Category: Civilization

Roman Legacy

The influence of Roman lifestyles on civilization is eminent. Notably, there are similarities between the ancient Rome and the contemporary U.S. lifestyle. Some elements that were noted in the fallen empire are presently practiced. It is critical to highlight these similarities. Evidently, both the U.S. and Roman societies valued family principles. Particularly, the societies shared similar sentiments on the purity of marriage.

For instance, the case of Lucretia indicates the perception of the ancient Romans on the matter (Barnstone, 2003). However, this trend changed in the rule of Caesar Augustus. Immorality came into foreplay. This trend of immorality is observed within the contemporary American lifestyle. Sex has gradually become sporadic.

People do not respect the sanctity and fidelity in marriage. Notably, there are several instances of homosexuality. This includes same sex marriages. The instance of moral decadence within the contemporary America is similar to that in the ancient Rome.

The Roman legacy is one of the most historically significant occurrences. Several instances in the contemporary world have been associated with the ancient Roman philosophy. Evidently, the contemporary U.S. depicts some of these elements. Occasionally, the U.S has been regarded as the contemporary Roman Empire. The capacity to dominate and conquer is explicitly depicted in the Roman Empire (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010).

Presently, it is notable that Americans have a greater global dominion. There are contemporary practices largely drawn from Roman philosophies. For instance, the military power has been given prominence. Presently most states have applied military power to guard their resources and interests within a global perspective. There are several cases that can support this argument. An example is the dominion of the U.S. military force on war tone third and middle level states.

Augustine’s Christianity

The architecture of Ravenna depicts significant perceptions on Christianity articulated by Augustine. In “Confessions and The City of God,” Augustine presents his personal opinions on the topic of Christianity. Foremost, the art of Ravenna indicates an important theological history.

This architecture echoes vital reiterations made by Augustine concerning the creation of mankind. In his views, Augustine has strong conviction on the concept of creation by God (Cohen, 2008). The interaction of man and earthly occurrences is portrayed in the art. Augustine’s views rest on the relationship between man and earthly occurrences, with dominion of God.

As indicated in the “city of God,” the art potentiates the importance of three basic elements in man’s Christianity. Basically, the church forms the first existence. As indicated by the philosopher, the art also recognizes the presence of the heaven’s city. The art signifies the basic interaction between these two dominions and the “City of the World.” These are clear philosophies of Augustine as eminent within the “Confessions and The City of God.” (Bottero, 1995).

From the architecture, there is eminence of dominion and divinity of the church. Augustine indicates the importance of the church. In addition, its significant role in leading the entire mankind to the long-lasting goodness is recognized (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010). The influence of man from the worldly affairs can be easily noted in the art. Perhaps, this communicates Augustine’s views on the issue of politics on the virtues and human mind.

However, the connection of these communities in the essence of seeking wellness is eminent. The two invisible cities are also contrasted in the art. Generally, this provides the disparity between the individuals destined for complete salvation and those headed for damnation. Indeed, the art communicates a lot regarding Augustine’s views.

Islam and Christianity Made Visual

Several considerations may be drawn from the visual analysis of the calligraphy and mosaic. Generally, the Islamic calligraphy represents the literature and beliefs of the people who adopted the religion as early as 17^th century. The Islamic calligraphies are viewed to be largely nonrepresentational. However, they look attractive and decorative.

The application of the Arabic language is evident in these Islamic calligraphies. However, this is not applicable in the Christian mosaics of Ravenna. From the Islamic calligraphy, a high depiction of the mosque and other associated buildings is noticed. On the other hand, the Christian mosaic of Ravenna tends to major on the concept of spirituality and the relationship with God.

Thus, there is an element of structural identity depicted in the Islamic calligraphy. The Islamic artistic presentations of the “Dome of the Rock and Alhambra” have very intrinsic meanings to the Muslim society (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010). For instance, they fortify the conviction that Muhammad ascended from the “Dome of the Rock.”

The Christian mosaic of the Ravenna presents a belief in the existence of God. The association between different states of humanity, the earthly influences and the interception of heavenly power is communicated. Apart from these, a historical analysis of Christianity can be drawn from the mosaic.

This also includes the diverse views of ancient philosophers on the subject of Christianity. The Islamic calligraphy represents the firm beliefs in Quran. Indicatively, the calligraphy and the general artistic presentations at the “Dome of the Rock” have immensely influenced the structural appearance and pattern of the mosque. The Christian mosaic has a minimal structural presentation. It is important to note that the mosaic of the Ravenna dwells more on the spiritual interaction and significance of the existence of a mighty power.

The Medieval Experience

The medieval period was characterized by several occasions of pilgrimages and crusades. The pilgrimages were predominantly associated with the Muslims. On the other hand, the Christianity held crusades. Indeed, there were notable disparities that could influence an individual’s choice (Mackenzie, 2001).

Personally, I would prefer to attend the crusades if I lived in the medieval period. The pilgrimages occurred over extremely long distances. There were also inhumane restrictions. Unlike the practices and restrictions in crusades, this could possibly compromise an individual’s wellbeing. The total devotion and belief of the pilgrims led to the development of self sacrifice and jihad mentalities. This was absent in the Christian crusades. The crusade was rooted on effective and harmonious relationship with one another.

The occurrences within the Bayeux Tapestry are critical. In a real film, the Bayeux Tapestry would entail a series of battles. The conflict is based between the duke and the earl. The film would present a captivating conflict of Hastings. As depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, the fifty scenes would provide an interesting film for the audience.

The customary setting of the Bayeux Tapestry is also important (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010). In a film, this aspect would present a unique historical prologue of the ancient world. This would provide the film with a distinct sense of attraction. The risky missions in the Bayeux Tapestry could impart a sense of empathy in the audience.

References

Barnstone, T. (2003). Literature of Asia: From antiquity to the present. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bottero, J. (1995). Writing, reasoning, and the Gods. Chicago. Univ. of Chicago Press.

Cohen, J. M. (2008). A history of Western literature: From medieval epic to modern poetry. Piscataway, N.J: Aldine Transaction.

Gardner, H., & Kleiner, F. S. (2010). Gardner’s art through the ages: A concise western history. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Mackenzie, L. (2001). Non-Western art: A brief guide. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Introduction

The Han people shaped the future of the present Chinese culture through their excellent innovativeness. With a history spanning over four hundred years, Han Dynasty left a mark in the modern history. The Han Dynasty is arguably responsible for the modernization of China. The history of the Han emperors, their conquering prowess, system of administration, scholars, innovators, entrepreneurs, and the common people represented emergence of a great Chinese culture (Duiker and Spielvogel 27).

Han Dynasty

A rebel leader Liu Band, also referred to as Prince Han, founded the Han Dynasty in 206 BC after defeating the Qin army in the valley of Wei. The capital of Han Dynasty was at Chang’an (Hung 23). The Han Dynasty reigned for more than 400 years; an important period referred to by Chinese as the golden age. Xin Dynasty led by Regent Wang Mang 9 BC – 23 AD, briefly interrupted Han Dynasty. The Western Han ruled from 206 BC to 9 AD, and then Wang Mang defeated the Han army marking the end of Western Han era. The Han people continued waging wars against Wang Mang, until 25 AD when Han defeated Wang Mang and his army marking the beginning of Eastern Han Empire. The Ham Empire had a central government under the emperor and other smaller kingdoms ruled by leaders appointed by the emperor. The emperor appointed family members to govern the semi-autonomous kingdoms and commanderies to maintain loyalty. Following the rebellion of the seven states, the kingdoms lost their autonomy (Hung 35).

Technology Development in agricultural

The modern technique of manufacturing new and improved agricultural tools borrowed most of its designs from the Han-era technology. Many types of agricultural equipment such as seed drill and plow were developed during the Han Empire (Hardy 58). These farms equipment revolutionized agricultural production. The seed drill enabled farmers to plant seeds in rows, while the heavy moldboard plow employed one man to control two oxen pulled plow. The plow could do three tasks at the same time; it could store and sow the seeds, make furrows and auger the soil. During the reign of Emperor Wu, a new system of farming that protected crops from wind and drought was developed. The alternating field system allowed crops of different seasons to grow at the same time. The success of the system prompted the government to sponsor the new system to the peasant farmers. The Han had discovered a new farming system that saved on labor and conserved the soil fertility (University of Washington 34).

Technological development in manufacturing industries

The Han period saw significant advances in Science and technology. Major technological development included papermaking, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, the use of a negative number in mathematics, and the nautical steering rudder. The bronze and ironwork during Han Empire produced weapons, domestic wares, carpenters’ tools and culinary tools. The advancement in metallurgic technology which saw the use of cupola and blast furnace was achieved during the Warring States Period (403- 221 BC).The paddling and finery forge processes were developed during Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 200).

The tenth century’s discovery of gunpowder revolutionized the military warfare; it was preceded by invention of heavy artillery, large and small explosives, and different types of guns. The invention of rocket bombs with wings that could carry multi explosive devices was a great breakthrough that modernized the warfare. The Chinese were great sailors, using the compass invented in 11th century and rudder invented in the 1st century; they managed to reach Egypt and East Africa. Han-era ships were manufactured using junk design, which featured a stern and a square-ended bow, and a flat-bottomed hull. The first ship to be steered using rudder at the stern was built during the Han- era. These ships could sail on the high seas enabling the Chinese to visit and establish trade routes across in Asia, Europe and Africa. The Chinese had a water-powered clock based on escapement mechanism invented in 8th century combine with chain-drive invented in 11th century (Hardy 78).

Technology in roads

Trade and manufacturing played an important part of the commercial activities of the Han people. During the reign of Emperor Wu, trade with the people of inner Asia expanded tremendously. Emperor Wu, sent his personal envoy Zhang Qian to the Western Regions. He pioneered the vast trade network from Chang’an to Central Asia and Mediterranean Sea. This route later developed into a road famously referred to as Silk Road. Han-era was marked by a great development of farming tools owing to the vibrant iron industry that had developed. The artisans manufactured oxen drawn ploughs, which helped in improving the agricultural production. Irrigation systems to help improve rice productivity were enhanced especially in the drier North part of the Empire. Besides iron and copper industries, silk weaving and copper work were established (Duiker and Spielvogel 63).

Development of modern technology in Medicine

The Chinese had their way of treating diseases; they had a belief that, the human body had five phases governed by the universe and linked with the body organs. Diseases were viewed as a signs of malfunctioning of the channels that connected the organs and one of the five phases. The physicians treated the ailment by applying medicine that could counteract the body imbalance. Some illnesses were treated using special diet rich in certain minerals. Zhang Zhongjing who was a famous physician during the Han Empire prescribed certain food to treat certain disorders. A physician Huo Tuo performed a surgery in 208 AD where he applied anesthesia to reduce the patient’s pain and added an ointment that made the wound to heal faster (Hardy 88).

Western influence

The Chinese innovations brought a lot of improvement in agriculture resulting in high production of food, which helped to sustain China’s huge population. New trade routes developed thus enabling them to trade with other empires such as the Roman Empire. The establishment and development of Silk Road opened many areas for trade. The innovation made in military warfare enabled Han Empire to expand its territory through conquest. Han people were great manufacturer of iron weapons, which was traded to the Xiongnu, they also manufactured silk clothes and wine. The existence of large well-equipped army resulted in constant battle with rival kingdoms, each struggling to take control of trade (Hardy 48). The government took control of the private salt and iron production in 117 BC and created monopolies. The government expected to raise funds to pay for the expansion wars it was waging with its neighbors. The government monopolies were later removed and the salt and iron industries returned to private entrepreneurs. However, the empire imposed very heavy taxes to cover for the lost revenue (University of Washington 22).

The technology advancement influenced the cultural and political practices. The religious and cultural beliefs united the vast regions. The Western Han Dynasty maintained almost similar cultural and political systems in which the emperor remained at the top of the hierarchy assisted by court official and palace eunuchs. The Han people had a well-developed political system. The emperor was the head of the government; assisted by a council of ministers selected from the scholarly class. However, during the reign of Emperor Wu, the rulers strengthened the palace and ignored the civil service, and maintained a weak control of the peasants. The rise of super rich families led to the adoption of Confucian ideals. The ordinary people were subjected to rewards and punishments while the administrators were judged based on Confucian principles (University of Washington 46).

Conclusion

It is undeniable truth that the Han Dynasty was the greatest and the most remarkable in Chinese history as noted by University of Washington (27). During the Han Dynasty China experienced the greatest scientific and technological innovations and discoveries which are useful even in the modern day (Hardy 28). The scientific innovations and major technological development such as papermaking, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy is applicable in the modern day. The bronze and ironwork during Han Empire produced weapons, domestic wares, carpenters’ tools and culinary tools. The advancement in metallurgic technology, which saw the use of cupola and blast furnace and use of gunpowder, heavy artillery, large and small explosives are innovation applicable even now.

Works Cited

Duiker, William and Jackson, Spielvogel. World History: To 1500. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2008. Print.

Hardy, Grant. The Establishment of The Han Empire And Imperial China Greenwood Guides to Historic Events of the Ancient World Series. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. Print.

Hung, Hing. The Road to the Throne: How Liu Bang Founded China’s Han Dynasty. New York: Algora Publishing, 2011. Print.

University of Washington. Institute for Comparative and Foreign Area Studies. Han Dynasty China. New York: University of Washington Press, 2011. Print

Introduction

The Mayan civilization was an ancient Mesoamerican civilization that started to develop in 2000 BC. During the Terminal Classic Period (750-950 AD) the civilization began to disintegrate and finally disappeared. The reasons for the decline still remain unclear. That is why the Mayan’s disappearance is considered as a “mystery.” Several scientific theories propose possible explanations of the “mystery,” including environmental unsuitability and climate changes (drought). Although the environmental hypothesis is accepted by several scientists, the drought theory seems to be more reasonable because more discovered facts and climate reconstructions supported it.

The Environmental Hypothesis

According to the hypothesis, the main reason for the Mayan civilization collapse was caused by unsuitable environmental recourses use. Mayan people lived with a strong connection to nature. However, civilization was growing fast and required more and more resources for living. Mayan people destroy tropical forests because they needed wood and land for agriculture. People’s agricultural systems might lead to soil exhaustion. Therefore, natural sources, in particular, forests and fertile soil, started to decrease which resulted in the social collapse and civilization decline. Moreover, it was stated that the insufficient agricultural system might lead to climate changes, in particular, to the drought level increase. The evidence of Mayan relationship with nature and its possible results was obtained by the modeling process (Heckbert, Costanza, & Parrott, 2014).

The Drought Theory

The drought theory of the Mayan civilization’s disappearance is commonly accepted among scientists (Heckbert et al., 2014). According to this theory, the Mayan people’s life significantly depended on the water supply. Tropical rains were the most important source of water. Rapid climate changes due to the several years of drought were the reason for the Mayan civilization’s socio-economic changes. The drought resulted in the less agricultural harvest and, correspondingly, in the people’s starvation and population decrease. Therefore, the drought theory could be considered as the most reasonable for explaining the Mayan civilization’s disappearance mystery.

Reasons for the Drought Theory Acceptance

Nowadays, the drought theory is considered as the most reasonable by a lot of scientists. To confirm this theory, several investigations were performed. Climate reconstructions were the most important of them. Analysis of sediment layers provided an opportunity to estimate the temperature and the level of rainfall. This reconstruction proved that severe drought periods occurred during the Terminal Classic Period. Importantly, the time connection between drought periods and evidence of Mayan civilization collapse was shown. It could be considered as the first strong evidence in support of this theory.

Second, to accept the drought hypothesis, it is important to prove the significance of water for the Mayan civilization. It was shown that the Maya civilization created a system of management and control of water sourced. Clean water sources controlling was important for the social and political structure of the Mayan population organization. Therefore, drought periods caused not an only agricultural crisis and a small harvest but also a political crisis. It could be supposed that the Mayan people started to be unsatisfied with the existed political system and to blame their political leaders in the crisis. As a result, the social and political collapse of the society developed (Douglas et al., 2015). The estimated connection between a water-supply system and Mayan social and political collapse might be considered as the second strong evidence in support of the drought theory.

Conclusion

Two most reasonable hypotheses of Mayan civilization’s disappearance were examined: the drought theory and the environmental theory. The drought theory was considered more reliable due to the presence of strong empirical evidence in its support while strong reasons for an environmental crisis during the Terminal Classic Period were not found. Therefore, it could be concluded that the drought hypothesis could be a probable explanation of the Mayan civilization collapse “mystery.”

References

Heckbert, S., Costanza, R., & Parrott, L. (2014). Achieving sustainable societies: Lessons from modelling the ancient Maya. Solutions Journal, 5, 55-64.

Douglas, P. M., Pagani, M., Canuto, M. A., Brenner, M., Hodell, D. A., Eglinton, T. I., & Curtis, J. H. (2015). Drought, agricultural adaptation, and sociopolitical collapse in the Maya lowlands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(18), 5607-5612. Web.

The meaning of the concept of the Dark Ages has long been a subject of widespread misunderstanding among people that mistakenly attribute the title to a presumed atmosphere of overwhelming darkness and social collapse. In truth, however, many scientists argue that the origin of the term concerns the lack of sources on the period rather than the societal state. Based on the textbook, one might confidently say that the period was full of its own social, religious and cultural changes.

Firstly, following the demise of Europe’s most powerful force, the Roman Empire, the relationship between the church and the people shifted dramatically, influencing the foundations of our constitution. Because there was no kingdom or governmental structure after the Roman Empire fell apart, the churches of the time took control and became Europe’s most powerful organization. As a result, the church wielded considerable power in the Early Middle Ages (Brooks, 2019). It became the new structural center of the transforming society, a power anchor and a key in controlling the general public.

Secondly, a new governing system emerged in the form of feudalism, solidifying most of what we know about the class relationships of Medieval Europe. Although inherently exploitative, it was nevertheless founded on the basis of the ideas of honor and duty prevalent at the time. Each person was, first and foremost, a member of their clan, and an attack on an individual thus would have become a common issue (Brooks, 2019). Any act of disgrace had to be met with an act of equal dishonor, with most insults being met with violence. Arguably, a clear barbaric element can be identified within these changes, but the fact of the changes themselves suggests progress and growth.

Reference

Brooks, C. (2019), Western Civilization: A Concise History Volume 1, Portland Community College

Introduction

Civilization is the gradual change of people or a nation in the ways and style of living base on governance, lifestyles, and social interactions. Classical Greece involved much of the cultures of Ancient Rome where most historical, scientific societies, and academic research the current Greek people largely involves up-to-date research on various issues. This period is associated with the happenings of the 4^th, 5^th, and 6^th centuries BCE where politics, wars, and greed for power are very prevalent. Civilization took a long period as people adopted new lifestyles such as the ones after agricultural economies. The adjustment varied from one place to another, for example, from cities to rural areas. In addition, civilization brought about the movement of people from rural areas to cities. Civilization came along with better methods of doing things such as mechanization and iron processing.

Comparison between the Classical Greece Civilization and Ancient Rome

There is adequate evidence that the Greek civilization formed an important part and basis for the general civilization of the European countries or the subsequent civilizations in the region. Greek and Rome as European countries were two different communities in that the Greek established itself earlier enough and eventually become the first civilized country in Europe, then the Romans utilized this civilization to develop and later an empire evolved in the Roman Kingdom of which the Greeks failed to manage though being strong and more powerful (Streich, 2008).

The Greece civilization involved the emergence of dangerous weapons which facilitated the outbreak of wars among their city-states due to their self-interest amongst themselves, so failed to consolidate and stand up as a united kingdom. This led to the death of many young people in the nation which resulted in one of the failures for them to reach the standards of the Romans of establishing an empire. Romans, on the other hand, utilized some of the Greek Civilization Techniques and with the spirit of brotherhood, they united themselves aimed at acquiring an established Roman identity. In this case, the Greeks may be regarded as pioneers of civilization whereas others as followers of the same.

Comparison between the Classical Greece Civilization and Mycenaean Civilization

Classical Greece preceded the conquest of Greek by King Philip of Macedonian in 338 B.C.E. Unlike some other civilizations in Greek, classical Greek can be distinguished by the confrontation between the Persian Empire and the Greek states as the civilization begun (Duiker, 2008; 74). During this time around, they established artistic standards that were not with any other community and that spread around the Western world. In both, there was an immense use of symbols pottery, artwork, and architectural designs, with statues being used to represent the images of high figureheads of the city-states. Others were used to show distinctive events and occurrences such as funerals and other rituals. Both civilizations are characterized by constant wars among the city-states that result in a lot of suffering for mankind (Mlahanas, n.d.).

Distinctive or significant issues about the Greeks

The Greeks are globally known for their great inventions, scientific research solutions, space studies, and various discoveries ever from ancient times and even in modern today technology. They indeed proved to be the first civilized people in the world.

The spread of Christianity religion was evident in Greece which later started to spread to other nations of the world and this has significantly improved and transformed the lives of many.

Reference

Duiker, William. (2008). The Essential World History. Vol.1. to 1800: Third Edition. Belmont: Thompson Walworth

Mlahanas. (n.d.). “Mycenaean civilization”. Mlahanas. 2010. Web.

Streich, Michael. (2008). “Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome Compared”. Web.

The superiority of the Roman Empire came as a result of a complex merge of ideas and traditions. The military force was armed to protect the political purpose of the empire, and since there was a general perception that they had a superior military, the enemies feared any encounter with them. The military officers were supposed to be subordinate to tactical priorities, marital ideas, and war-like instincts to political goals, which were essential to the strategic success of the Roman Empire. Money and manipulative diplomacy contributed to the ineffective operation of the military because it was perceived as the use of force to sufficiently rule the security workforce. The Romans learned to defeat their neighbors by tactical strength as opposed to the use of military power (Luttwak 17).

The Roman Empire used the first systems of the republic to conquer a lot but for the interest of a few who included those living within the cities as well as those who were close to control policy. The third century was characterized by a great crisis such that security became a responsibility of society. Luttwak, 24-26, argues that the provision of security was unequally distributed because it enriched the rich and deprived the poor. The machinery of the empire was turned into a self-serving organ used by government officials. It is then that barbarian states that were initially Roman started providing a measure of security then. Eventually, the imperial security lost its support. The strength of the legions was based on the numbers there were about 6,000 men, and that included 5,280-foot soldiers, a contingent of 120 men, as well as sundry headquarters’ troops. To the upper limit, legionary troops would be about 168.000 men until A.D. Apart from the legions of heavy infantry, which were still guarded by long-serving citizenry who worked voluntarily, there were auxiliary guarded by non-citizens at that time. Light infantry cohorts, also known as cavalry units, complemented the legion forces. The colonies were used as an instrument of strategic control; therefore, Caeser settled his veterans outside as agents of Romanization. The colonies were islands of direct Roman control in the hegemonic empire (Perkins12).

The colonies breed secure observation and control bases. The citizenry was a sure ready-made militia of ex-soldiers and soldier’s sons who were well equipped to defend their home towns in the event of an attack as the imperial forces were reckoned. According to the First Punic War Britannica Encyclopedia 45, the absence of a perimeter defense failed the Roman imperial security of the empire because there were neither border defenses nor local forces to guard imperial territories against the threats of infiltration, transborder incursion, or localized attack.

The Greek phalanx was stronger at war since they deployed young military men and exposed them to specialized training, including fighting in all types of terrains. The Romans, over a long time, had a regular supply of military troops drawn from its population as well as from other regions where veterans sent by Caeser had established relationships. When the ties weakened, and the people became adamant about military recruitments because the military men were used for political gains by the royal class while the common man suffered, the supply of fresh recruits to join the military decreased (Perkins 23).

This emerged as a major setback to the Roman Empire because the rivals devised new ways of maintaining and training their military manpower to afford victories in any war. The rivals also garnered new tactics as well as a fund for importing and manufacturing weapons. The strength of the Roman Empire dwindled over time as the authorities struggled to ensure that they maintained the perception held by the enemy as well as looking for fresh regular and auxiliary troops.

Reference

First Punic War.Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010): 45-76. Web.

Luttwak, E. The grand strategy of the Roman Empire from the first century A.D to the third century. John Hopkins University Press Inc, Baltimore, (1979): 13-62

Perkins, W.B. The fall of Rome: The end of civilization. Oxford University Press, New York, (2005): 6-36.

The Ancient Egypt civilization left an immense cultural legacy for humanity in the invention of the calendar, measurement tools, and development of applied mathematics. Furthermore, the remnants of the greatness of Ancient Egypt’s ruler were preserved in the great pyramids, still present in the modern world. While it is undeniable that civilization in Ancient Egypt made significant progress for the time, one could not question what resources allowed such progress. Thus, the greatness of the Ancient Egypt civilization may be insignificant if it was sourced from exploitative roots. This essay will explore how slavery supported Ancient Egypt civilization’s development progress, examine the presence of gender factors and define the role of exploitation in civilization’s nature.

Firstly, in order to understand the impact exploitation had on the progress of Ancient Egyptian civilization, one should explore the available facts about slave labor in Egypt’s daily life. The aspect of language used to operate the term ‘slave’ also provides valuable information about slavery in Ancient Egypt, as the term ‘slave’ referred to servants and people forced into labor. According to Zdziebłowski, slaves often worked in private homes as servants or in royal staff as hairdressers or gardeners. Initially, slaves were presented by foreigners and war captives, but with the development of the slave trade, free citizens could also be captured and sold into slavery. Even local residents who suffered adverse outcomes of an unstable economy and found themselves in debt were forced into slave labor to cover their debts. Slaves had the right to own private property, and evidence suggests that some were married to Egyptian women (Zdziebłowski). Thus, compared to other more inhumane cases of slavery involving racial discrimination, slavery in Egypt focused more on maintaining the workforce to enable the development of society and support the economy.

Next, the slavery system in Egypt consisted of many different layers and types of coerced labor, where some people were born into slavery others sold themselves for bonded labor. Considering the role of gender in this complicated system, women in Ancient Egypt generally had almost equal rights to men, but in slavery, they were presented as property. Therefore, the owner of woman slave working in the household could father her children and arrange her marriage, but also provided her with protection and paid her dowry (Karev and Richardson). Thus, while slavery in Ancient Egypt limited women’s opportunities, they had almost equal rights and occupation with men, contrary to other cases of slavery where women were valued for their reproductive labor.

Lastly, considering the role of labor exploitation in civilization’s nature, the exploitation of slave labor is sourced in the increased need to provide products and services for a growing population. Once the group of people unites to provide safety for their settlement and divides the labor, the population starts to grow and its labor needs grow proportionately. The exploitation of foreign military prisoners’ labor resulted from a combination of regular fights between neighboring groups for resources and a growing need for labor. Furthermore, slave labor allowed the faster accumulation of wealth and more effective development of civilization. Thus, while exploitation of labor is not necessarily captured in the nature of civilization, it allows faster progress for society’s development.

Therefore, in defining whether Ancient Egypt should be remembered as a great or exploitative civilization, this paper analyzed the available facts and determined that coerced labor provided services and goods for society. The economy of Egypt was not fully founded on the exploitation of labor and there were different levels and types of slavery. Furthermore, slavery was focused more on attracting and maintaining a workforce, which implies a limitation of rights but not their complete absence. Thus, remembering Ancient Egypt as a great civilization does not mean that it was not exploitative or that slavery in Ancient Egypt was less violent. However, the exploitation of labor in Egypt targeted the elimination of risks of starvation, homelessness, and other negative outcomes of an unstable economy.

Works Cited

Karev, Ella, and Seth Richardson. “Rethinking Slavery in the Ancient Near East.”The Ancient Near East Today, vol. 9, no. 10, 2021.

Zdziebłowski, Szymon. “Egyptologist: The Life of Slaves in Egypt Was Not as Hard as We Think.” Science in Poland, 2018. Web.

The Greek civilization is often considered to be one with one culture and political system, but in fact, this widespread belief is erroneous. Greece became united only in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, but only in a cultural sense (Periferakis and Paresoglou 1). The concept of a single Greek civilization arose during the time of the Romans, who called all the tribes in the west of the Balkan Peninsula Greeks; The Greeks themselves called their country Hellas and themselves Hellenes.

Ancient Greece did not have a single centralized political system and cultural values throughout its existence. Although attempts were made to establish a community, a significant unification of the then-dominant policies occurred during the wars with Persia (Rhodes 230). Athens and Sparta’s two most powerful policies were at the head of the now large but ununified Greek civilization. As a result of the mergers, two centers emerged, each unique and developed along a separate path. According to historical data, the Athenian part of the state was primarily responsible for developing and forming a democratic society (Rhodes 240). On the other hand, the Spartan part of civilization was based on the concept of brutal militarism and was considered an extremely conservative state (Rhodes 269). The rivalry between these two policies led to many years of civil wars.

Although, in the end, the democratic structure of civilization prevailed and gave Greece independence and some unity, the return to the old order of things was only superficial. Thus, none of the cultures can develop in isolation; there is an interchange between cultural communities and cultural layers. Together with the whole world, the modern state adopts traditions from different civilizations to varying degrees, so one cannot speak of unity.

Works Cited

Periferakis, Argyrios, and Nikolaos Paresoglou. “Lavrion from Ancient Greece to the Present Day: A Study of How an Ore Deposit Shaped History.” 15th International Congress of the Geological Society of Greece, 2019, Web.

Rhodes, P. J., editor. Athenian Democracy: Edinburgh Readings on the Ancient World. Edinburgh University Press, 2019.

The First Civilizations of North America

The first signs of development in Central America emerged in the second millennium with the emergence of Olmec culture, in swampy and hot lowlands along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, South of Veracruz. The Olmec civilization consisted of intensive cultivation besides the muddy riverbanks. The people at San Lorenzo and La Venta carved stones for monuments, tools, and ornaments.

They used rubber for manufacturing balls, footwear, and rubber bands. People at La Vanta built the largest earthen pyramid that was meant for ceremonial proposes. Olmec people structured an extensive trading network, carried on religious customs, and devised the first writing system in America (Davidson et al. 160). The Olmec were known as the first city builders who constructed unusually large plazas, and sculpted massive heads chiseled from basalt. They traded with the neighboring communities and built a relationship with them. The city had active palaces adorned with mural paintings that sheltered priests and warriors, marketplaces, schools for their siblings, and extensive suburbs for commoners (Davidson et al. 5).

Old Worlds, New Worlds (1400-1600)

In 1400, people in Europe concentrated on fish farming. The sailors from the west countries moved from the North and the West towards Iceland looking for fish. From the 1480s to the 1490s, remarkably few English people tried to move to the far West in search of fish and other resources. They were lucky to find plenty of codfish and tall trees that could be used for making smart mats in Cabot’s Iceland. By the 1550s, Cabot’s Iceland attracted 400 vessels and fishermen from England, Spain, Portugal, and France. This Iceland is presently known as St. John’s Newfoundland, and it severed as an informal Hub of the North Atlantic fisheries. In the 1450s, enormous changes occurred in Europe, which includes the use of technologies like shipbuilding, advances in the art of map reading, and the use of gunpowder.

Several things can be included in a movie if this chapter was to be put in the form of a film. However, the most intriguing thing I would include in this movie would be the migration process and the trade practiced by the ancient people. For instance, migration and trade brought about certain diseases in North America. The Eurasians were blamed by Americans to have brought diseases to society due to their involvement with animals. The Eurasians were known to adore agriculture and the domestication of animals. They adopted the idea of keeping animals, as it would help them in case a shortage of vegetables and other plants were noticed.

The domesticated animals could act as their meal. However, it reached a period when the Eurasians had to pay a high price for their idea of domestication, as they were prone to diseases like tuberculosis, however, in the end, they managed to build strong immune systems especially from childhood. However, these Native Americans had problems adapting to such lives, as they were not used to living with animals around them.

Therefore, they had to rethink and invent something that could help them save their population. Putting such a scenario in a movie would be appealing especially to show how the Eurasians managed to survive terrible diseases. Most characters will have to dress in ancient ways, use several languages that can define the Ice Age civilization. In the end, the movie should be in a position to portray the different migration movements made and the adaptations involved.

The first civilization of North America can be evidenced 15000 years ago (Davidson 40). This has been evidenced by the migration of some small groups of people who began migrating through the Bering Strait and connecting to Alaska via Siberia. This life span is critical in analyzing several incidents that happened chronologically. Several events show how the people of the Ice Age marveled around and influenced each other to adapt to different situations.

For example, the migration process suggests that the Asians were the first to move to the Northern Hemisphere. These people moved around different places searching for food and shelter, as there were no fixed homes at that time. Estimating the life span used by the author can help a reader understand how people managed to adopt fire for cooking and protection. Besides, the migration process allowed other people from different cultures to mingle and learn other values and norms that they eventually adopted. The idea of architecture can be attributed to several years of innovation and invention that finally yield the fruits of painting and art. Therefore, the life span used easily explains how one technology led to the next until the world became computerized.

This chapter is not hard to understand because the situations explained can be chronologically related. The tools used by people living in the 1896 era have been advanced by the current generation. For example, the issue of trading was done by the exchange of goods for goods. As civilization enhanced, money was invented, and people started to exchange goods with money. Also, the issue of money made things easier as one could give a reasonable estimate of money to the number of goods received. In the end, both parties gained. Understanding the history of civilization may be hard for a person who did not live in that era.

Some things cannot be traced currently as they vanished especially if they cannot be found in museums. Besides, a person who lived in that era could easily understand the history due to the involvement and participation incurred by that individual. For instance, the Mesoamericans who were found in the Northern Hemisphere are considered the first group of people to adopt civilization.

They intergraded into complex societies with different cultures, norms, and values depending on what one believed. This integration is what perpetuated the introduction of popular art and architecture that was made by the use of paint and wood respectively. Furthermore, agriculture encouraged to trade as people could plant different things and sell them to get non-food products. Such innovations can be understood well by people who lived in that era.

They have to strain understanding the activities that were going on during that time because it was necessary to learn to survive. Therefore, people would react differently to the history of civilization especially because the current civilization has been triggered by technological advancement. Initially, the people of the west managed to influence those of the south to adapt to agricultural modernization. The people in the arctic advanced with fishing, as it was the most preferred way of living to help them survive while those in the Great Plains and Great basin resulted in hunting and gathering. Therefore, considering these adaptations and relating them to the people in the current generation, it may be hard for those who have not been to the named places to understand the nature of survival those who lived in the ancient times underwent.

Works Cited

Davidson, James West, Brian DeLay, Christine Heyrman Leigh, Mark Lytle and Michael Stoff. U.S. A Narrative History, Volume 1: to 1865. NY, USA: Department of Education, McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012. Print.

Roman civilization or the Roman Empire existed for more than a thousand years in one form or another. Its political structure, religious structure, and territory often changed between 753 BC and 1453 AD, but it remained one of the most famous civilizations in history. This paper will describe the Roman civilization, some important moments in its history, and how it interacted with Islamic civilization.

Definition

Ancient Roman civilization was created on the Italian peninsula in the 8th century. It quickly grew its territory by using its military power and wealth. During its history, Roman civilization created many concepts and technologies that advanced the work of its government, artists, architects, writers, and how their society worked. Despite their use of warfare, they often incorporated elements of the conquered civilizations into the Roman way of life to make themselves stronger. Eventually, Rome became an empire and a series of long-lasting wars began to hurt the country.

Highlights

Some of the most important parts of Roman history are related to the changes in the Roman government. The first roman republic was created in 509 BC when Lucius Junius Brutus deposed the last king of Rome and created a system based on people who were elected every year to represent different regions of the country. Later this system was destroyed by Caesar in 1 BC after he made himself the first Emperor of Rome. In later years, Rome became a Christian civilization split into two empires with a very divided society. Their military power remained strong, however.

Roman Civilization and Islamic Civilization

Muslim civilization interacted with the Roman civilization by borrowing such elements as military experience, agricultural technology, and architectural advancements. Both civilizations were at war with each other in different periods with Constantinople being conquered in the 15 century. In these lands, the message of Islam has spread afterward. Also, the science of the Islamic civilization was translated into Latin.

Conclusion

Roman civilization has a long history. Its interactions with the Muslim civilization were very important for the creation of the modern world. Muslim science and the message of Islam began to be much more famous after these interactions.