselessly teaching him to paint the kitchen dividers or clean up his room. At whatever point she sees him she starts bothering him and asking when it will finish. This aversive redesign stops when he paints the divider or cleans up the room. This is similarly legitimate because of Ralph, who does his science adventure since he required his mother to stop irritating him about it. His mother’s disturbing transformed into the aversive lift, and thus to make the bothering stop, Ralph finished his science adventure (however late).

As demonstrated by Pierce and Cheney (2004) the ejection of fault or strain can be an incredibly noteworthy negative reinforcer. The apprehension may drive one understudy to complete an exploration venture right on time, as such ousting a thing from his exercises list. Another understudy confronted with a comparative paper may slow down until the most recent conceivable time, thusly emptying pressure – if just unexpectedly – about the more irksome pieces of looking at for and forming the paper. Negative fortress occurs because of Karen, who completes her work assignments when she gets them so she won’t have to deal with the strain about doing the assignments anymore. Cynical support apparently explains an enormous number of the escape rehearses that people learn. For example, investigators Magee and Ellis, (2000); McKerchar and Thompson, (2004); Mueller, Edwards, and Trahant, (2003); and Romaniuk, et al., (2002) found that children and youngsters secure various techniques for escaping offensive tasks and conditions in the examination corridor and elsewhere. Excusing (‘My canine ate my homework!’) and taking an interest in inappropriate homeroom rehearses part with strategies for getting bleak or frustrating academic assignments.

Finally, negative fortress moreover occurs because of the mother who has three boisterous children. Yelling at the adolescents (the mother’s response) radiates an impression of being the procedure that is used to stop the aversive overhauls (clamorous practices). Positive and negative help are assorted because inspiring input adds or offers something to a condition, however, negative stronghold brings down a situation; both, in any case, will improve the likelihood of a direct continuing (Myers, 2004).

Classical conditioning, along with instrumental (operant) conditioning, is one of two main forms or learning conditioning. It is the learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. It is one of the most fundamental ways we learn about our environment around us and has had major influences on the school of thought of behaviorism.

The early concepts that lead towards classical conditioning phenomenon, were discovered around the same time in both the United States and Russia. The discovery was made in the united states by Edwin B. Twitmyer at the University of Pennsylvania while working on his dissertation of the “knee jerk” reflex. When the patellar tendon is lightly tapped and the well-known “knee jerk” reaction happens. He noticed “the dedicated kick of both legs was observed to follow a tap of the signal bell occurring without the usual blow if the hammer on the tendons.” He used this observation as part of a new study where he used classical conditioning, then known as “conditioned reflex”, on six subjects. He used a bell every time he tapped their patellar tendon to elicit the knee jerk reaction. In all six of the subjects, they all eventually jerked their knees at just the sound of the bell. He determined that it takes between 150-238 parings of the tap and bell sound before the subjects responded to their knees reacted to the bell alone. (Clark, 282)

Meanwhile in Russia, Ivan Pavlov was doing similar research in the field of behaviorism. He had recently won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work on the physiology of digestion. He discovered that food that was eaten, but not digested due to surgically implanted esophageal fistula, still produced gastric secretions in dogs. He modified the study to measure salivation instead of gastric secretions and this is where his famous experiment started. He and his team developed a practical and efficient method to collect saliva by using a permanently implanted fistula into their cheek. He presented his initial results in Spain in 1903 and brought it to the US in 1906 with his lecture called “the scientific investigation of the physical faculties or processes in the higher animals.” (Clark, 284) His popularity surpassed Twitmyer with classical conditioning because Pavlov’s and his associates developed and identified many of the parameters that influence the processes of classical conditioning still used today.

Psychologists did not embrace his methods until around 1915 when John B. Watson used it as a tool for research in psychological investigation. Watson’s work culminated in the now infamous “Little Albert” case where an 11-month-old was conditioned to fear a rat by presenting him with it along with a loud bang. He eventually associated the rat with the loud noise and would immediately start crying at the sight of the rat alone. (Little Albert, 2008)

In 1927, Pavlov’s book “Conditioned Reflexes” was translated into English by one of his former students and released in the US. Psychologists now had 25 years of his research on behaviorism and classical conditioning that led to an increase in the interest in the experimental conditioning.

Today we can see influence of classical conditioning in responses such as phobias, disgust, nausea, anger and sexual arousal. For example, if someone eats a food that ends up making them sick, they are likely to have strong feelings of nausea the next time they encounter that food. Pavlov’s work also let to important behavioral therapy techniques such as flooding and desensitizing for individuals who suffer from fear and anxiety. (Boundless, 2019)

Classical condition is always happening around us and it effect the behavior in us every day of our lives. It has helped psychologists understand normal and disordered behavior in animals and humans. It is useful in training pets, helping those who suffer from anxiety disorders, and is also found use in the classroom by teachers creating and positive classroom environment for their students. (Cherry, 2019)

References

1. Clark, R. E. (2004). The Classical Origins of Pavlov’s Conditioning.
2. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science, 39(4), 279–294. https://proxy.nvc.alamo.edu:2855/10.1007/BF02734167
3. Bouton, M. E. (2013). Conditioning and learning. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. DOI:nobaproject.com.
4. Cherry, K. (2019, September 5). How Classical Conditioning Works: An Overview With Examples. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning -2794859.
5. Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Psychology. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classical-conditioning/.
6. Little Albert. (2008). Psychologist, 21(9), 759. Retrieved from http://proxy.nvc.alamo.edu:2053/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=34288193&site= ehost-live

Classical conditioning is a sort of discovering that affected the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Found by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning procedure that happens through the relationship between an environmental stimulus and a normally happening stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was keen on contemplating how processing functions in animals. He watched and recorded data about dogs and their digestive procedure. As a feature of his work, he started to examine what triggers dogs to salivate. It ought to have been a simple investigation: mammals produce salivation to enable them to separate food, so the dogs ought to have basically started slobbering when given food.

Be that as it may, what Pavlov found when he watched the dog was that slobbering had a significantly more sweeping impact than he at any point though: it made ready for another hypothesis about conduct and another approach to ponder people.

Classical Conditioning

The people who bolstered Pavlov’s dogs wore sterile garments. Pavlov saw that the dogs started to slobber at whatever point they saw sterile jackets, regardless of whether there was not a single food to be found. Pavlov asked why the dogs salivated at sterile garments, and not exactly at food. He ran an investigation in which he rang a bell each time he fed the dogs. Truly soon, simply ringing a bell influenced the dogs to salivate.

Pavlov said the dogs were exhibiting classical conditioning. He summed it up this way: there’s a neutral stimulus (the bell), which without anyone else input won’t create a response, similar to salvation. There’s likewise a non-neutral or unconditioned stimulus (the food), which will deliver an unconditioned response (salivation). In any case, on the off chance that you present the neutral improvement and the unconditioned stimulus together, in the end, the dog will figure out how to relate the two. Inevitably, the neutral stimulus independent from anyone else will create a similar response as the unconditioned improvement, similar to the doges slobbering when they heard the bell. This is known as a conditioned response. Think about an unconditioned response as totally common and a conditioned response as something that we learn.

Classical Conditioning in Humans: The Little Albert Experiment

Pavlov exhibited conditioning on dogs, yet American therapist John Watson needed to demonstrate that it occurs in people, as well. He took a 9-month-old kid named Albert and demonstrated to him a few things, including a white rodent. Albert didn’t appear to be frightened of any of them. Until he instigates an audio effect which makes him dread all things after contacting them.

Implications

In spite of the fact that the behavioral outcome of conditioning may have all the earmarks of being only the advancement of an expectant reflex, the basic procedure is crucial to find out about the relationship among environment occasions. Tactile preconditioning reveals to us that when unbiased stimulus co-happens, an affiliation frames between them. Apparently, what might be compared to tactile preconditioning will happen all the time as an animal approaches its typical ordinary business. Essentially traveling through the earth will open the animal to arrangements of occasions that go together, and the affiliations that structure among them will establish a vital bit of learning – a ‘map’ of its reality.

Further, as a laboratory procedural system, classical conditioning is essential since it permits investigation of the idea of acquainted learning. The watched CR (salivation, pecking, or whatever) may not be of much enthusiasm for itself; however, it gives a valuable file of the generally imperceptible arrangement of an affiliation. Analysts have utilized straightforward classical conditioning techniques as a kind of ‘proving ground’ for creating speculations of acquainted learning. A portion of these will be depicted in a later segment of this part.

And finally, as an instrument of behavioral adaptation, classical conditioning is an essential procedure in its own right. Despite the fact that the CRs, (for example, salivation) contemplated in the research facility might be insignificant, their partners, in reality, produce impacts of major mental importance. Here are two precedents from the behavior of our own species.

References

1. Cox, K. (2001). Motivational and cognitive contributions to students’ amount of reading. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 116-131
2. Cunningham, P.M. (2006). Struggling readers: High-poverty schools that beat the odds. The Reading Teacher, 60, 382-385.
3. Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (2005). An introduction to theories of learning (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.Watson, J.B. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional responses. Journal of ExperimentalPsychology, 3, 1-14

This is an emotional feeling or physical tension. It can come from activities that make you feel nervous, angry, or frustrated. The change or reaction in your body to word a challenge or demand helps in stabilizing the body especially when the reaction is helping you to avoid danger or meet a deadline.

Stress is mainly caused by three main situations in life. The first is poor health, when an individual is diagnosed with chronic diseases and conditions like arthritis, asthma, or even cancer which are among others that are not easily curable, they develop high-stress condition and their blood pressure levels arise which cause further problems. Another major cause of stress is lack of financial stability more often than not causing people to stress about bills. This makes people with poor earnings a lot of pressure to work extra hard, it produces and sleepless nights to try and make ends meet and this gives them a lot of stress. These conditions need to be stabilized early when they are still manageable.

Working conditions is also another major contributor to stress. Most people working tend to be put under a lot of pressure depending on the working environment. An example would be, someone working full time and having to work more than one job with no sleep. Having to balance a full schedule while having to maintain your day-to-day life can build up stress. You can easily identify when your partner, relative, friends or colleagues are developing stress by monitoring the following physiological indicators: Sweeting production increases, heart rate, and cardiac output, dry mouth, anxiety, fear, unconscious ego defense mechanism, helpless feelings, and depression.

We come across several situations and activities in life that make our daily life stressful and being stressful is not healthy for our wellbeing. We are still hopeful because stress can be managed or be normalized. One way to do this is to control and reduce the tension that occurs in stressful situations by making emotional and physical changes. Adopting humorous views towards life situations can take the age off the stressor, not being too serious or in a constant alert mode helps maintain the equanimity of mind and promote clear thinking. Being able to laugh stress away is the smartest way to ward off its effects.

Finding ways of relieving yourself from stress by finding things that can make you laugh. Laughter lowers blood pressure and reduces hypertension. It provides good cardiac conditioning especially for those who are unable to perform physical exercise. Reduces stress hormones studies show that laughter induces reduction of at least four neuroendocrine hormonesepinep hrine, cortisol, dopamine, and growth hormone, associated with the stress response.

It also boosts immune function by raising levels of infection-fighting T-cells, disease-fighting proteins called Gamma-interferon, and disease destroying antibodies called B-cells. Laughter triggers the release of endorphins body`s natural painkillers. Produces a general sense of wellbeing

We can also use the mediation method to reduce stress. Meditation is a holistic discipline during which time the practitioner trains his or her mind in order to realize some benefit. Meditation is generally a subjective, personal experience and is most often done without any external involvement, except perhaps prayer beads to count prayers. Yoga-Nidra may also be applied as one of the methods of relieving stress. Yoga-Nidra rendered in English as ‘yoga sleep’. These aspects may include relaxation and guided visualization techniques as well as the psychology of dream, sleep, and yoga

The practice of yoga relaxation has been found to reduce tension and anxiety. The autonomic symptoms of high anxiety such as headache, giddiness, chest pain, palpitations, and sweating, abdominal pain respond well.

Another best way of relieving stress is the Relaxation technique also known as relaxation training is any method, process, procedure, or activity that helps a person to relax to attain a state of increased calmness; or otherwise reduce levels of anxiety, stress, or anger. Relaxation techniques are often employed as one element of a wider stress management program and can decrease muscle tension, lower blood pressure, and slow heart and breathing rates, among other health benefits.

The recommended policies that can help you to cope up with stress easily and things you must put into considerations are the following. Always take time for yourself at least thirty minutes a day, be aware of your stress meter, know when to step back and cool down. You need to learn how to control your own situation without controlling everybody else. You are advised to do daily exercise it will help you burn the stress away. Eat a lot of fresh fruits; take the required amount of water gives your body the best to perform its duties. Forgive others, do not hold grudges, and be tolerant not everyone is capable as you.

1.0 Introduction

Depression is a common mental illness caused by a consistent feeling of sadness and a general loss of interest in events individuals commonly enjoy, followed by an inability to perform everyday tasks for a prolonged period of time. Moreover, Individuals with depression generally exhibit the following characteristics; Lack of Energy and fatigue, changes are eating and sleeping patterns, reduced concentration, General loss of motivation in life and feelings of worthlessness and in extreme cases thoughts of self-harm and suicide (World Health Organization, 2019)

In this report the author aims to explain the Underlying psychological mechanisms of depression by applying theories such as Operant and Classical conditioning behavioral approaches and analyze the treatment options arising from it.

1.1 Types of Depression

According to the American association Anxiety and depression, 2019 Depression is considered a mood disorder which is of three different types. Namely, major depression, persistent depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder, in which Major is depression consists of symptoms such as persistent sadness for an extended period of time, feelings of worthlessness, low appetite, loss of interest in activities that bring about pleasure, low levels of energy, insomnia etc. Major depression involves these symptoms to simultaneously endure for two weeks or more to be classified as Major depressive disorder (MDD) which greatly affects ability to work, study and have social connections. Persistent Depressive disorder (PDD) is a form of depression that generally prolongs for a period of two years or more, this also involves similar symptoms as MDD but is generally considered to be less crucial. Lastly, Bipolar Disorder is also commonly known as ‘manic depression’ is classified to have drastic change in moods that shift from extreme highs, to mild highs to crucial lows and known fir behavior to alter with the change in mood. Depression can be caused and influenced by many factors and every case is exclusive to each individual, it is the licensed practitioners responsibility to comprehend and identify the root cause of it being genetic or the surroundings, and the severity of the case, and treat it affectively.

1.2 Implications of Depression to day to day life

High functioning Depression running on illogical thinking is also known to affect various aspects of an individual’s day to day life, such as reduced quality of life. Dent social and personal relationships, disrupt productivity in academic and professional life, this dysfunctional thought process also leads to several physical health problems and higher economic costs with individual and impacts those around (Keynejad et al., 2017)

As we’ve briefly discussed interpersonal implications of this mental disorder, the author would like to discuss societal impacts of it by comparing and contrasting rates of depression in different countries. Globally, it is prominent in high- and middle-income countries and also a key cause of low productivity in low-income countries, According to a research conducted that interviewed 90,000 individuals over 18 countries, it suggested that depression affects 121 million people worldwide out of which the higher income countries suggested an average of 15% of the populace wherein At 19.2%, America depicted the highest lifetime rate of depression. France, at 21%, had a larger likelihood of the disorder. Subsequently, lower to middle income countries such China (6.5%) and Mexico (8%) had the smallest percentage of clinically diagnosed depression. (Cold et al., 2019)

Depression is a major epidemic worldwide, being ranked the ninth by disability and death combined, just behind notable health conditions such as HIV, heart disease and stroke. However, depression is largely stigmatized worldwide, and a lack of cognition on the disease’s symptoms leads to it being largely undiagnosed and untreated. The availability of psychiatrists to treat depression is scarce in most countries in the world (half the world lives with only two psychiatrists per 100,000 persons), which thereby contributes to the lack of effective treatment due to inadequate resources and therapies. (Smith, 2014)

Despite being one of the most widely recognized mental diseases, there is no one factor, there are many influences that drive towards the development of depression namely by a range of factors, including genetic, hormonal, biological, additionally the effect of family and childhood traumas and other socio-cultural factors. (Bembnowska et al, 2015)

According to Van den Bosch et al (2019) in this constant evolving world, the brain is subjected to several social stimuli that influences and instills beliefs in individuals, poor social environmental factors such as unfavorable living conditions, economic instability and unemployment increase the likelihood of depression. Moreover the biological and genetic components also can facilitate depression as some individuals have a neurobiological predisposition to be more genetically vulnerable for depressive tendencies; therefore Bembnowska (2019) further goes to explains that low levels of production in neurotransmitters in the brain such as serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine etc. will cause individuals to be more depressed.

1.3 treatment for Depression

Medical professionals and clinical psychologists suggest many strategies recommended for psychological treatments such a Depression (e.g., interpersonal psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy, including behavioral therapies) or antidepressant medication should be taken into account considering the severity of the case. Usually it is done in a form of face-to-face talk therapy sessions or guided self-help sessions that is structured by the psychologist. (Keynejad et al., 2017) although there are multi-perspective ways of overcoming depression the author would like to focus on Behavioral approach and the therapies arising from it in this report.

2.0 Behavioral approach for depression

Amongst many modes of treatment for depression certain treatments have is said to have only a moderate effect on individuals, it is important to identify behavior therapy for depression consists a branch of theories cumulated together. (Neo, 2009) This theory suggests that all behaviors are learned through the consequence of actions, association or imitation and assumes that illogical thinking patterns or depression were induced by ideologies of Classical conditioning and operant learning, however, this be overcome with behavior changes that will be discussed below. (Chang, 2002)

Classical conditioning basically states that a neutral stimulus (stimuli from the environment ) brings about a certain response as a result of it being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (something that evokes a natural response) although, as applied to depression it intends that depression learned through associating a stimulus with a negative emotion (McLeod, 2015) for example, when you take a student who performs poorly in a math examination, the student will subsequently be demotivated and as a result will develop irrational anxieties in relation to any math-related questions, by this you can understand the student has classically conditioned the negative emotional response ( conditioned response) with facing a math exam (conditioned stimuli) thus everything generalized to mathematics elicits an aversiveness that exhibits as depressive symptoms, treatment for such instances includes removing the elicited Conditioned response (CS) to the now conditioned stimuli (CS) through classical conditioning Therapies such as (flooding/ Desensitization) (Kimberly A Dienes, 2014)

Flooding refers to exposing the subject to the worst fears directly, and taking the above example into account this means, imperiling the participant with constant mathematical exercises and exams to expose the individual to the phobia/ anxiety in a safe and controlled surrounding. This will first devourer the individual with feelings of panic and anxiety as the fear is believed to be learned response, the same ideologies can be used to unlearn the fear and replaces it with self-relaxation techniques through an extended period of time as now the subject understands to completely remove fear overtime the as the CS brings no harm, as a result couples it with a positive response. ( Keane et al., 1989)

However, as Wolpe (1969) narrated an occasion in which a client’s anxiety greatly heightened as a result of abruptly being exposed to her fears and eventually being hospitalized due to this reason, by this we can understand that this treatment method should be dealt with a great degree of caution and responsibility and that every individual and case is unique to one another.

Systematic desensitization is another classical conditioning treatment method which refers to In theory,) is targeted to reduce the effects of being mortified and depression which is associated as a result of trauma, as a result to eliminate the fear response and substitute it with a relaxation response to the conditioned stimuli. This therapy is a three-way process in which the first step includes teaching the client muscle relaxation techniques to counter the effects of anxiety and nervousness and relax all tension points, second step includes structuring a fear hierarchy with the client starting with the incentives that generate the least amount of fear to objects/ images that invoke most of fear, third is exposing the client to the stimulus in stages and working their way up in the fear hierarchy from the stimuli which generates the least to the most anxiety invoking stimulus, whilst engaging in relaxation techniques. Through this client will grasp to feel comfortable while dealing with anxiety provoking triggers and will classically condition a feel good response with the conditioned stimulus, if the fear no longer exists it means that the client is progressing from one stage to another where the gravity of anxiety is heightened until no sign is shown which means therapy has been successful, failure of doing so mean the client will have to repeat through the stages until classical conditioning is established and the fear response is completely eliminated (Wood, Ricketts and Parry, 2017)

Another method of which learning is acquired through is Operant conditioning, which is the result of learning through consequence, increasing occurrence of desired behavior by reinforcement of certain behavior through rewarding or presenting the positive outcomes of certain behavior can reduce the effects of depressive symptoms and rid themselves of negative consequences (Imhoff and Hirsch, 1996) operant conditioning focuses on therapy techniques such as contingency management (behavior contracting) and token economy systems, the author would like to elaborate on these methods.

Taking substance abusers as an example of having derived depressive symptoms through excessive alcohol usage, Contingency management is a approach used on general substance abusers to boost positive/ desired behavior change, In this instance patients and therapist need to work on a framework concerning reaching treatment goals by providing reinforcing consequences when patients meet required, thus consequently by withholding those reinforcers or providing disciplinary measures when patients exhibit undesired behavior (e.g., drinking). For instance, positive for self-restraint for clients may consists of incentives that are aimed to reward and reinforce these positive behaviors these incentives could be retail goods, where in undesirable consequences will result in not receiving any, these contingencies should be followed up swiftly after success or failure to ensure reinforcement (Higgins et al., 2002)

Likewise, Token economy is described to be a method which targeted to credited behavior through a token system and thence be reinforced, taking the previous example of the student acquiring depression through demotivation of reaching academic goals, could be countered using this method if therapist/ teacher identified the the issue and set out milestones to reach a specific mark-up, in turn the desired behavior will result in receiving a token for example a voucher, class monitor, skipping home work. These positive consequences will lead the student to be intrinsically motivated and shape behavior to achieve the set target, tokens could be withdrawn if consequences do not meet criteria. (Hersen et al., 1973)

Recent studies have shown that a combination of Cognitive behaviors therapy methods and Behavioral approach methods accounts to a healthier and holistic approach in terms of dealing with depression, stressing on CTB ( cognitive behavior approach) it has many empirical evidence sporting its success and is believed to be one of the mot effect roles of treating depression, it targets the individuals environmental factors and cognitions which is related to increase in avoidance behavior in doing pleasurable activities, there are few CTB methods which are manifested to target positive cognition and thought processes to overcome this phenomena that lead to more lasting effects (Dahl, 2011)

Some of the CTB methods are, keeping a journal as many clients find this useful in recognizing illogical perceptions and having a heightened awareness of one’s negative and positive thoughts, which in turn allowed to gain a sense of control over the mind and priorities positive aspects in life. another technique would be to link thoughts, feelings, behaviors and physical symptoms as one thing leads up to the other Another, this enabled patients to distinguish and prioritize the issue at hand and work ways to actively counter this ripple effect of negative thought patterns (Anderson, et al 2008)

In conclusion, However, the Behavior approach in treating depression has been heavily condemned as behaviorists did not use a holistic approach in dealing with it as they ignored influences like peoples thought patterns, perceptions, individual values/attitudes, innate qualities and genetic factors and fails to focus on cognition entirely that have substantial influence when dealing with emotion , instead they only concentrate on directly observable and measurable conduct thus is not a reliable method to generalize treating methods (Hollon, 2006) thus we, Can conclude that mental disorders such as depression, anxiety cannot be dealt with a mono- therapeutic approach mainly due to behaviorism method in treating depression being a study of treating overt behavior. Techniques derived from Skinner behaviorists approach was criticized and opened new opportunities for development (Yovel et al, 2014) after accurate comprehension of the patients history and cause of Depression, a conjunction of both therapy methods which aids for mental, physical and in some cases spiritual improvement is more likely for successfully overcoming Depression

3.0 Bibliography

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