Western Civilization: Philosophies and Sciences

Western civilization is the body of art, literature, culture, and timeless concepts that originated in the eastern Mediterranean in the pre-Common Era during the 17 to 19th centuries. It evolved in many ways during the Middle Ages and finally took on its present shape following the Renaissance. The philosophies and sciences of Latin and Arabic, as well as the final aims of the modern or Renaissance, were all products of Greek philosophical study.

The Hebrew Bible is the foundation for the three major world faiths of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, as well as modern society’s moral code (Cole & Symes, 2020). One may praise Western civilization’s achievements without disparaging other cultures in the world. Various factors contributed to the rise of western cultures, such as the European invasion, international trade, and culture. It is essentially a symbol of ignorance instead of enlightenment to claim superiority for “the West’s” culture as if there were some outstanding excellence to the collection of ideas that eventually expanded out over the narrow European peninsula that stretches westward from the Asian continent.

There are undoubtedly many spectacular developments made by Western civilization, but plenty is not all that great. United and interdependent social components were the leading force in Western Civilization development. For instance, the industrial revolution was a significant cause that spurred Western Civilization because of the demand for raw materials for industries in some nations (Cole & Symes, 2020).

As monarchs were united by similar factors like the search for raw materials for their industries, alliances and conflicts emerged. Monarchs that differed ideologically started their own goals to pursue. Some nations even extended their pursuit of goals in overseas countries due to the stiff competition posed by their rivals. Monarchs that extended to overseas nations opened up international trade routes whereby goods would be manufactured in the nations and sold to their overseas markets. Economic prosperity played a significant role in the rise of Western civilization. From the Pleistocene to the Paleolithic era, human civilization developed and grew more organized, producing a surplus that could be exchanged.

Concerning the production of particular crops, materials, and fabrics given, primitive agricultural production, climatic factors, and topography naturally generated areas with comparative advantages. The riches in things that a civilization or kingdom could not produce on its own had to be accumulated through commerce. After more than 200 years of development and global expansion, modern western civilization achieved its zenith in the second half of the 20th century (Cole & Symes, 2020). The idea was driven by a solid social contract, technological development, and widespread economic success within a democratic and capitalist environment. Unfortunately, insatiable societal desires and the rise of the global population have intensified adverse effects that have accelerated socioeconomic collapse.

The three separate traditions that made up Western civilization were the Enlightenment of the contemporary age, the Christian faith, especially Western Christianity, and Greece and Rome’s classical culture. The classical culture was the first Western tradition. Greece, for instance, offered the concept of democracy, while Rome led belief in an empire. Greece and Rome, respectively, also supplied the concepts of liberty and law.

These concepts united to form the vital Western idea of liberty under the by-law (Cole & Symes, 2020). Christianity significantly influenced western civilization in various ways. Christian theology upheld and advanced the idea of liberty by law by founding the sacredness of the individual believer and inspiring submission to Christ more substantial than any ruler. In its protracted struggle with regional kings and the Holy Roman Emperor, Christian establishments, especially the Roman Catholic Church’s pope, left the West with the idea of separation and, thus, a constraint of powers.

The contemporary Enlightenment, which gave rise to the concepts of the free market, liberal democracy, and the conviction that reason and science are the best tools for understanding the world, was the third root of Western civilization (Cole & Symes, 2020). More specifically, the 1789 French Revolution emphasized rationality and democracy, while Britain’s 1688 “Glorious” Revolution emphasized freedom and constitutionalism.

In this era, elected governments with written constitutions replaced monarchies. Hence sovereign nations were established. European society began to undergo several significant transformations around the 15th century. The consolidation of the monarchy succeeded feudal systems of power as trade increased, communities prospered, printing spread, and commerce were generally practiced due to the deployment of gunpowder troops.

The Italian Renaissance-inspired discoveries sparked an interest. A separate and rigorous viewpoint on the universe that we now refer to as “science” emerged during this time. This would lead to unparalleled technological development and economic growth (Cole & Symes, 2020). European explorers started mapping the world’s marine coastlines and exploring uncharted territory. Wherever explorers went, traders, conquistadors, and settlers followed. Riches from international trade routes transformed Europe’s society and economy and laid the foundation for European supremacy on a global scale.

Early in the offshore development, Europeans occupied an entire planet, South America, North America, the United States, and Canada (Cole & Symes, 2020). The Reformation broke the western European Christian world into two hostile groups, which coincided with the religious strife that was tearing Europe asunder at the time. Most of northern Europe was dominated by Protestantism, while the Roman Catholic Church still ruled southern Europe. Protestants pushed for a new, more straightforward type of Christianity, and their focus on one’s spirituality opened the path for more tolerance of personal preference.

Reference

Cole, & Symes. (2020). Western Civilizations (5th ed.). W. W. Norton, Incorporated.

Chinese Civilization During the Middle Ages

New trade relations with neighbors and open borders were the main driven forces of technological innovation and scientific developments. The Silk Road joined the Asian countries and the West and created new opportunities for knowledge exchange and the proliferation of new ideas. Chinese people knew about the peoples living in the far west through trade and military expeditions. After all, Chinese armies projected the power of the Son of Heaven into the Tarim Basin, the Korean peninsula, and the northern reaches of modern Vietnam (Filesi 48). Chinese pilgrim monks and official travelers made the arduous journey to India and even further.

The great inventions were the magnetic maritime compass, printing with woodblocks and movable clay type, gunpowder and firearms, and large-scale porcelain production–had worldwide importance when they spread eventually to the rest of the world and profound consequences for China in the economic, military, and social realms (Riley et al 63).

Also, changes took place in including large-scale manufacturing, interregional and international trade, and market-based economies. In the closely related cultural realm, China became a center of education and information distribution, especially through the medium of printed books. n ceramics, for example, we see technical innovations in manufacture, the economics of large-scale production and distribution, and in the social realm the association of certain wares with particular groups and tastes as markers of distinction (Filesi 43).

The rise of landscape painting as an independent genre may have been linked with urbanization and changing land economies. Even art theories and symbolic forms became linked to the competition between interest groups and political factions. Some areas of cultural change that were relatively suppressed in the accounts of contemporary critics and commentators are as revealing as those aspects that were prominently celebrated (Filesi 45). No technology had a larger impact on China than that of printing, using engraved woodblocks, and including some experiments with clay movable type.

Works Cited

  1. Filesi, T. China and Africa in the Middle Ages, Routledge, 1972.
  2. Owen, S. The End of the Chinese Middle Ages: Essays in Mid-Tang Literary Culture. Stanford University Press, 1996.

Civilization and Its Historical Roots

Mankind has come a long way in the development and formation of the world as it is now. In order to designate this complex phenomenon of development and formation, the concept of civilization is used. The term, however, is contentious and has a political meaning, indicating a hierarchy of success and value judgements.

The earliest civilizations emerged between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E (Smil, 2018). The advancement of trade and agriculture enabled people to have an abundance of food and a stable economy. Mesopotamia was the first-place civilizations emerged, followed by Egypt (Smil, 2018). By around 2500 BCE, China had a thriving society, while Central America had a culture by approximately 1200 BCE (Smil, 2018). According to Huntington (2013) people’s cultural and religious identities will be the leading cause of conflict in the post-Cold War world. According to Huntington (2013), civilizations are “cultural units” that can be distinguished from one another based on their history, languages, customs, and—most significantly—religions.

Nevertheless, even among modern anthropologists, there is fierce debate over what constitutes a civilization and which societies fit that description. Often, the term “civilization” was used in an ethnocentric sense, with “civilizations” being seen as morally upright and culturally developed while other societies were seen as ethically backward and “uncivilized” (Smil, 2018). The term “civilization” refers to a complicated way of life that evolved as a result of the development of urban settlement networks. In terms of its explanatory power and utility for history, the term is broad and needs to provide more specificity. It covers a wide range of concepts and concerns not only the structure of society but also cultural and technological development. It can be considered Eurocentric since it refers to the regionally dominant centers that have developed an egocentric worldview. The term was Harrington’s ordering principle for world history, since each civilization creates the prospect of a normative ordering of its world. However, “civilization” is not an ordering principle, since the usual binary system of civilized and uncivilized nations is unfair and limits the views and approaches to the study of history.

To argue that one culture is better than another or that some other culture is somehow imperfect is unacceptable in the modern world. A certain degree of depreciation is inherent in this concept, therefore its fundamental importance in the study of history is deservedly criticized. Because of this convoluted history, it is difficult for academics to define a civilization, and the current definition is continually evolving.

References

Smil, V. (2018). Energy and civilization: A history. MIT Press.

Huntington, S. P. (2013). The Clash of Civilizations? In G. Rose (ed.) Foreign affairs: The clash at 20 (pp. 3–27). Foreign affairs.

Classical Civilization 1000 BC-AD500

Evidence of an early Dark Age basileus was recently discovered at the site of Lefkandi on the island of Euboea. A bustling Mycenaean town, Lefkandi had declined during the collapse and then revived in the Submycenaean period, enjoying exceptional prosperity (by Dark Age standards) until 700, when it was abandoned. In 1981, the excavators made a surprising discovery: the largest Dark Age building yet found, measuring 30 by 146 feet, constructed around 1000 BC.

By 1100 BC, these Bronze Age lords were being overwhelmed by new invaders from the north with iron weapons and greater manpower. Most of the massive Mycenaean strongholds perished by fire and sack. The Dorian Greeks were illiterate, incapable of the organization which sustained Minoan-Mycenaean culture; for centuries, Greece reverted to a primitive way of life. The heroes of the Iliad, who behaved like Dorian Greeks, though their legend is Mycenaean, are warriors akin to the heroes of sagas everywhere. The famous war against Troy, which commanded the Hellespont, probably records a genuine expedition, undertaken at the end of the thirteenth century, perhaps to promote colonization on the Black Sea, not by Mycenaeans, but by Dorian Greeks. These heroes are northerners; they feast on fat oxen and recognize only a shadowy pre-eminence of their war-lords. They are aristocrats, like the Celts who were their contemporaries in Central Europe, touchy on points of honor, apt to sulk in black tents, avid for women and plunder; they are alien to the retainers of a highly organized Mycenaean palace, or to the courtiers and bureaucrats of a Great King; they lead passionate lives and suffer their ordained fates. But the populace whom they exploited and despised continued to cultivate the olive terraces, orchards, and vineyards, and herd their goats and gather their harvests; craftsmen still worked the mines and made the pottery. The basic skills of Minoan-Mycenaean antiquity were never lost.

The Danish Bronze Age (c. 1500-800 BC) is particularly interesting. The amber trade brought wealth, and elaborate grave goods have survived. Even garments have been preserved, the oldest textiles in the north. Cut to resemble skins and precariously secured; brown woolen tunics were fastened behind by bronze buttons, under bare shoulders, while long cloaks were surmounted by brimless caps. At Skrydstrup, the most dramatic of these relics have come to light: wrapped in a cowskin in a great oaken coffin, lay a woman in an elaborate coiffure, swept low across her forehead, and in her ears gleamed spiral rings of gold; tall, enigmatic, she lies today under a glass case at Copenhagen.

A Mediterranean civilization determined Europe’s political and religious future: in literature, architecture, and the arts, this influence was equally overwhelming, directly, and through the Renaissance — a term unfashionable but just. For Roman writers gave Hellenic and Hellenistic literature a new turn, and it was mainly through Latin that civilization filtered through to the Western barbarians, if the Byzantine legacy to Russia was Greek, and, during the twelfth century, the West regained contact with Hellenistic literature and science through the Arabs. It is, indeed, impossible to imagine modern Western civilization without this background, for the Northern literature of epic and saga, though sometimes magnificent, is in general murky and barbaric. The order and clarity of Latin were decisive in the transmission of the rudiments of culture, in the organization and discipline of the Church, in law and administration, so that when a Norman King says Moneo et praecipe at the beginning of a writ, the words still echo the commands of Rome.

As Western civilization went down, and as Byzantium withdrew into its Eastern territories after the short-lived attempt under Justinian and Belisarius to regain North Africa and Italy in the sixth century, the West confronted the future in an intellectual economic and technical degradation unparalleled by any great contemporary civilization. But it possessed in the Christian religion, which, like Graeco-Roman culture, had come out of the East, a creed full of obstinate Semitic vision and fire, inspired by a novel charity and hope.

Science thus began in Ionia, but by far the greatest Greek scientist was Aristotle ( 384-322 BC), whose influence on European civilization has been greater than that of any other philosopher. The weight of his immense learning, from physics and zoology to politics, which he rightly regarded as a branch of biology, make him the outstanding scientific co-ordinator of classical antiquity; his belief that society should aim at the ‘good life’ within the bounds of the human condition is the most important principle of political science, in terms of Humanism and Christianity. Thus the scientific speculations of Ionia spread back to mainland Greece, whose philosophers often surpassed their mentors.

This kind of analysis had also been applied to philosophy and ethics. In Athens, Socrates had been put to death in 399 BC; with his indefatigable dialectic, he had for years compelled and cajoled the youth of Athens into examining the basis of their conduct and beliefs. In Plato’s, Symposium Alkibiades declares, ‘I have been bitten by philosophical discourse, which implies pain sharper than the adder’s sting in the young and sensitive intelligence it attacks.’ Doubtless, the pain was pleasurable for the scintillating wits of the Agora. Plato ( 427-347 BC), who was influenced by Indian ideas, sought to find ‘reality in the shift of change: his doctrine of permanent ‘forms,’ which phenomena reflect, may have misled philosophy, and his advocating an authoritarian closed society is a counsel of despair, but the beauty of his exposition and the balanced candor of his judgments are incontestable.

Alexander the Great ( 355-323 BC) now changed the course of world history. A Balkan background early proved his metal. When his father, Philip II, of Macedon, left him in charge of a kingdom at fifteen, he had at once put down a revolt, and he had succeeded to the throne four years later when Philip was murdered by one of his own guards. Through his mother, Olympias, Alexander was an Epirote from the harsh Illyrian mountains; she probably connived at her husband’s murder and was killed six years after her son’s death, having massacred most of the leading families of Macedonia. Philip, who was assassinated at forty-seven, had organized the armies Alexander led and himself planned the invasion of Asia. The Macedonian phalanx was a deep wedge of pikemen, whose weapons in the rear ranks were twenty feet long and whose right arms were overlapped by the next man’s shield. They were employed with cavalry to protect their flanks and to envelop the enemy when the phalanx had smashed into him. These tactics were deadly against large and ill-organized oriental armies, which often still used chariots.

The Roman Empire, in spite of the frequent atrocity of its politics, thus created the political framework of European civilization. It embodied a Mediterranean way of life whose inspiration was Greek and whose administration, derived from the Republic and the household of the Princeps, was also modeled on Hellenistic bureaucracy. In spite of the modern revolution in the industry, scientific knowledge, and overseas settlement, which have since dwarfed the Mediterranean world, the Roman tradition is still decisive.

European Civilization During the High Middle Ages

The high middle ages are generally recognized as comprising a period from approximately 1000 AD until approximately 1350 AD. During this period of time, most of Europe and the British Isles experienced a period of dynamic growth and recovery from incessant warfare. The purpose of this paper is to understand what led to this period of vibrant growth in civilization, what characterized it, what eventually brought about its decline, and whether there are any lessons that can be learned from these events applicable to the present day.

By 1000 AD, most of the barbarian warriors of the north had finally found places to settle down and raise families or had managed to found small, peaceful kingdoms of their own on their old homelands. The absence of war brought about a time of prosperity when societies were able to grow in population even as the population was able to focus on things other than war and protection. As a result, these societies coalesced into more organized units, comprised of city-states and nation-states, further broken down into highly organized feudal groups in which definite social roles were assigned.

During this period in time with its increased organization and decreased focus on war, individuals and groups were given more time to contemplate the world around them in a variety of ways. The church grew strong and educated its adherents within the monastic orders as a means of dispensing the word of God. Sciences and the arts flourished and schools were founded while trade and travel between nations increased, providing each population with even greater understandings and increasing the general knowledge base of all humanity.

This period of prosperity was brought to a rather sudden halt with a series of calamities that decimated entire populations and plunged the world into dark superstitions. The Great Famine of 1315-1317 caused innumerable deaths and was followed almost immediately by the Black Death, a plague brought about by death and decay. Together, these two events reduced the population of the continent by approximately half of its previous numbers. This misfortune led to a great deal of civil unrest, plunging the nations once again into some form of the warfare state and the Roman Catholic Church fell from within by a division of ideological viewpoints.

There are a number of things that can be learned from this series of events in our ancient history. The first of these is that, despite our high levels of learning and knowledge, scientifically and otherwise, there is always the possibility that something unforeseen might occur. Although populations were growing and that was a good thing, no one had considered the need to keep these numbers fed into the future, leading to the Great Famine.

As the modern world continues to urbanize all of the available countrysides, reducing available farmland, this again becomes a concerning issue. As individuals and nations fought for the available resources, the time for science and the arts declined, opening up the way for other detrimental effects. This can be seen to occur in recent events as well, such as the Iraq War in which nations fight for control of oil and in the spending of precious resources for little or no net gain at the expense of real science and progress.

Arab Civilization. Mediating Religion and Government

Events that happened in the Medieval ages are having a significant impact on the public perception of Arab civilization. One of the major issues is that Arabs’ achievements in science and technology are marginalized and undermined. Also, Islam, which is the religion of the majority of members of the Arab community, is being heavily criticized in media and by some political leaders. This paper will discuss how these adverse perceptions may influence the future of Arab civilization and the further development of Arab-speaking countries. While oil has allowed some of these states to achieve wealth, in terms of scientific and technological progress, the future is not as bright.

The subject of the research was the Arab civilization and understanding why scientific discoveries made by Arabs are not known by the broader community and why technological progress is strictly associated with Western thought. To attain a detailed understanding, an analysis of the influence of the colonial era was conducted. Den Dulk and Oldmixon (2014) suggest that this controversial perception of religions other than Christianity may be partially connected to religious advocacy in the political context of the Western nations. Although European empires lost their influence as part of decolonization, some individuals believe that the effects of colonization will last much longer (Dülffer & Frey, 2011). Therefore, contemplating the future of Arab science is relevant in this context.

The research has hinted at several potential future trends relating to the Arab world and Islam. First, major states, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, may intentionally exploit the image of the Arab civilization and Islam in particular in order to achieve their geopolitical objectives. Second, such manipulations may lead to increased rates of terrorism in the world. However, there are also some optimistic predictions – the majority of Arab-speaking countries may achieve significant developments in the context of economics. Furthermore, recent attempts of the United Arab Emirates government to stimulate space exploration may catalyze Arab science.

The established image of Arab civilization and Islam can be summarized as Arabs’ incapacity to contribute to science and that Islam is fundamentally incompatible with the principles of democracy and freedom. Like Communism was perceived as if it was going to conquer the West and deprive people of their liberty, Islam can be exploited so that Western governments can achieve their geopolitical objectives. In the eyes of the people, Islam is almost equal to terrorism, which means any terrorist can be associated with this religion, and any terrorist attack can be used to undermine Arab countries in the political context.

When the whole world believes that Islam is terrorism, some individuals whose parents are Muslims may start thinking that the purpose of their religion is to bomb and disseminate terror. The number of terrorist acts around the world may rise significantly as a result. Furthermore, some terrorist groups may disguise themselves as Muslims only to disrupt the reputation of this religion further. Therefore, misinformation will have a significant impact on terrorism rates. In this context, the role of journalism is crucial – it must deliver objective facts and not a subjective opinion that may influence the perceptions of people.

Despite these unfavorable predictions, the Arab world may develop in terms of economics. Access to oil reserves has allowed some Arab-speaking countries to prosper, but skeptics have suggested that this economic progress will wane as the reserves deplete and the dependence on oil decreases. However, the United Arab Emirates, for instance, has managed to develop its real estate and tourism industries, which are driving the country’s business today. Arab countries are planning to switch to more sustainable initiatives instead of relying on oil. As history suggests, oil prices are subject to significant fluctuations and should not be considered an eternal source of income.

Arab contribution to science was significant during the times of the Golden Age. Arab scholars worked in medicine, math, astronomy, and other scientific areas (Falagas et al., 2006). Many people from Europe would come to visit the Middle East in order to learn from Muslim scientists (Falagas et al., 2006). Research suggests that Arabs continue to play a vital role even in contemporary science (Mahroom et al., 2017). For instance, Farouk El-Baz was an MIT scientist in the Apollo mission, and in 1999, Ahmed Zewail received the Nobel Prize for his contributions to chemistry (Mahroom et al., 2017). Furthermore, the United Arab Emirates is planning to launch its first rover to the moon by 2024. This date may mark the beginning of a new era of Arab science and astronomy.

This research has shown that Arab scientists are marginalized, and their contributions are neglected. Most people have little understanding of how the Arab world has contributed to modern science. Furthermore, Islam is perceived as a religion that favors terrorism and chaos. However, these perceptions are a result of the centuries-long impact that was left by colonization and the opinion that the West is superior and the East requires white man’s assistance. Although such perceptions may result in unfavorable outcomes for the Arab world in the future, recent economic progress in the Middle East suggests that Arab-speaking countries have the potential for achieving the needed scientific and technological progress.

References

Falagas, M. E., Zarkadoulia, E. A., & Samonis, G. (2006). The FASEB Journal, 20(10), 1581-1586. Web.

den Dulk, K. R., & Oldmixon, E. (Eds.). (2014). Mediating religion and government: Political institutions and the policy process. Springer.

Dülffer, J., & Frey, M. (2011). Elites and decolonization in the twentieth century. Springer.

Mahroom, S., Zahradnik, G., & Dachs, B. (2017). Research: Arab inventors make the U.S. more innovative. Harvard Business Review. Web.

Western Civilization in the Middle Ages

In Europe, the period after the fall of the Roman Empire until 1500 is commonly called the Middle Ages. This period can be characterized both as a period of chaos and instability and a period of a great increase in instability and order. This époque is divided by the scholars into three periods: an early phase, 500-1000; the central, 1000-1300; and the later, 1300-1500.

The following events in the course of the European countries’ development give us a way to state that there was a time of chaos and instability during the period under consideration:

  • The decay of the ancient city-state. Existing before as physical and social units, now they have led to the establishment of the isolated rural estate as a typical form of social and economic organization. The economic and cultural unity of the cities was ruined, only some cities survived as ecclesiastical or political centers.
  • The decline of long-distance trade. As a result, the individual’s needs depended only on locally produced goods. Large-scale pottery manufacture and other major industries that depended on long-distance trade vanished in many countries.
  • Diseases. Assaults from outside Europe carried outbreaks of bubonic plague. As a result, there was a drastic population decline in Europe during the Early Middle Ages.
  • The decline of power by the two the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania.
  • The breakup of the Carolingian Empire. This process was accompanied by the invasions, migrations, and raids of external foes which brought chaos and instability to societies.
  • The start of feudalism in Europe in the High Middle Ages.
  • The long conflicts during the Late Middle Ages (for example, the Hundred Years’ War) strengthened royal control over the kingdoms, whereas the conditions in which peasantry existed were extremely hard.

The following factors, on the contrary, brought order to the European society:

  • The collapse of the centralized state (the Roman Empire). This contributed to the established government of law and social order.
  • Conversion of peoples to Christianity. It led to a shift of basic loyalty from the state to religion.
  • Explosion in population during the High Middle Ages.
  • The first sustained urbanization, which resulted from the military and dynastic achievements of this period.
  • The protestant reformation. It formed the shifts in attitude leading to the rise of modern nation-states.
  • The rise of strong centralized monarchial states in Denmark, Sweden, Spain, France, England, Russia, and Germany.
  • The independence of Switzerland and the Republic of Belgium.
  • Carolingian Renaissance. This period of cultural revival is characterized by an increase in literacy, developments in arts, architecture, and other spheres of human knowledge.
  • In the High Middle Ages major barbarian incursions ceased.
  • The divisiveness of the Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages undermined papal authority and led to the formation of national churches.

We are inclined to believe that the factors and the events mentioned above should be considered in their complex interconnection, as emphasizing any of them will lead only to a one-sided approach to the problem of the European development after the fall of the Roman Empire up to 1500.

After the Protestant Reformation and Scientific Revolution European society differed from the one it used to be in the Early Middle Ages. Contrary to the Early Middle Ages period when the Catholic Church remained the unifying factor, Europe in 1600 was divided according to the countries’ religious orientations. Religious strife took place within several European states. For example, France suffered from the French Wars of Religion.

Religion remained the main power that influenced the development of the European states: Germany was divided into states according to the principles of the Holy Roman Empire, England was characterized by moderate Anglicanism. Changes in religion we consider to be the most influential for European development.

Feudalism which originates in Europe from the Early Middle Ages was replaced by capitalism as the principal form of economic organization. Therefore, collapse in trade and manufacture for export common for the Early Middle Ages Europe was not typical for Europe of 1600. The rise of modern science and the application of its findings also contributed to the emergence of the new forms of trade and expanding horizons that differed Europe of 1600 from Europe of 500-600.

During the Middle Ages the formation of the Islamic Eastern culture and Asian culture, along with the European culture was characterized by the growth of the productive forces – the usage of the iron tools expanded, artificial irrigation and irrigation engineering were modernized. The main tendency of the historical development of the East as well as of the West was the establishment of feudalism. But the eastern cultures differed from the western ones by the dynamism of the feudalism development. The main reasons that determined the latency of the eastern cultures are:

  • The slow break-up of the primitive communal system and conservation of slavery along with the feudal relationships;
  • Stability of the communal forms which postpone the differentiation of peasantry;
  • Prevalence of the state property and governmental authorities over the landlordism and private property of feudal lords;
  • Authoritative power of feudal over a town which impaired the anti-feudal aspirations of the citizens.

These were the main tendencies that distinguished the formation of feudalism in the western and eastern countries.

Feudalism is a system of reciprocal legal and military obligations among members of the nobility during the High Middle Ages. The three main elements of the feudalism system are lords, vassals, and fiefs. The interrelation of these three elements is rooted in the following: a lord-owned land, known as a fief, the possession of this land was granted by the lord to a vassal who, in his turn, should have provided military service to the lord. These three elements fitting together, the obligations and relations between them form the basis of feudalism.

There is no specific start of feudalism in Europe. In its classical form, it occurred around the 10th century. The causes of feudalism in Europe are as follows:

  • Taxation (either by means of feorm-fultum, or danegelt, or gabelle) forced the poorer people to commend themselves to a lord;
  • The royal grant of fole-land;
  • International war. Kings needed to surround themselves with the help of the army, the members of which were granted the king’s protection.

The height of feudalism in Europe was during the 11th century, feudalism flourished in the 12th. The decline of feudalism started in the 13th century and proceeded until the 15th century. The decline was due to the new processes that replaced the system of land tenure paid for by governmental work.

The troops for war were raised according to the new system that substituted money for land. The latter stopped having the same value in the eyes of the monarch, since then money became a symbol of his power. Vassals preferred to give money to their lords and the lords also preferred money as it enabled them to hire professional troops more disciplined and trained than the vassals. The revival of infantry tactics and the introduction of new weapons made cavalry tactics useless.

Another cause of the decline of feudalism is the increase in communication that took place in Europe. This process broke down the isolated manor houses and assisted the rise of towns. The burgess class emerged.

The Peasant Revolt all over Europe has broken the system of the old economy and started the modern social economy. By 1550, it consisted of the métier system or division of national wealth among small landed possessors on the Continent. In England, feudalism was replaced by “enclosed” agriculture.

In the late Middle Ages, feudal obligations existing between lords and vassals were replaced by agreements based on money payments. The economy developed from an agricultural base to commercial and manufacturing interests.

French Civilization: Burgundian Influence

The independence of the duke of Burgundy greatly influenced the personality of Louis XI from the time his father Charles VII was king, Louis intrigued with his father and he was sent off to the province of Dauphine and took refuge with Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, who received him eagerly. The Death of Charles VII was a result of the poison that was convinced to have been done by his son who was under the refuge of the duke of Burgundy. It is possible that his “good uncle” assisted the son to kill his father because after Charles VII died, Louis XI made his entry into Paris and he was accompanied by his “good uncle” the duke of Burgundy, and immediately on arrival, he dismissed his father’s counselors, only to recall the best of them once his first wave of anger had passed. Even before he took over from his father Charles VII he had defied him by marrying the daughter Duke of Savoy against his father’s loyal will. Because of the influence, he made an achievement as the first modern ruler to be sensitive to economic realities (Calmette 1963: pp.87-98)

Louis XI’s methods; Louis XI was of a composed character, during the battlefield, he preferred to negotiate with his enemies rather than confront them, and in case he would not win the enemies he would try to immobilize them by secret maneuvers, trickery, and even corruption. The network of his secret intrigues, spread throughout Europe which made him a “universal spider” as he was referred to by Charles the Bold. He dismissed his father’s counselors, he was the firm sole master, and he even distrusted the great lords and treated them harshly. Louis XI had constable St. Pol beheaded and cardinal Balue imprisoned in an iron cage and showed great confidence in a small number of associates of lower-class origin like his doctor, Coitier his barber, Olivier le Dain, and Tristan the Hermit, who was the head of a special tribunal charged with summarily judging the king’s enemies. His main concern was to expand taxable wealth and as a result, he took certain measures to encourage trade and industry by encouraging English merchants to return to Bordeaux, tried to secure the Levant trade, sent trade missions abroad, established affairs, and introduced the silk industry to Lyons and Tours www.titeu.com: pp.87-98).

The Salic law; during the Burgundian succession, inheritance fell to Mary, the only child as a result of the great struggle. At this time Louis XI was in a good position, but because of the indecent haste with which he acted, it compromised his efforts, as he hurriedly sought to have Mary marry his son but he was too young and as a result, he seized the duchy of Burgundy, Picardy, and Artois without waiting. But Mary instead gave her hand to Maximiclian of Hapsburg, however, Mary’s accidental death as a result of war made Louis XI retain Picardy and the duchy of Burgundy. At the end, France also received Franc he-Comte and Artios (Calmette 1963: pp.98-106).

Louis XI was succeeded by his cousin Louis XII, who was also caught up in the Italian mirage although his internal government showed some merit. When he took over he hastened to annul the unnatural marriage that had cynically compelled him to marry his own daughter Joan who was a poor little hunchback. He then hurriedly married Anne of Brittany, according to the agreement she had made before she married Charles. As a result of this marriage, their only daughter, Claudia, was destined to wed the heir to the throne, the duke of Angoluene, the future Francis I, and therefore the dutchy of Brittany entered the kingdom permanently and without any tremor. In addition, his reign was a good fortune since it coincided with a period of strong economic growth (www.titeu.com:pp.87-98).

Bourgeois; during the reign of Francis I, humanists and writers enjoyed a constant favor, because publications were prepared and printed rapidly by the Estienne family of humanist scholars and master printers. As a result the royal library, directed by the great scholar Guillaume Bude, was very large since printers were required to send a copy of each of their publications. As a result of this, he exercised a decisive influence on the spread of Italian art in France because he instated a college of royal lecturers where new subjects like Hebrew, Greek, Latin philology were taught.

Francis I’s royal; no opposition was able to develop for a man who might be all-powerful. All Estates-General were rebuked even the parlements. In addition, he impoverished and gradually displaced them from their local functions by acts of royal bureaucrats and the nobles had to rely on the king’s largess, and they congregated at court, and he turned to the immense fortune of the clergy in order to domesticate them. Although strong, tall vigorous, and brave in battle, he was impulsive and tickle, who easily bored by serious affairs of state at the same time he displayed a lot of egotism that no one would help to strengthen royal authority, and he couldn’t bear to have his wishes thwarted by anyone(www.titeu.com:pp.98-106). His royal treasury was wasted in feeding his appetite for pleasure and luxury and in the end, he exhausted his subjects by excessive demands for money. He was a womanizer and had official mistresses.

Francis I and Charles V. of Austria; their main problem of politics was the struggle against the predominance of the house of Astria, due to a series of successions that had bestowed the territorial inheritance of four monarchies on the young prince Charles, born in 1500. However, the inevitable conflict arose from geographical and historical issues, and this was poisoned by the personal dislike between them, for Charles was cold, vengeful methodical, and austere while Francis I was lively, generous, tickle, and prodigal (www.titeu.com:pp.106-125).

Protestantism; Protestantism as a result of Luther’s work in France in 1520, with the first French translation produced in 1526 by Louis Bergain. It spread on urban areas basically and gained access to social classes and to the printed word: jurists, doctors, teachers, city nobles, and middle-class professionals. It is, however, difficult to measure how it spread, because there were no publicly organized groups and many first protestants continued to attend Catholic churches. But an important change affected the social composition of French Protestantism; Nobles flocked in large numbers and among them, two princes of royal blood, the Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre and his brother Louis, the Prince of Conde, Plus the three high placed nephews of the powerful constable monarchy; the massive shift of the nobles to Protestantism, brought the newly organized reformed church the dynamic element that made it a political party, that was a virtual state within a state (www.titeu.com:pp.106-125).

Struggle for Henry of Navarre; The first struggle for him, he was ill, and he, therefore, went in person to direct the siege operations for two months. Although he resisted all assaults his imperial army’s strength was drained away by disease and supply problems and on January 1, 1553, it finally beat a retreat, having lost two-thirds of its effectiveness. His success lied after he formed an alliance with Francis I.

Role of Catherine de Medicis; Catherine de Medicis was indifferent in matters of religion yet was so much given to magicians and astrologers, she was also exceptionally intelligent and cultivated woman realistic and unscrupulous in keeping with the teachings of her fellow Italian Niccolo Machiavelli, she had preservation of royal power which was what she all cared for since she had no morality than the preservation of royal power

The main suppressions of the Protestants were subjections to the massacre, which was intended to eliminate them because the royal family was in mortal danger and they would only be saved by the elimination of all Protestants leaders in the city. This made many Protestants abjure their faith under the thread of Death, among was the young King of Narvare Henry of Bourbon (www.titeu.com: pp.87-225).

Work cited

Calmette, J. (1963). The Golden Age of Burgundy: The Magnificent Dukes and their court; 87-125

Ancient Civilizations in Western Europe

The western civilization can be traced from the Celtic reign. The Celts though believed not to have been the inhabitants of Europe nevertheless reigned in Europe before the Romans took. The reign of the Romans introduced road systems and cities after their departure the Anglo-Saxons took over.

The Celtic Reign

  • Archeological digs in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor indicate the possibility that the Celts were not native to Europe.
  • Originally Celts were a dark haired people with swarthy complexions.
  • Thought to have migrated through Europe to what is now England.

The Celts have been reported to have been diverse. Their empire has been reported to have spanned the European continent. Archaeological evidence from Germany and Scotland has proved that there was Celtic settlement as early as the late Bronze Age.

Archaeological evidence collected from Asia Minor and Eastern part of Europe do not show that the Celts were Indigenous to Europe. It is reported that they were dark haired with swarthy complexions.

The Celts are believed to have migrated to Europe through the Asia Minor. Soon after settling in the Danube River basin they are said to have began conquering their neighbours a practice which continued to cover wide geographical region. The Celts covered most of the Western Europe region. The Celtic dominance was short lived as new conquerors narrowed down the influence of the Celtic people.

The Celtic Civilization

  • Celtic tribes divided into family clans.
  • Celtic society divided into 3 classes: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual/religious class, and the common people.
  • The Celts were civilized probably even before the Romans and Greek.
  • Cattle was an important food source.
  • First Europeans to make iron.
  • Art consisted of curves and spirals often called Celtic knots.
  • Had a pagan religion worshipping many gods; threw jewelry and weapons into streams and lakes as offering to the gods.
  • Stonehenge- located in southern England; possibly built by the Druids which were the high priests of the Celts; ancient megalith that was constructed beginning about 3000BC and stopped around 2000BC; blue stones for building brought in from Wales; may have been a lunar calendar, a temple, or a burial ground.
  • France and Ireland had monuments similar to Stonehenge.
  • Celtic women had rights and generally treated with respect.

Little is known about the culture of the Celtic people. It has been said that they were nomadic. Though the Romans identified them with the barbaric tribes, it has been revealed that they were high organized. The Celtic society consisted of three classes: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual/royal class, and the common people. The common people were considered free men.

Though the Romans and Greeks are said to have viewed the Celts as the savage race, archaeological evidence has proved otherwise. It has been reported that the Celts used chain mail in battle and had machines for reaping grain. It was reported that long before the Roman road system was in place the Celts had started some form of roadways across Europe. The use of soap is also highly believed to have been invented by the Celts.

To the Celtic cattle was an important source of source of food. They are considered the first Europeans to have made iron considering the fact that they had machines which were used to harvest grain. The Celtic people preferred simple rural life as opposed to urbanized life. The clothing have been claimed to have followed a plaid design. Celtic knots consisted of curves and spirals. They are said to have worshiped pagan gods. Some of the practices in which they got engaged in included throwing offering jewels and weapons to their gods by throwing them in rivers.

Unlike the depiction of the Celtic people by the Romans, the Celtic people were highly educated. They Celtic priests and scholars who were referred to as Druids were required to undergo lifelong studies which could last as much as 20 years of training.

The Stonehenge which are located in Southern England are believed to have been constructed by Druids. They are said to have been constructed between 3000 BC and 2000 BC. The bluestone for building the Stonehenge are said to have been brought in from Wales. The exact purpose for the construction of the Stonehenge is not known but due to the huge amount of labour which was required to construct them it is generally assumed that the Stonehenge served a special purpose in the Celtic society.

It has been observed that there are monuments in France and Ireland which are quite similar to the Stonehenge in Southern England. This might be an indication that the Celtic people inhabited France. It has been claimed that the Celtic women were treated with respect.

Roman Province Britannia

  • 55BC- invasion of British Isles under Julius Caesar.
  • 43AD- Emperor Claudius established in Kent, but could not settle the highlands and moorlands (now Scotland) due to harsh terrain.
  • Roman society in Britannia had many classes.
  • Roman achievements included system of roads.
  • Revolt of Magnus Maximus in 383AD began the disintegration of Roman Britain.

The first Roman invaded the natives of the British Isles in 55B.C. under the guidance of Julius Caesar. The invasion was not a significant as such and was followed later by a major invasion in 43A.D. ordered by Emperor Claudius. Due to what has been reported to be a mixture of lack of cooperation among the Celtic tribes and general luck on the part of the Romans, Britain was subdued in less than forty than forty years. This gave birth to the Roman province called Britannia.

It was not possible for the Romans to settle in the highlands and moorlands as they were said to be poor agriculturally and that the terrain was too harsh for settlement. Some of the achievements that the Romans made in the Roman Province of Britannia included vast networks of road systems, and development of cities. The Roman settlement in the Britannia introduced many classes in the society. It is said that the Roman province of Britannia remained intact up to around 383 AD during the revolt of Magnus Maximus. This marked the departure of the Romans from Britain.

Saxons Departure of the Romans and arrival of the Saxons

  • Early in the fifth century, Roman armies withdrawn by Constantine III from Britannia to defend their empire.
  • Were from the northern German region of Saxony on the south Jutland Peninsula who settled in England around 410AD.

The arrival of the Saxons was ushered by the departure of the Roman armies from Britain. The Roman armies departed from Britain at the beginning of the fifth century. Constantine III withdrew the roman armies from Britain for the purpose of the defending the Roman Empire back at home as it was facing some difficulties. Britain was viewed to be too far and had little in the Roman Empire and therefore expensed the empire.

Anglo-Saxon has been referred to be a relatively recent term. The Anglo-Saxons are believed to have come the regions of Saxony and Angeln in Germany. They are said to have come to Britain after the Romans went away at around AD 410.

The reign of the Anglo-Saxons

  • Eventually controlled eastern and southern England.
  • Were farmers and fierce warriors.
  • Lived on farms and in villages.
  • Used spears, swords, shields, torches and battering rams in war.
  • Spoke “Old English”.
  • Initially believed in Norse gods like Odin, Frig, Tin, and Thor. Converted to Christianity which spread through most of England.
  • Political changes: small tribal groups consisting of kingdoms and sub-kingdoms; eventually divided into 4 kingdoms- Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, and Wessex.
  • Jewelry consisted of bronze and silver brooches inlaid with garnet and interlaced with gold filigree.
  • Age of power, wealth, culture, government, religion, literature, and art.

It is said that the Anglo-Saxons were masters and though they found the Jutes and Frisians in the British Isles they soon overcome them. It is said that the Anglo-Saxons replaced the Roman structures with their own. For instance it is reported that the stone building built by the Romans were quickly replaced by wood buildings built by the Anglo-Saxons. In this manner the Roman legacy was easily killed.

The influence of the Anglo-Saxons spread wide and they ended up controlling eastern and southern England. They were said to be fierce warriors who lived on farms and in villages. They are also said to have used swords, spears, shields, torches and battering rams in war.

The Anglo-Saxons are said to have spoken their own language that gave rise to the modern English spoken today. They are also reported to have brought their own religious beliefs with gods like Odin, Frig, Tin, and Thor. The arrival of Saint Augustine led to the conversion of the country to Christianity. The Anglo-Saxons are said to have reigned for almost 600 starting from 410 to 1066. During the reign of the Anglo-Saxons there were changes which took place on the land.

During the reign of the Anglo-Saxons the country is said to have been divided into four kingdoms: Wessex, Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia. The four kingdoms are said to have come up from the early settlers who had kept to small tribal groups forming small kingdoms and sub-kingdoms. The jewellery consisted of bronze and silver brooches inlaid with garnet and interlaced with gold filigree.

The Anglo-Saxons reign is considered as an age of power and wealth. It is during this age that religion was introduced, government structure was introduced and literature and art took control. The Anglo-Saxons came to an end in 1066 after the death of Edward who did not have an heir. The Normans took the reign after defeating Harold who had just been crowned as the King.

Reformation

  • The Black Death (bubonic plague)- 1328-1351; killed 30 to 40% of the population in England ; went from farming to pasturing; boost in the cloth and wool industries; people moved into towns; decline of the Feudal system; disillusionment with the church; helped spur the English reformation.
  • 14th to 16th centuries considered a period of “rebirth”; Francesco Petrarch is considered the father of the Renaissance.
  • Changes in religious thought brought about by a move away from the Catholic Church; change influenced by Martin Luther, a German Augustinian monk; changed the idea of purgatory.

The reformation was a movement that had began as way to reform the Roman Catholic Church. The reformation was as a result of the church followers not being generally satisfied with the church. Some of the complains forwarded against the church included extreme focus on rituals, false doctrines and sell of indulgences. The selling of indulgences is especially said to have created a lot wealth for the Catholic Church. There are many factors which are said to have brought about the reformation. Some events which had taken place early and the general trend of the behaviour of the Roman Catholic Church must have disillusioned the people.

The Black Death which occurred between 1328 and 1351 was one such event which is said to have disillusioned people and set it against the church. This plague claimed good portion of the population which has been estimated to be around 30 to 40% of the then England population. Due to the reduction in the population there was a general movement of the population from the villages to towns. There was also a decline in the Feudal system and the general population was disillusioned with the church in general. This set the stage for the reformation.

The 14th to 15th century has considered a rebirth period. This is a period when so many things changed. One Francesco Petrarch has been viewed as the father of the Renaissance. There were changes in the way people viewed religion and this brought about a movement away from the church. People like Martin Luther significantly contributed in the changing attitude of the people against some of the church doctrines such as purgatory. Martin Luther is said to have published a thesis in 1517 which sharply criticised the ritual of selling indulgency and the policy of purgatory. Luther also criticised the church for not allowing the translation of the bible into other languages which other people could understand. Apart from Martin Luther there were other theologians who also speared the reformation all over Europe. The English reformation is said to have been very clear when England broke away from the Roman Catholic Church authority through the actions of King Edward divorcing.

The English Reformation

  • King Henry VIII sought a divorce and was excommunicated from the church by the pope giving the official start to the period of reformation.
  • Most monasteries shut down by 1540.
  • Improvements in agricultural techniques saw the rise of a wider variety of food.
  • With the movement into towns there were a wider variety of jobs such as blacksmith, carpenter, baker, scribe, and shoemaker.
  • Changes in science and technology.
  • Plays and theatre such as Shakespeare.
  • Increase in trade.
  • Women considered inferior and girls were not allowed to attend universities.

The English reformation took place when King Henry VIII divorced against the Church. The breaking away of the England from the church has been considered more of a political break away than a religious break away. This is considered so because the breakaway was necessitated by personal affairs of the King’s need for a heir whom the queen Catherine had failed to give. The king wanted to marry another woman but first had to divorce his wife. The church did not allow divorce and though the king tried to plead with the pope to allow him a divorce on the special dispensation it was not possible. This made the King to go ahead against the pope and divorce his wife in order to marry again. Following the divorce by the King he was excommunicated by the pope marking the official date of the English reformation.

It should be noted that the church had gathered a lot of wealth from selling indulgence. It is reported that literary to do anything which involved the church one had pay, for instance, baptism was paid for, burials services were paid for and any other service which involved the church was also paid. This is said to have made the church monasteries to be very rich. The excommunication of England from the Roman Church led to the church properties being taken by the government.

During the English reformation there many improvements made. The agricultural sector experienced a lot of improvements technologically. There were new agricultural techniques which made resulted to quick growth in the amount of agricultural produce. It is also reported that there was an increase in the amount number of jobs available which ranged from carpentry, baking shoemaking, blacksmith among others.

There were advances witnessed in the sector of science and technology. Literature developed richly during this era. The volume of trade also increased significantly. The education system advanced greatly though girls were not allowed to attend institutions of higher learning. Women wee generally viewed as inferior in the society.

Works Cited

Chris, Trueman. The Black Death of 1348 to 1350. History learning Site, 2000-2010. Web.

Griffin, KD. Interesting Facts about the Protestant Reformation. Associated Content, 2007. Web.

Mitchell, Esther. Ancient Celtic History. Essortment, 2002. Web.

Saxon, MC. A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons, 2010. Web.

Sightlines. Stonehenge. Britannia, 2007. Web.

Trueman, Chris. The Reformation. History Learning Site, 2000-2010. Web.

Williams, Peter. Narrative History of the Saxons. Britannia History, 2007. Web.

Life as a Soldier During the Roman Civilization

Introduction

Being a soldier with a loving family in the Roman Empire would be a very exciting thing to be in. The Roman Civilization started in 27 B.C. and grew to prominence until 1453 AD. The characteristics that describe the Roman Civilization are what make it survive for many years. The following paragraphs describe the characteristics of the Roman Civilization (Ando 5).

Characteristics of the Roman Empire

The Characteristics of this civilization include its unique cultural heritage. The people’s daily preoccupation would revolve around the metropolis. The Roman Civilization had seven hills and large architectural assignments. The people would love to spend their time at the Colosseum. The coliseum spectators would loudly cheer as human warriors called gladiators to kill the lions, wild animals, or other human beings. This was the main entertainment of the Roman Civilization. The City of Rome has built the very high Pantheon as well as the Forum of Trajan. The city had set up theaters and well gymnasiums, brothels, baths, and taverns to make life pleasurable. The houses were constructed modestly or as country villages. There were also many imperial residences scattered around Palatine hill (Franz 154).

Further, Roman Civilization was the largest during its time. The population back then had surpassed the one million mark. The Roman Civilization was led by many emperors like Julius Caesar. The story of Julius Caesar being murdered has been made into a movie immortalizing the Roman civilization during Caesar’s leadership (“Julius Caesar; the Roman” B08). The people of this time used chariots to travel from one part of Rome to Another. And, one-fourth of the people resided in the urban centers. There were also many military establishments guarding the entrances of Rome. Many of the Roman towns had a forum where people could meet. The Roman civilization used excellent transportation to ferry the food supplies from the sources to within the city’s homes. Also, the countryside of Rome was covered with farms.

In addition, the farm owners bought slaves to till their fields. Some landlords cheerfully freed their slaves and even pay their wages to encourage them to work harder and longer during their brief stay with the farm owners. Many people wanted to immigrate to the Roman civilization because it was the best place to be. Life at this time focused on the people’s right to purchase slaves. The slaves were usually the defeated prisoners of Roman war campaigns.

The people could freely buy slaves at the public market. The Roman law at this time branded the slaves as the PROPERTY of the slave owner. However, many kind-hearted slave owners felt that they could free the slaves as a reward for doing their job descriptions well. I addition, the slaves could also save enough money to pay for their freedom. This is allowed by Roman law back then (Nimis,1).

Also, the time of the Roman emperor, Augustus, was characterized by Greek slaves teaching young Romans how to cook, how to decorate, how to be secretaries, how to be doctors, and even how to be hairdressers. The city was adorned with many Greek works of art. The Roman art form focused on the Arch and the Dome. The people during this period were very interested in Portraiture and the Arts. The Roman civilization’s culture continues to survive until today because life back then had been immortalized in books written by Virgil and Ovid. The Roman Empire had a culture that fits the description of classical art (“The Great Houses of the Roman Empire” 311).

In addition, the Roman society at this period was also characterized by the presence of Plebeians. They had no right to own property or enter into contracts. However, they were not classified as slaves. In terms of political life, Roman citizens were allowed to vote. The voters included the Plebeians and the Patricians. The women, the children, and the slaves had no right to choose their leaders because only the male adults were allowed to vote for their leaders (Behrendt,1).

The residents of the Roman civilization were segregated into five different groups based on their property ownership. The Roman civilization was divided into different communities. Each community had only one vote to use when deciding which strategic plan to implement and maintain during their day-to-day politically inspired Roman life. In addition, the people during the Roman civilization used a primary language to communicate the fields of science, religion, and Christianity. Likewise, the center of community life in Rome focused on the family. Here, the father is unquestionably the head of the family (Behrendt,1).

Reason For Choice

The Roman Empire is the best civilization because it symbolizes power and religion. The Roman civilization has survived many years of strife and attacks from neighboring enemies. The Roman civilization still exists today. The Vatican, which is within Rome, is the ‘headquarter’ of the Roman Catholic Church. Many countries have Roman Catholic members living within their territories.

And, living in a Roman civilization would be a very happy thing to do. The water then was well-engineered so that all the homes would have their regular supply of this thirst-quenching drink. The people would not go hungry because the Roman government took extra care to ensure that there was a steady supply of fruits, vegetables, fish, and other food products. The people believed that the family was the center of community life. Also, the father was considered the unquestionable king of the house. This is also similar to our current society where the father is the man of the house. Many people living in our current community also believe that the family is the center of community life.

Conclusion

Being a soldier with a loving family in the Roman Empire would be a very exciting thing to be in. The reasons given above prove that the Roman civilization was best in terms of government, family life, and community life. Conclusively, it is nice to personally see many of the slave owners believing inequality back then. For, some of the slave owners happily freed their slaves for working well on the farms. Some of the slaves were also paid wages so that they would have enough money to pay for their freedom. Lastly, I want to be there and personally feel the rage, the danger, and the anger when a gladiator defends himself against a lion in the Colosseum.

Most importantly, Rome will always be remembered as the largest city during its time. The more than one million population data proves that living in Roman Civilization is a very happy event to be in. In addition, Roman Civilization has been immortalized by the story of the treacherous murder by Brutus of his best friend Julius Caesar. The story of Julius Caesar being murdered has been made into a movie immortalizing the Roman civilization during Caesar’s leadership is the sad but true historical account of a flourishing and successful Roman civilization.

Works Cited

Ando, Clifford. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Behrendt, Dennis. “How Immigration Destroyed Rome. Oxford Historian Peter Heather Has Reexamined the Fall of Rome. His New Book, the Fall of the Roman Empire Holds Many Lessons for Today.” The New American. 2006: 33+.

Cosgrove, Peter. Impartial Stranger: History and Intertextuality in Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press, 1999.

Franz, Michael, ed. Order and History: The Ecumenic Age. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000.

“The Great Houses of the Roman Empire.” Architectural Science Review 47.3 (2004): 311.

“Julius Caesar; the Roman Emperor Who Fascinates to This Day.” The Washington Times. 2006: B08.

Nimis, Stephen. “Egypt in Greco-Roman History and Fiction.” Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics (2004): 34+.