Category: Civilization

Introduction

The reign of the Incas can be traced back to the 12th century when they established their Empire. The military prowess of the Empire’s rulers helped it grow into a large kingdom. The Empire maintained its unity partly because of the extensive network of roads and agricultural systems and the use of a single language and religion. When the Incas rose to power, they ruled a vast area on South America’s western coast from their base in what is now Peru. Atahualpa, the last of the Inca kings, was assassinated in 1533, ending the golden age of the Incan civilization. While Individual sacrifice was shared in the Incan religion, giving special status to the formation of stones, these religious beliefs of the Inca people influenced the architectural designs of Machu Pichu and the way of life for the Inca Nation.

Inca Gods

The Inca Empire believed in various gods and revered various deities and sacred dwellings. Viracocha was responsible for the creation of the moon, the sun, and the stars. The Inca empire also believed the sun was Viracocha’s most loyal and devoted follower’ (Kleiner, 2020). In addition, the Inca respected the sun, viewing it as their savior in times of need, and the founder of the Inca state. The moon was the sun’s wife, and the populace believed that a mountain lion or a giant snake was attempting to devour her whenever she was eclipsed.

Viracocha had given each of the star groups a set of responsibilities. Viracocha was the god of the Incas and their predecessors, as well as the god of pre-Inca civilizations (Kleiner, 2020). Viracocha underwent several transformations throughout his life, often with grotesque or humorous effects. He created humans, destroyed them, and then remade them from stone, scattering humanity in all four ways. He was also revered as a cultural icon who disseminated a wealth of knowledge. From the Ecuadorian coasts, he traveled far and wide till he arrived at the Pacific Ocean; some believe he did it in a boat made of his cloak, while others claim that he could walk on water (Kleiner, 2016c). Thunder, the god of weather, was another important deity in ancient times. With one hand, he held the sling, and the other, the battle club, and was depicted like this: From his sling, he summoned lightning and thunder.

The sun god, Inti, was revered by the Incas as the supreme deity. Sapa Inca’s father was Inti, and it was Inti who taught Sapa Inca about the universe and bestowed upon him its consecration. For centuries, June 24th marked Inti Raymi, one of the world’s most important sun celebrations (Kleiner, 2020). Since Inti is believed to have been the progenitor of the Sapa Inca lineage, it is believed that Inti was an extremely elite group. The Incas built magnificent temples to honor Inti at strategic locations. One of the most significant temples was in the Cusco slum, Coricancha. The first-class residents of Cusco could only access this sanctuary. Priests also offered sacrifices and kept watch over the temples. Priestesses known as Aclla prepared meals for the gods and crafted the best robes for the Sapa Inca, who sacrificed the most exquisite offerings (Kleiner, 2016f). Similarly, they built other Ushnu sanctuaries, the most important of which is Aucaypata, located in what is now the city’s central square.

The Inca inhabitants had the belief that each type of plant possessed a protective soul known as ideas. Canopus was the best of the crop that had been saved for the gods and unusually given to them. They believed that by offering it to the gods, they might increase the harvests of their future crops (George, 2021). Dallas is a name given to the defending spirit of domestic animals. With the hope of continuing reproduction, Illas were depicted as being smaller than the typical stone creature depicted in popular culture.

How Religion Shaped the Layout of Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu’s layout was molded by the assumption that the Incas utilized the site as a hidden ceremonial city. Machu Picchu exemplifies the Inca tradition of designing buildings to fit their surroundings. Stone bulwarks were used to create terraces on the slopes of the ridges. Aside from that, buildings were designed to fit in with their environment (Kleiner,2020). The city blends well with the surrounding environment instead of competing with or outshining what is already present. It is a beautiful thing when nature and ingenuity are brought together in harmony.

In addition, Machu Picchu serves as a reminder of the indigenous people’s way of life. The ancient city may be considered the crowning achievement of the Incan civilization and a source of profound identity. Specifically, the Incas are responsible for the indigenous people’s manner of life and accent today. Machu Picchu is undeniably the place of origin for these individuals. A resident expressed her concerns about the condition of the remains. This region has been regarded as sacred since the days of ancient civilization (George, 2021). The watchman spirits do not need people who pollute the land. The historic city of Machu Picchu was built there by the gods.

Comparison of the Inca and Aztec Religious Beliefs

Similarities

There were many gods to worship in the Aztec and Inca religions. An important figure in Aztec mythology is the goddess Omeciuatl, who is said to have given birth to a piece of obsidian that, upon falling to the ground, shattered into 1600 gods (Schnapp, 2022). They centered their gods on Initi, who was accompanied by Illapa, a thunderbolt-wielding god, and Viracocha, a god who raised mountains and made laws for the people to follow. Viracocha carved the first men from stone and buried them deep underground, where they would emerge from crevices, lakes, and rivers to populate the planet with life.

People of the Aztec and Inca faiths held an afterlife belief system. Schnapp (2022) noted that the Aztecs and the Incas believed that people continued to exist after death and developed rituals to pay tribute to their ancestors who had passed on. Pre-victory Incas maintained important kings and progenitors and kept them around in their dwelling arrangements or hollows, considered paths between universes. The Aztecs divided the black market into several levels, and a spirit would arrive in one based on its destiny and profession at death. Rulers were sometimes buried in pyramids with valuable items from the real world and real dogs or statues of real dogs to help them explore the afterlife.

Human sacrifices were made in Aztec and Inca rites as offerings for the deity’s help. Archeological evidence in Teotihuacan, Mexico, showed that the bodies of more than 100 Aztec soldiers were buried under the buildings of the Quetzalcoatl temple, likely as guards to protect the temple. Traditionally, Aztec clerics executed repentant victims by extracting their thudding hearts from sacred sanctuaries or stages erected atop pyramids (Schnapp, 2022). The sun god was considered the most important deity in the Inca religion. Some archeologists speculate that children’s penances were performed to appease the volcanic mountains, which may have been seen as gods in their own right.

Differences

The Aztecs believed that appeasing their sun god and their “lord of the shadows” required the sacrifice of a large number of people. Tenochtitlan, the Mexican city where Cortez lived, looked like decaying tissue because of the prevalence of malaria. According to Aztec records, a mass forfeiture of 88,000 people lasted for four days and nights (Kleiner, 2020). The Incan religion was similar to the Aztec religion since they had confidence in gods with similar names. Still, the Incans did not think it was necessary to sacrifice human beings yearly. Their religion could be described as peaceful, in contrast to the ferocious religion of the Aztecs. Furthermore, the Incas revered their lord as a deity, but the Aztecs revered their king as a dedicated priest.

Conclusion

The Inca civilization practiced religion in the Andean South American continent. Complex rituals, including animistic beliefs, belief in magical artifacts of various kinds, and nature worship culminated in the Incas’ adoration of the sun, over which they presided. The pre-Inca peoples’ substrata religious beliefs and practices had an impact on the Andean region. Machu Picchu shows the Inca habit of developing constructions that match their surroundings. Both the Aztec and Inca people believed in numerous gods. They offered human sacrifices in their religious ceremonies and believed in life after death. However, the two religions differed in how they performed their ceremonies.

References

George, J. J. (2021). Visual culture and indigenous agency in the Early Americas. Brill.

Kleiner, F. S. (2020). Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Volumes I and II (16th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Kleiner, F. S. (2016). Gardner’s art through the ages, book C: Non-Western Art to 1300, (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Kleiner, F. S. (2016). Gardner’s art through the ages, book F: Non-Western Art to 1300, (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Schnapp, A. (2022). European Antiquarianism and the Americas. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. Web.

The peculiar feature of Cahill’s book, How the Irish Saved Civilization, is the necessity to be read and understood in a particular context. The author describes the period of the European changes and religious improvements based on the Irish monastic movement and its spread in Europe through to the ideas of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages.

The book under analysis informs the reader about how the Irish intentions to migrate but never forget the power of knowledge and the role of books in their lives saved civilization and brought love to learning and reading the sources that described the importance of the monastic movement and its relation to the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages was an influential period in terms of the religious interventions and the development of the impact of the Catholic Church. Ireland is a unique country where Christianity was introduced and developed without bloodshed and conflicts because no martyrs were on the land (Cahill, 1996).

The development of monasticism was one of the brightest moments in the Middle Ages. The life of Saint Patrick, his contributions, and his followers turn out to be the core of the book under consideration as well as the development of Christianity. Besides, this person plays a crucial role in the establishment of the institutions of the Irish monasteries and the explanation of the importance of the monastic movement in regards to the Catholic Church.

The Irish were eager to abandon their past beliefs and accept the ideas of Christianity and monasticism, “a movement which, though it could support and even nurture oddity and eccentricity, subjected such tendencies to a social contrast” (Cahill, 1996, p. 155).

The spread of monasticism was quick and gained recognition in Ireland due to the absence of serious competitors and alternatives. “Since Ireland had no cities, these monastic establishments grew rapidly into the first population centers, hubs of unprecedented prosperity, art, and learning” (Cahill, 1996, p. 155). It was also hard to criticize the activities of monasteries because people knew little about the possible power and impact of religion on their lives, and the representatives of the monastic movement used books and experience to prove their appropriateness and worth.

In Ireland, there was one local church that took a certain place in the lives of all Irish people. As soon as Christianity was introduced in the church, people had nothing to do but believe in the power of this religion and accept it with all its strengths and weaknesses. People brought everything possible to their libraries they could find about Christianity. It was also necessary to build special places, where monks could spend their time and learn other people about the power of a new belief. Some monasteries were built for the representatives of the monastic movement where they could talk to God and develop their ideas. People were eager to support new ideas, and they explained their generosity as an outcome of being unconcerned about monastic practice.

At the same time, the Catholic Church turned out to be rather sensitive to the changes that were based on the development of the monastic movement. Though no conflict situation took place, some people were not ready to understand the essence of the changes and the importance of monasteries on their land. Human practice to accept any possible religion and beliefs was rather shocking for the representatives of the church, who were trained to underline the values of Christian beliefs.

Still, being sensitive and uncertain, the Catholic Church underwent considerable changes and improvements that were based on the ideas developed by the representatives of the monastic movement.

The monks began writing new texts, developed new rules and orders, explained the power of monasticism, and described the options people could get with a new movement. The Catholic Church was not ready to deal with new sources of information. The monks decided to share their knowledge and books that could be used for educational purposes. They decided to migrate to the European shores where several philosophers lived (Cahill, 1996).

To prove their rights for existence, the Irish took their books and provided Europe with a chance to use new knowledge. The Irish also introduced their love to the process of learning and their skills that could be used in the sphere of bookmaking (Cahill, 1996). Europe was eager to accept all those new ideas, and the Catholic Church represented in Ireland was saved from the interruptions and crucial corrections from the monastic movement.

In general, the relations between the monastic movement and the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages cannot be ignored. If all those misunderstandings, uncertainties, and concerns did not take place, the Irish could miss their chance to migrate to the European shores and save civilization with the help of their knowledge. In its turn, the Catholic Church became stronger in its beliefs and possible impact on human life.

Reference

Cahill, T. (1996). How the Irish saved civilization: The untold story of Ireland’s heroic role from the fall of Rome to the rise of Medieval Europe. New York, NY: Anchor.

Henry David Thoreau was a factory worker, essay writer and teacher before he was a writer. He was also a Transcendentalist and an active supporter of stopping slavery. Most of all, he had a passion for nature and the environment. It is his passion for nature and his Transcendentalist beliefs that can be seen most in his writing. Thoreau’s voluntary determination to live in a small self-built home in the wilderness, well away from all other people, illustrates his dedication to the Transcendental idea that possessions and concentration upon material wealth was nothing more than a distraction from the true process of living. His vision of a successful life, having actually following through on the suggestions he received from his inner self, was to remove himself from society in order to connect himself more solidly with nature, the source of all goodness and truth. His ultimate goal was to perhaps inspire others to follow in his footsteps at least as far as learning more about the inner self through a more intimate connection with outer nature. It was this stance that caused other writers such as William Cronan (1995) to claim that he was establishing a ‘dangerous duality’ in which humans are considered to be living apart from nature unless and until they go to the wilderness. However, Thoreau’s purpose was not this interpretation. Instead, he hoped to be the inspiration for others to follow their own inner guidance rather than the external prodding of the material culture. Within a chapter entitled “Solitude” in his book Walden, Thoreau addresses the issue by comparing his experience in the wilderness with the experience of ‘civilized’ living in terms of communication, companionship and engagement, all of which suggest the same kind of closer identification with the natural world in all areas of life that Cronon suggests.

The first concept involved in Thoreau’s consideration of the question of solitude could be considered the opposite of solitude in the form of communication. He begins this chapter of his book with a paragraph that highlights the deep sense of communication he gains with nature as he takes an evening stroll. The first sentence captures much of the essence of the rest of the paragraph when he says, “This is a delicious evening, when the whole body is one sense, and imbibes delight through every pore” (Thoreau 107). He goes on to describe the temperature as perfectly attuned to his own sense of correct feeling, the sounds of the bullfrogs and whippoorwills as just the right note for the moment and the breathless sympathy he feels for the falling leaves of the forest, “yet, like the lake, my serenity is rippled but not ruffled” (Thoreau 107). As the evening closes down, he gains a sense of the reaffirmation of life as the night hunters begin their prowl. Thus he gains a sense of himself by being in tune with the evening regardless of where he is. This idea is echoed in Cronon for much the same reason. “Remember the feelings of such moments, and you will know as well as I do that you were in the presence of something irreducibly nonhuman, something profoundly Other than yourself” (Cronon, 1995). This is contrasted against the more distant communication he shares with his fellow man, many of whom stop by while he’s out and leave behind some trace that they’ve been there, “either a bunch of flowers, or a wreath of evergreen, or a name in pencil on a yellow walnut leaf or a chip” (Thoreau 107), thus also expressing themselves through nature as well. Whether together in a room or having just missed each other at his small house, Thoreau illustrates the deep communication he can share with nature that is impossible to share with other members of his species who have no sensitivity for these things or connection to their own natural selves.

Given that the communication between himself and nature is so much more profound than that which he shares with most of mankind, it is unsurprising then that Thoreau launches into a discussion that addresses the human need for companionship. He begins this by quoting the statement he always hears, “I should think you would feel lonesome down there, and want to be nearer to folks” (Thoreau 110). To this type of observation, Thoreau points to the vast reaches of space that can exist between one person and another. “I have found that no exertion of the legs can bring two minds much nearer to one another” (Thoreau 110). The companionship Thoreau sees in the society of men is little more than a means of making life easier by living near to those amenities that one utilizes most such as the general store, the bar or the school. However, the fluctuations of these exterior things than become the distractions to the mind that prevent one from living a full life. “Can we not do without the society of our gossips a little while, under these circumstances – have our own thoughts to cheer us?” (Thoreau 111-112). While he can find a great deal of companionship in communing with the trees and the weather and the water of his home, he points out the various ways in which society forces one to move away from inner thoughts and knowledge in order to dwell simply on the surface of the soul. “Society is commonly too cheap. We meet at very short intervals, not having had time to acquire any new value for each other. We meet at meals three times a day, and give each other a new taste of that old musty cheese that we are” (Thoreau 113). Again, these concepts of companionship in nature is reinforced by Cronon throughout his essay, such as when he argues that nature was not always considered kind. “What Wordsworth described was nothing less than a religious experience, akin to that of the Old Testament prophets as they conversed with their wrathful God” (Cronon, 1995). Thus, both Cronon and Thoreau are seen to be encouraging a more natural and close connection to the inner self, using the elements of nature as a means of achieving it, in order to fully appreciate the full self as a natural being.

The proper measure of a man and how he spends his time, Thoreau says, is discovered in how engaged he is in the moment. He points this out by using the example of a farmer in his field. “The farmer can work alone in the field or the woods all day, hoeing or chopping, and not feel lonesome, because he is employed” (Thoreau 112). This kind of solitude is not seen as lonesome or sad because the farmer is happily and fully engaged in practicing his particular trade. The difference between himself as a scholar and the farmer according to Thoreau is that when the farmer comes home in the evening, he seeks the comfort of family because he is no longer otherwise engaged. “A man thinking or working is always alone, let him be where he will … [what the farmer does not realize is] that the student, though in the house, is still at work in his field, and chopping in his woods, as the farmer in his, and in turn seeks the recreation and society that the latter does, though it may be a more condensed form of it” (Thoreau 112-113). What Thoreau is trying to say is that the scholar may not be actively engaged in doing anything more physical than simply taking a solitary walk down the street, but all the while his mind is actively engaged in considering the thoughts of the moment. Like the wood that the farmer chops, these thoughts may provide no one but the scholar with any direct benefit, but the thinker is not any less engaged for that than the farmer is at his work. And while the farmer is limited by the weather, the time of day or the season, the thinker has no such limitations, being able to think at all temperatures, in all weather and in any season. His one limitation to this is when he finds himself in the company of other people who will expect him to join in conversation and be reasonably polite to his callers or to those he calls upon. This, too, is something the scholar does just as the farmer, in those times when he is not otherwise engaged in his work. This need to think, to be actively engaged fully in the moment, is the concept in Thoreau’s approach that Cronon misses in his argument.

Throughout his chapter, Thoreau points out that the most common concerns against the idea of solitude are a lack of communication with others, a lack of companionship and a lack of engagement with the world. He argues against these ideas by highlighting how they are not necessarily elements of the condition of solitude, not necessarily negative and sometimes necessary to reconnect with the natural creature that is the full human. As he discusses these ideas, he demonstrates how his communication with nature is actually much more fulfilling and intense than any of his communications with people because of people’s disconnection from the natural world. As far as companionship goes, Thoreau asks what it is that we find so valuable about companionship when it is so shallow. Society expects us to follow specific rules of discourse, following set patterns of manners and the give and take of conversation that frequently prevents him from understanding himself or thinking those thoughts that help him connect with himself. The final accusation leveled against solitude is the concept that solitude for the thinking man equates with loneliness. Thoreau argues that this is not the case for him any more than it is the case for the farmer or the worker who is engaged in doing something that he loves. When he is busy at his work, the time flies by with no thought of a need for company regardless of the setting. Thus, Thoreau tries to explain to his audience not only why solitude is not the negative state most people seem to take it to be, but is instead necessary for a thinking man to achieve any sense of real connection and communion with the fully natural human. Instead of establishing the dangerous dualism Cronon accuses him of, Thoreau is arguing for the kind of deep connection Cronon urges between civilization and nature by encouraging changes in our conceptions of civilized thought.

Works Cited

Cronon, William. “The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature.” Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1995: 69-90.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1993.

A Sustainable World

Vision is the most critical step in a policy-making process. It is the only missing element not only in policy discussions but also in individual cultures as well. It is common to find individuals addressing their fears, frustrations and doubts than talking about their visions (Meadows 1).

In my view, a sustainable world is one, which is free from problems and one full of blessings. It is a world where use of non-renewable resources is used at a lower rate than they are generated; a world free from pollution, war, famine or poverty. In this sustainable world, every child born is wanted such that there will be no cases of homelessness. In such a world, every person is filled with love and there exists unity in diversity.

In such a world, everyone will become what he or she yearns to become in his or her lifetime. A sustainable world should be a beautiful and peaceful planet, which is culture tolerant and with untainted cynicism. In my vision, a world where there are no acts of terrorism and animosity to others is a sustainable one.

This sustainable world should embrace diversity, and consequently, everyone should be accepted for who they are. A sustainable world is one where food is accessible to everyone, and water is at every person’s reach. Living without fear and worries of terrorism attack, spreading of diseases or death due to diseases such as HIV and Aids are elements of a sustainable world.

I am strongly of the opinion that in a sustainable, all people should be disciplined. As a matter of fact, being disciplined will compel a person to do the right thing in the right manner. Mankind has destroyed the world due to being undisciplined: take, for instance, industrialists, they are aware of the obnoxious effects of the industrial emission, but they have to be forced to reduce such emissions.

Without any form of regulation, industrialists would fill the atmosphere with the industrial smoke. This self-centeredness is at the heart of destroying the world, and it is characteristic of all members across the board.

Innovative practices Expanded into a Global Sustainable model

Various strategies are required to attain a sustainable world. Diverse kinds of knowledge, talents, skills and work should be sorted. Other requirements would incorporate passing laws, making of budgets, hiring of qualified people, establishing and strategic management of organizations.

More so, inventions on technologies would be necessary. The main concept of the sustainable world implies the un-purchased quality. This would include passing laws, making of budgets and looking for resources. It entails protection of the human life and the quality of the biosphere, including living things, which share the planet and the ecological systems.

However, implementations of such values are often evaluated using models to explain the procedure of getting where we have got to and what is required to be done to get better. These models could be in form of computers, paper models or those installed in our heads.

They often seem complicated but are usually very simple. Meadows characterized such models as “narrow and too linear and also lacking in understanding of feedback, time lags, exponentially, variability, diversity and other aspects of real system complexity” (Meadows 1).

Other main ingredients for attaining sustainable world in the future include acquiring the relevant information about the practice. Information facilitates validation and approval of models such that they can be developed and turned into action.

Information that is biased, delayed, incomplete, disorganized will lead to wrong models thus misinterpreted, consequently, leading to untimely implementation. Improved information will result to improved monitoring, organizing data, education and other communication to emphasize the vital ecological economics.

Faulty models will result to rejection of skillful and greatly funded implementation in the world to attain any sustainable world. More so, it has been claimed that environmental costs are high and they are likely to rise higher in the future if nothing is done.

The approaches should include consideration of prosperity per person and how technology can be harnessed appropriately. Previously, even the minor technologies such as eradication of malaria remained a complex issue.

To ensure that the innovative practices of today from a foundation upon which the world’s future will stand, there needs to be excellent infrastructure that can help these innovative ideas to be replicated on a wide scale. This can be accomplished through publicity, sponsorship of such innovative ideas and development of the ideas to make them more efficient and applicable on a wider scale.

Cradle to cradle and Ecological Intelligence Relevance

William McDonough is an architect who upholds sustained design. He was the first person to design a solar heated house in Ireland and some green buildings in the 1980s. His co-author of the Cradle to Cradle book was Michael Braungart a German chemist and a founder of EPEA (an organization devoted to the production of environmentally sound products).

The book offers designs where industrial technological advancement being centered on the concept of eco-effectiveness is upheld. The book designs advocate for less pollution, fewer waste of the natural resources and sustainable environmental management.

One of the important Cradle to Cradle concepts is that of waste equals food. The concept requests for production processes where energy by-products can be used as energy input for other products.

The concept emphasizes on the production of products, which can be recycled into other products of equal value to consumers when the product usefulness has been outlived instead of the current products which are irreconcilable. More so, the concept calls for the production of chemicals, which are harmless to human health and environment (Newman 7).

Another important Cradle to Cradle aspect is the respect to diversity. It is the engineer’s responsibilities to put into consideration the effects of designs in the environment. They should not become discouraged by diversity but rather should use them to their advantage to maximize energy utilization of the locally available resources. In the book, McDonough delineated the use of solar energy to heat and light buildings.

He gave an example of the Middle East wind towers which disperse water to houses. Another important aspect of respect to diversity design was that shown by Michael Braugart concerning treatment of the sewerage system to provide clean water and fertilizers to farmers through transportation of sewerage waste products in the clay pipes to a storage tank, then through a series of ponds to do the filtering out (Newman 7).

Lastly, another adoptable Cradle to Cradle concept I found interesting was that of incorporation of engineering with materials which do exist or mimicking the closed-loop system of the natural world; and in using materials which are not hazardous to human health and those that strive for upstream pollution prevention.

This can be especially so by ensuring each material used in design, and construction is that of value added application (Newman 8).

My Responsibility towards Building a Sustainable World

Undoubtedly, having a vision is not enough. It is just the first step towards the achievement of a sustainable world. Even the greatest vision will be of no use without information and models that will lead to implementation. These are various difficulties in establishing a sustainable world. This does not imply that one should just become a visionary, no. What is being advocated is using the same vision for a safer world.

I am ready to take a social risk to display my deepest desires of establishing a peaceful and sustainable, a safer, more secure and sufficient world. More so, I will let disappointments to be my learning experiences rather than reasons for pessimism.

I will also strengthen myself to endure pain caused by the daily world we are not anticipating to have and the world, I profoundly long for. It is only by agreeing, permitting and carrying the pain that can help us transform the world gradually closer to a sustainable world of my deepest values and dearest visions and away from suffering and non-sustainability.

Making the world a better place should be a collective responsibility. Every individual has a responsibility towards ensuring that his or her time on earth makes a positive contribution towards. However, due to ignorance, many people fail to recognize the fact that individual actions make a huge contribution towards making the world a better place.

I purpose to educate my friends and all those with whom I interact with that being a good neighbor has a huge impact on the changing the world. By being a good neighbor, I will explain to my friends that it includes being responsible for the welfare of one’s neighbors and taking care of them.

I know this might not be that easy in this world, which is increasingly becoming individualistic but even so I have a firm belief that I make many disciples towards this movement of being good neighbors to others.

Works Cited

Meadows, Donella. “Envisioning a sustainable world: Third Biennial meeting of the international society for ecological economics.” Sustainer, 1994. Web.

Newman, Adam. “An evaluation of cradle for cradle design as a solution to the Chinese environmental crisis SPEA honors paper series.” School of Public and Environmental Affairs, 2007. Web.

Introduction

The interdependence of nature, society, capitalism, and technology is an issue widely discussed by philosophers, environmental professionals, economists, historians, and political scientists. The problem of influence between Nature and Society, Capitalism and Technology is interdimensional; to understand this connection, its influence on the development of the modern world and crises that occur in it, a closer look at the historical development of these concepts is necessary.

As Moore (2015a) notices, the Cartesian binary cannot be used to explain the modern place of capitalism in human history and society. Instead, environment (Nature) should be perceived as the equal actor, or, even more, as the matrix within which the civilizations unfold (Moore, 2015a: 36). I aim to understand how the interactions of these concepts shape the modern world and the development of civilizations in historical perspective. Each of the concepts will be examined with regard to the other and the human history to pinpoint how their interaction was recorded by historical evidence and how human civilization changed and transformed due to these interactions. Nature, society, technology, and capitalism together create a delicate but complex web through which the civilization develops.

Nature/Society Dualism

The concept of nature has been changing throughout the history. In Cartesian Dualism, it is seen as the ultimate source that Society can use; Werlhof (1988: 96) points out that this concept is determined by economics only, whereas nature is perceived by the rulers as everything that, in their opinion, should be free. White (1995: 28-29) points out that Nature can be perceived as a system of working elements (in his example, it is the Columbia and human labor that directly depend on each other). At the same time, he also points out that Nature and Society, or nature and human work, should not be seen as opposites, since some types of work that are often perceived unconnected to the nature are dependent on the natural processes such as river flows, snowing, raining, etc. (White, 1996: 182).

Thus, the concept of nature remains vague and can be divided into two polar definitions: nature as an outside force (without humanity) or as inside force (humanity is a part of it). Thus, the society can be perceived both as an exploiter or user of this force (as in Cartesian Dualism or Werlhof (1988)) or as a member of it, a part that cannot be separated from nature because it functions within its borders (matrix) (Moore, 2015a). From the Cartesian point of view, capitalism also emerged from nature and used it to build wealth, which also resulted in the exhaustion of resources and degradation of nature (Moore, 2015a: 5).

Moore (2015a: 6) also provides a contrary point of view that not so many of modern environmentalists support: humanity (i.e. society) should be perceived as the part of nature, and humanity, as well as the human organization, are natural forces, despite the environmentalists’ urge to deny it. Therefore, there is no real dualism between Nature and Society but, instead, “species make environments and environments make species” (Moore, 2015a: 7). A similar thought was expressed by Lewontin and Levins (1997: 96) who pointed out that environments and organisms cannot exist without each other.

The perception of nature as an object is a profitable one because it can be made cheap and exploited easily (Moore, 2015b: 1). If people are defined as nature, they, too, can be exploited, because they are overlooked by the dominants (whites, males, capitalists primarily from the first-world countries) (Werlhof, 1988: 99). Thus, capitalism arises from this perception of both natural and human resources (which are perceived as the same) as Cheap Nature: a resource that can be appropriated to advance labor productivity (Moore, 2015b: 1). It should also be noted that this dualism did not include all humans, and some of them were defined as less human than the others (as women, for example) (Moore, 2015b: 1).

The perception of nature as external force led to the particular expanses of it, and human populations (together with animals) were only used as tools of accumulation (Moore, 2015b: 1). The endless accumulation of capital that eventually resulted in the overproduction and overaccumulation, which led to a crisis in the capitalistic system, where there were too many commodities and too few customers, as Moore explains (Moore, 2015a: 91). Thus, the specific approach toward nature, the perception of it as a resource that could be exploited and that is not a part of the society led to the development of capitalism.

History of Capitalism

The capitalism’s ability to mark some of the humans as less human allowed it to use them as cheap labor, although this approach was fiercely revolted against at first (Moore, 2016: 7). Many people were considered less than human (women, people of color, Amerindian people). The concept of Cheap Nature, vastly exploited at the beginning of the rise of capitalism (approx. 1800), helped it to cheapen “the life and work of many humans and most non-human natures” (Moore, 2016: 8). Despite the capitalism’s aims to portray and exploit nature as an external force (e.g. as during the colonial period of the USA that started at the end of the 16th century), crises and golden ages are produced by humanity and other actors as parts of nature (within it) (Moore, 2016: 8-9).

Despite the fact that many historians view the Industrial Revolution (end of 18th century, approx. 1760 to 1840) as the beginning of capitalism, Moore (2016: 16-17) argues that the first shifts that would eventually lead to the Industrial Revolution were the deforestations that occurred across Europe in the 16th century. The difference was that the deforestation during the Medieval was much slower (12.000 hectares/12 years) compared to the 16th century (12.000 hectares/one year) (Moore, 2016: 16). If we look at capitalism outside the general historical frames, we will see that the revolution in the industry began not in the 18th but the 16th century, when coal production rose significantly (50.000 tons vs. 210.000) (Moore, 2016: 16).

The destruction and exploitation of natural resources (compared to societal needs) later expanded to human beings as well, who were used as tools for acceleration of production and accumulation (e.g. African slaves during colonization period, women as free workforce from the dawn of civilization until the 21st century, etc.). It appears to me that the rise of capitalism would not be possible without slavery since all European nations during the colonial period (and before it) used slaves as cheap (free even) labor to strengthen and continue their expansion (Ponting, 1991: 196-197). Still, such perception of human beings would not be possible if there was no dualism between Nature and Society.

Such dualism becomes the basis for exploitation and violence necessary for the expansion of capitalism. Still, it also seems that capitalism’s pursuit of continuous production is the main cause of its crisis – overproduction. The acceleration of capitalism and its transformation to its modern form as we know it possibly began with the Industrial Revolution but capitalism as a concept of the form of exploitation and accumulation was possible as soon as the first humans were enslaved and the natural resources were exploited.

The next shifts and crises in capitalism, including the “peak oil”, are also the causes of inability to perceive human organizations as actors within a specific matrix. The concept of Cheap Nature and its use in capitalism might lead to the issue of peak oil discussed by Grubb (2011: 7) and Heinberg (2016: 2), when overproduction of fossil fuel will gradually decline and, eventually, led to economic mayhem, as Heinberg (2016: 2) names it. However, the overproduction and overaccumulation of products (including oil) would not be possible without the machines and supporting tools the humanity uses. The emergence of capitalism in its early forms required supporting means to make the production more rapid and more efficient. Such a requirement resulted in the mechanization of labor that could reach new heights and peaks.

The automation of labor should not be perceived as a process that began recently, during the last several centuries. Instead, the human ability to use its own body as a labor tool can be perceived as the early sign of future labor automation (Mumford, 1934: 9). I believe that the technology is one of the main reasons why capitalism was able to expand and develop as quickly as it did, especially after the Industrial Revolution. The natural human limitations were not a severe barrier anymore as it was during the Medieval Ages and colonization period even, where the lacking technology was substituted by tens of thousands slaves who were used as the tools for expanding accumulation.

Technology and Technological Dependence

The technology and capitalism are interconnected because technology would not emerge without the capital’s needs to speed up production and capitalism would have another form (if any) if technology was not used as a supporting mean for human labor. As Mumford (1934: 16) notices, technology was able to transform the civilization in such a way that its tempo increased as soon as the concept of time (brought to humanity with the invention and popularization of clocks) was compared to money (“time is money” as noted by Franklin). The quickened tempo of the civilization demanded more energy, more energy demanded more labor, and labor could not be quickened without support – the machine.

The growing demand for technology resulted in the growing demand for resources that could support this technology, as in the example of warfare and increased consumption of iron: the growth of artillery arm led to growth in the consumption of iron (Mumford, 1934: 76). The steady development of technology and its domination over the life and work of humans brought advantages and disadvantages with it, depending on the beholder: it enhanced or replaced human labor, increased labor mobility, and reduced the cost of labor reproduction (Abramsky, 2007: 25). Although mechanization’s replacement of human labor is often perceived as an unintended result, the main role of mechanization was exactly in replacing labor with something more effective (Abramsky, 2007: 26).

The control over human labor could be disrupted by the individuals who performed it, while automatic mechanisms were not able to be rebellious (Abramsky, 2007: 26). Nevertheless, I think that the actual unintended consequence of automation is the human dependence on it. Today, it is difficult to estimate whether humanity controls machines or vice versa. As cliché as this statement may sound, our lives do depend on machines that measure out time, work, warn about health issues, fix those issues, and maintain the steady flow of our lives. They enable communication with other people, helping us control our daily tasks, providing us with valuable information, and so on. The constant flow of information provided by it leads to the faster spread of vital information, as well as technological anxiety (Kaul, 2013: 126).

The technological dependence becomes a more discussed and concerning issue in the modern capitalized world. What at first was seen as the possible support for hard human labor, transformed into a crucial part of everyday life of every human. The fast-paced progress resulted in the mechanization of human labor, society, and life itself. Furthermore, it had also enhanced the Nature/Society dualism, thus increasing the human assurance of domination over Nature (and those who are associated with it).

Still, as Moore (2015a) points out, Nature-as-oikeios is a matrix, within which the humanity and other actors operate. The technology was the tool of controlling and replacing labor at first, but it became an unchanging supporting actor later, a third part in the Human/Nature dualism, where it was not perceived as human and as a natural force either. Instead, it became a mitigating power between the two. It seems, however, that the capital values technology much more than human labor mostly because of its ability to be more productive and cost-efficient (Mumford, 1934: 216).

The technological dependence in the modern world is not an assumption or a warning; it is a matter of fact. Any disruptions in technologies can lead to minor and major crises, such as abruptions in communication, injuries, or even deaths. On the one hand, the Internet of Things allows its users to access specific objects remotely via the internet. On the other hand, the Internet of Things also provides the user with access to different kinds of data, including sensor networks, positioning technologies, and biometrics. The telemedicine uses audio and video technologies to inform, guide, and help patients with their health status and any health issues that arise. Any disruption (such as hacker attacks, misplaced information, errors in processing data, etc.) can lead to wrong decision-making in the clinical context and pose a danger to clients’ health.

However, the technological dependence became this crucial only during the last several decades, with the invention and spread on the Internet. It is believed that technological development (the Internet) and the emergence of renewable energies are the signs of the Third Industrial Revolution that will also “create thousands of new businesses and millions of jobs and lay the basis for a sustainable global economy in the 21st century” (Rifkin, 2012: 4055). The integration and interaction will define the world after this Revolution, and the hierarchical organization of economic power will also cease to exist, Rifkin (2012: 4056) argues. Still, the individual dependency on the technology and the Internet in particular raises questions whether capital will use such a dependency to enhance its control over workers. Social networks are already successfully used in recruitment, monitoring of employees’ activity, and as a decision factor for potential employment (Carpenter et al., 2012: 1336). Thus, social networks and online presence become the new control tools that determine the modern labor, its limitations, and risks.

On the other side, technology also leads to social inefficiency, as Mumford (1934: 275) points out. His point was that technological advancement and overall human intelligence are not directly linked, and technology does not specifically enhance it (Mumford, 1934: 274). Bojanova et al. (2014: 76) articulate this thought in a less delicate way: “laziness, bullying, stalking, stupidity, pornography, dirty tricks, and crime will continue, and those who practice them have new capacity to make life miserable for others”. As such, it appears that technology will become (or has already become) the capitalism’s support for overproduction, whereas it also allows capitalists enhance control over employees if necessary.

Thus, as Moore (2015a: 292) pinpoints, capitalism should not be perceived as a steady force that does not change within the human history and only reproduces itself continuously. With the emergence of new technologies (the Internet, Web 2.0, mobile services, renewable energy), capitalism also undergoes major shifts that do not stop it from expanding (and do not prevent any crises as well). All of the discussed concepts, such as Nature, Society, Technology, and Capitalism, should not be perceived as fragments but rather as parts of one major dimension within which they function. These concepts create a delicate web that shapes the modern world.

Works Cited

Abramsky, Kolya.“Energy and Labor in the World-Economy.” The Commoner, vol. 13, no. 2, 2007, pp. 23-43.

Bojanova, Irena, et al. “Imagineering an Internet of Anything.” Computer, vol. 47, no. 6, 2014, pp. 72-77.

Carpenter, Mason A., et al. “Social Network Research in Organizational Contexts: A Systematic Review of Methodological Issues and Choices.” Journal of Management, vol. 38, no. 4, 2012, pp. 1328-1361.

Grubb, Adam. “Peak Oil Primer.” resilience, 2011. Web.

Heinberg, Richard. “Is the Oil Industry Dying?” Pacific Standard. 2016. Web.

Kaul, Vineet. “Journalism in the Age of Digital Technology.” Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, vol. 3, no. 1, 2013, pp. 125-132.

Lewontin, Richard, and Richard Levins. “Organism and Environment.” Capitalism Nature Socialism, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 95-98.

Moore, Jason W. Capitalism in the Web of Life. Verso Books, 2015a.

——-. “Endless Accumulation, Endless (Unpaid) Work?” Occupied Times. 2015b. Web.

——-. “The Capitalocene, Part I: On the Nature and Origins of Our Ecological Crisis.” The Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. 44, no. 3, 2016, pp. 594-630.

Mumford, Lewis. Technics & Civilization. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1934.

Ponting, Clive. A Green History of the World. St. Martin’s Press, 1991.

Rifkin, Jeremy. “The Third Industrial Revolution: How The Internet, Green Electricity, and 3-D Printing Are Ushering in a Sustainable Era of Distributed Capitalism.” World Financial Review, vol. 1, no. 5, 2012, pp. 4052-4057.

Werlhof, Claudia. “On The Concept of Nature and Society in Capitalism,” Women: The Last Colony, edited by Maria Mies, Zed, 1988, pp. 96-112.

White, Richard. “‘Are You an Environmentalist or Do You Work for a Living?’: Work and Nature,” Uncommon Ground, edited by William Cronon, W.W. Norton, 1995, pp. 171-85.

——-. “Knowing Nature Through Labor,” The Organic Machine, edited by Richard White, Hill and Wang, 1996, pp. 3-29.

Socrates significantly influenced the development of Western civilization, the way of thinking, and cultural values. Socrates had an enormous influence on Platonic idealism, which changed the course of the intellectual development of Western thought; he laid the foundation for most Western philosophies. An ancient Greek philosopher became one of the founders of dialectics as a method of finding the truth. The great thinker founded the ideas about social behavior and ethical rules. Socrates laid the foundation for the concept of Western ideology that exists today.

Key Ideas

The main problem in studying the activities of the Greek philosopher is that he did not leave a written legacy. However, Socrates was undoubtedly interested in the issue of ethics and virtue, defining the meaning of human life in self-knowledge. Reflecting on the problems of good and evil, Socrates concluded that the highest good is knowledge, and evil is the refusal to study one’s nature (Plato 12). Finally, the philosopher recognized the unattainable nature of knowledge, the impossibility of fully understanding the truth.

Influence of Socrates on Platonic Idealism

Platonic idealism was formed after his long and fruitful association with Socrates. Plato argues that ideas alone encapsulate the true and essential nature of things in a way that physical form cannot (Evans 55). The doctrine of ideas is an integral part of Plato’s philosophy, which later gave the name to a whole trend of philosophical thought – idealism. His philosophical thought brings the meaning of the spiritual over the bodily, the internal over the external (Evans 54). Idealism gives rise to the anthropocentric conception of the Western world, which recognizes the highest value of a human and life.

Anthropocentrism as the Foundation of Western Philosophy

Socrates was the first ancient philosopher who proclaimed the problem of the meaning of human existence as the main one for philosophy. Previously, thinkers mainly wondered about the origin of the world. Socrates transferred this focus to the individual’s inner world and introduced the concept of anthropocentrism into philosophy (Smith 4). Subsequently, the resolution of the question of human destiny formed the basis of almost any Western philosophical movement.

Ethics Forming the Basis of Western Society

The ethical teaching of Socrates marked the beginning of the creation of universal norms of behavior, many of which people still follow. Socrates defined the concepts of evil and good, assuming the achievement of the goals of self-knowledge as the highest virtue. Pleasures are the basis of human motivation, they are available goods, and evils represent absolute suffering (Plato 20). Socratic philanthropy reflects the social approach that defines Western civilization.

Dialectics and the Art of Dialogue

Socrates became famous as one of the founders of dialectics in the sense of finding the truth through conversations and disputes. His dialectical debate method detects contradictions in the interlocutor’s reasoning (Moore 130). He was the first to see the distinctness and clarity of judgments as the main sign of their truth. In disputes, Socrates sought to prove the practicality and reasonableness of the world and a human. Socrates’ main contribution to the art of polemic was to change the content of the discussion. Leading questions have appeared in the rhetorical arsenal of arguments and counterarguments (Elder and Paul 70). The debate moved from heated skirmishes to elegant and witty performances.

General Contribution to Western Philosophy

Socrates enormously influenced the entire subsequent history of Western philosophical thought and managed to make an indelible impression on his students and contemporaries. After Socrates, philosophy began to be perceived as a doctrine of how to live correctly. The main focus of philosophical knowledge was human nature, the inner world, and the soul. Socrates directed the Western world on the path of self-reflection, proclaiming self-knowledge as the goal of life. The international character of Socratic thought lies in the desire for any human activity for reflection, the achievement of virtue, and the highest good.

Socrates creates a new ethical norm, in which the role of moral concepts is especially significant. The highest good as a decision is taken by the highest goal of society, to which all its members are subject. The moral and ethical standards laid down by Socrates became the basis for the principles that guide people today. The most significant merit of Socrates was the improvement of dialogue as the primary method of reaching the truth. The famous Socratic irony is fundamental, revealing the most unexpected, often paradoxical semantic aspects of the topic under discussion. The art of dialogue, founded by Socrates, is highly valued in Western culture. The image of Socrates appeared as a beautiful example of the independence and honesty of a thinker who devoted his life to the tireless search for the truth.

Conclusion

The influence of the philosophy of Socrates on Western philosophy and the development of civilization cannot be overestimated. Due to the ancient thinker, an ethical code and moral rules of the Western world were created. Socrates extolled the art of dialogue, which throughout the development of the entire Western culture, was considered the highest form of the art of human communication. The philosopher changed the course of all Western philosophy, introducing the value of human life and the highest human good of self-knowledge.

Works Cited

Elder, Linda, and Paul, Richard. The Thinker’s Guide to Socratic Questioning. Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2019.

Evans, C. Stephen. A History of Western Philosophy: From the Pre-Socratics to Postmodernism. InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Moore, Christopher (Ed). Brill’s Companion to the Reception of Socrates. Netherlands, Brill, 2019.

Plato. Apology. Digireads.com Publishing, 2021.

Smith, Nikolas, D. (Ed.) Knowledge in Ancient Philosophy. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021.

Introduction

Kevin Reilly is the author of the text “The Sadler Report of the House of Commons” in the book “World Civilization”. The end of the 18th century is a period known as an Industrial Revolution which began in England with the use of coal, steam, and iron as areas of change, the enlightenment ideas, improvements on food production, a rapid rise in population, and increasing demand for cotton textile and iron. The industrial revolution in the second tier came with the advancement in technologies hence improved lifestyle and leisure activities. The accompanying factors of consumption and utilization of resources had an impact on the change of people’s activities and utilization of human labor.

Imperialism spread western culture around the globe, but most significantly for the Europeans. The extraction of raw materials and new work markets allowed reliance not only on necessities but on luxuries as well. It had a direct impact on the utilization of global resources hence large-scale resource depletion. The cohesive nature of both industrialization and imperialism served to develop a consumer culture for westerners during this period. Imperialism and industrialization made goods less expensive because of mass production, cheap labor, and easily obtained raw materials.

Analysis

Children worked at blanket factories at a young age (8 years) and for long hours, from six in the morning till eight at night with an only one-hour break at noon. This meant that there was no time to set aside for breakfast and refreshment or rest. When the business was at risk, the children worked from five in the morning till nine at night (16 hours). During those long hours of labor, one could not be able to be punctual at work. It was difficult to wake up early unless literally woke up or lifted out of bed, sometimes asleep, my parents. At work, there were consequences for being late. The beating was a common thing, and most of the workers thought that it was severe indeed.

The long working hours had a significant effect on the health of the workers. The workers literally slept while walking home from work, and it led to the loss of appetite and even if one could eat the food, it could not stay, but eventually, he could vomit it out.

Children got employment as pinecones, which is very laborious employment, especially for children. This was mainly because piecing involved a lot of running to and from, and being on the toe the whole day. The speed of the machines was calculated so as to demand the utmost exertions of a child. This made it difficult for them to keep up with their work.

In the latter part of the day, children, as they got fatigued, could not keep up with the machinery. The consequences could be that they got eaten up hence offering success motivation. The children admitted that they believed that if it was not for the beating during the circumstances, they could not get through the job.

The beating also happened sometimes in the morning when the children were exceedingly drowsy and had not got rid of the fatigue of the day before. The beating was so severe as to break ahead or knock them down. It even became a general thing. This was better compared to other mills where it was a real chasteness that one could hardly be in a mill without hearing constant crying. This was inhuman and abusive to their physical and emotional wellbeing.

After work the children never got time to receive instructions from their parents, instead, they went to bed immediately with little supper they were offered. This had a direct impact on the health, growth, and development of the individuals. Their wage was three shillings per week and half a penny a day when they worked long hours past the normal periods. The compensation was never enough for any development. The children sometimes carried their food to the mill, but most times it got covered by flues from the wool thus spoiling the food. At the same time the over-labor lost their appetite and could not eat well when they got home.

The piecing made their hands bleed, and the skin completely rubbed off making them bleed. This happened every day. The prominent part of the hand was affected but, unfortunately, the work could not be done by the back of the hand otherwise they could have made use of it (Reilly, 1992).

Conclusion

This text indirectly shows a correlation between industrialization and imperialism. Imperialism means that raw materials could be obtained for reduced prices, as well as cheap labor. This provides the reason for the industrialization to look at the achievements of imperialism. Imperialism meant more trade with other countries- more trade meant more money- more money meant that there was more money to invest in industrialization. Industrialization also meant that new markets had to be found where their commodities could be sold, hence imperialism. Child labor was preferred in the mills and textile industries because it was cheap (Reilly, 1992).

Reference

Reilly, K. (1992). “The Sadler Report of the House of Commons”, World Civilizations.New York: St.Martins Press.

The term ‘Civilization’ has many connotations. Different cultures have differing view of what constitutes civilization. Henry Smith Williams, eminent doctor, lawyer and historian through his article titled Civilization written in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910 and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, lawyer, social activist, philosopher writing in his book Hind Swaraj, or Indian Home Rule, 1909 offer two strikingly contrasting views, which in parts; have some similarities as to what civilization means. Henry Smith Williams (1863-1943) was a typical enlightened intellectual of his times. A practicing doctor in New York, Williams believed in scientific reasoning and utilitarian principles of life and hence all his writings have slant towards explaining issues in a simple, practical and pragmatic manner. MK Gandhi (1869-1948) was a world figure born in India, who practiced as a lawyer in South Africa and later returned to India to lead a freedom struggle. Gandhi pioneered the concept of satyagraha or the peaceful protest movement. Gandhi’s’ lifelong beliefs in Ahimsa or non-violence, his version of humanism that emphasized the dignity of man that included a moral code and duty towards his nation, society and man in general were instrumental in capitulating him to World wide renown. This essay examines the nuances of ‘Civilization’ as understood and explained by the two luminaries with a view to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of the term.

Williams approaches the issue through an analytical Western treatment of the term that comes natural to the person’s nationality, upbringing and education. Gandhi’s approach is more syncretistic and nuanced owing to his Eastern origins, life experiences and adherence to a different philosophy of life that eschews materialism. According to Williams the word ‘civilization’ is a derivative of the Latin civis, a citizen, and civilis, pertaining to a citizen¹. Williams proceeds by giving an etymological treatment to the concept of civilization linking it to human progress where man developed system of writings and technological advancement. Gandhi on the other hand, describes civilization as a state of things wherein its “true test lies in the fact that people living in it make bodily welfare the object of life” ² and that such actions should lead to promote bodily happiness. The subtle difference is that while William’s emphasis is on the material aspects of civilization, Gandhi’s is steeped towards humanism.

Williams offers the western outlook of the various ages of man and uses the term ‘savages’ that reflects an unconscious sentiment of superiority in stating that ‘savages’ are savage because they had not developed into civilized races of today. Gandhi castigates this tendency by observing that Westerners consider other people to have become civilized out of savagery only when they adopt European clothing³ , thus pointing to obvious racial overtones. Williams assumes that elaborate system of writings evolved approximately six thousand years before the Christian era⁴ and that period could be termed as the first or lowest status of civilization. Here Williams draws a distinction to accept that ‘localized civilizations’ of the Egyptians, Sumerians, Babylonians and the Hittites grew while completely missing out the Indus Valley Civilization that predates all these civilizations probably due to his ignorance of the Indian Subcontinent. In Williams world view, technological advancements such as the invention of gunpowder, mariner’s compass and the printing press added further impetus to the process of civilizing human society. Gandhi derides such an explanation by stating that “now it is possible to take away thousands of lives by one man working behind a gun from a hill. This is civilization?⁵ Here Gandhi is asking the rhetorical question whether such a (mis)use of knowledge which brings death and destruction can be termed as acts of civilized people.

The industrial revolution heralded in by the invention of the Steam engine, the spinning jenny and the works of Darwin, Lamarck⁶ set the stage for the newest period of civilization. Williams betrays his mechanistic perceptions about mentality that he likens as “a reaction to the influences of the environment”⁷. Such a simple determinism yet again shows a mindset given to simplistic analytical reasoning that eschews the subtle nuances of human philosophies more attuned to syncretism, an approach quite clearly evident in Gandhi’s approach to civilization. Gandhi emphasizes that “Civilization is that mode of conduct which points out to man the path of duty”⁸. Thus by extension, civilization is nothing but morality and good conduct and the physical constructs so dear to Williams are just trappings that adorn the real intent of civilization.

Williams’ analysis admits that localized civilizations benefited as long as they intermingled with other developing civilizations that enriched their knowledge base and declined when they became insular. Gandhi on the other hand holds that Indian civilization with its emphasis on morality and good conduct “has nothing to learn from anybody else” and that India has evolved not “to be beaten in the world”⁹. Having studied the aspects of civilization by other experts, Williams then offers his original nine stages of civilizational development ¹⁰ that covers three periods of savagery, three periods of barbarism and three periods of civilization of which the Upper period of his times , he concluded was drawing to an end. All through his treatise, the common thread is that technology and man’s ability to use it in relation to nature has been the key driver for the advancement of civilization. Gandhi on the other hand implies that Indian civilization was imperishable and that “nothing can equal the seeds sown by our ancestors¹¹” because of the Indian philosophy of seeing “happiness as largely a mental condition”¹².

Williams then adds the issue of ‘citizenship’ and ‘patriotism’ as aspects of higher evolution of civilization. Gandhi’s view on the system of governance is pointed to “performance of duty and observance of morality¹³” that can ensure good governance rather than at the western constructs of what constitutes governments. William’s ‘White man’s colonial ruler superiority’ comes though quite starkly when he states that “When the oriental civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted as the natural order of things”¹⁴. By implication the ongoing British colonial rule and the treatment of the colonies as slaves, serfs and sub-humans was more civilized than those ‘Orientals’ who were ‘despotic’. Gandhi on the other hand likens western civilization as a “Black Age” that is “eating into the vitals of the English nation” ¹⁵. Later in his exposition, Williams grudgingly admits the existence of gigantic civilization of the East which in self-defense had managed to absorb the essential practicalities of the western civilization within a single generation¹⁶.

Civilization also required a rationalistic view of the world where the word “Supernatural involves a contradiction of terms and has in fact no meaning”¹⁷. Williams thus brushes aside the vast body of philosophical and religious work that forms an integral part of human civilization. Gandhi points to the facile western perceptions of what constitutes civilization by stating that “this civilization takes note neither of morality nor of religion. Its votaries calmly state that their business is not to teach religion”¹⁸. Williams then wonders that the ‘air-ship’ may give a new impetus to human civilization¹⁹ that would change the insularity of nationalism to the broad view of cosmopolitanism. Gandhi takes a rhetorical view of the advantages of airship²⁰ travel and wonders whether such advancements really qualify as aspects of attaining civilization. Gandhi’s emphasis is that such a civilization is irreligion that is making people in Europe half mad and is on a path to self-destruction²¹.

William’s future of civilization then acquires idealistic hues when he ponders that cosmopolitanism may make the humankind forswear war and weapons of war and a form of enlightened eugenics where “survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to be a menace to the progress of civilization” ²² will come into force. This is an extremely provocative line of warped reasoning, quite reminiscent of the ‘Superman’ of Friedrich Nietzsche or the ‘Aryan Super Race’ of the Nazis that came to follow. Williams then admirably dreams of strife being resolved without “reference to national boundaries”²³. Here Williams comes very close to the ideals of Postnationalism and Universalism. Williams thereafter believes that civilization will one day represent a single family and that the “interests of the entire human family are, in the last analysis, common interests”²⁴. Williams’ treatment thus acquires the hues of morality and good conduct that forms the main stay of Gandhi’s argument.

The writings of Williams and Gandhi are so divergent that it clearly points to the chasm in perceptions of a western mind and an eastern construct. William’s treatment is based on analytical, pragmatic materialism, while that of Gandhi is based on syncretistic humanism or all inclusive human behavior based of morality and duty. Williams’ development of the elements of civilization is based on quantifiable tangibles, while those of Gandhi are based on intangible ethereal principles of morality and good conduct. The writings of Williams are a reflection of the colonial era where the westerner’s superiority was considered as an apriori concept. In today’s’ world, William’s writings would have been roundly denounced as bigoted and ‘racist’, while those of Gandhi would have found acceptability in parts. Gandhi’s idealism is however, not completely correct as pragmatic policies are required for nation building and indeed civilization building, which is the strong point of William’s argument. William’s logical analysis is easier to comprehend than the philosophical musings of Gandhi. However, in the final analysis it can be said that both Williams and Gandhi have strong points in their arguments and a synthesis of both the views could possibly provide a more holistic explanation of what constitutes civilization.

Works Cited

Gandhi, M. (1909). Hind Swaraj, or Indian Home Rule. Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1946.

Williams, H. S. (1910). Civilization. In E. B. 11^th ed., HIST 1P99, essay sources (pp. 1-17).

Footnotes

Henry Smith Williams, “Civilization”. In E. B. 11^th ed.1910,HIST 1P99, essay sources:1

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, or Indian Home Rule, 1909 (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1946),105.

1. ibid, 105.
2. ibid, 5.
3. Gandhi, ibid, 106.
4. Williams, ibid, 7.
5. Ibid, 8.
6. Gandhi, ibid, 108.
7. Ibid, 108.
8. Williams, ibid, 9.
9. Gandhi, ibid, 108.
10. Gandhi, ibid, 108.
11. Gandhi, ibid, 108.
12. Williams, ibid, 10.
13. Gandhi, ibid, 107.
14. Williams, ibid, 12.
15. Ibid, 12.
16. Gandhi, ibid, 107.
17. Williams, ibid, 13.
18. Gandhi, ibid, 106.
19. Gandhi, ibid, 107.
20. Williams, ibid, 14.
21. Ibid, 15.
22. Williams, ibid, 15.

Epics are typically read and discussed in modern society because the reader cannot relive the epics of the traditional community and recognize notable heroes from the past and history. Utilizing the numerous themes and writing styles linked with epics can assist in comprehending the significance of traditional battles and how different heroes were portrayed in those traditional battles. The recognition of community heroes signifies the expansion of numerous cultures and traditions. These are traditions handed down from generation to generation. It is crucial to keep in mind the relevance of discovering essential resources, such as mapping traditions, to celebrate outstanding modern practices. People living in our period can gain knowledge and insight into how they relate to the expectations and conventions of societies due to the breadth of topics covered in epics. There is no denying that Homer’s Epics ‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’ contributed to Western civilization’s development and continue to be relevant in the modern world.

The Odyssey by Homer is undeniably one of the most influential works in the evolution of Western culture, and it continues to hold significance in today’s world. In addition, the protagonist becomes famous due to the personal traits, such as fearlessness and tenacity, that he possesses as depicted in the phrase “There will be killing till the score is paid.” (Just Great DataBase par 13). These attributes reflect the ethos of the society that existed in Ancient Greece. These stories provide a wonderful picture of the social system in ancient Greece, which eventually served as the foundation for the formation of democracies and significantly impacted the evolution of contemporary societies worldwide.

Cultural and moral affiliation and traditional influences are being intensified due to the ongoing globalization process of society and the expansion of global integration. In addition, some authors do not discount the potential of a collision of societies but talk optimistically about a prosperous and peaceful future. On the other hand, the culture of the ancient Greeks has been passed down from one civilization to the next, both locally and globally. According to Heath, ancient Greek culture plays a vital role in the evolution of humankind as a regional civilization (114). This civilization was constrained by territorial limits, including conquered and colonized regions. On the other hand, Ancient Greece is considered the first global civilization because it was in this part of the world that the concept of worldview was first conceived.

‘The Iliad’ and the Odyssey discuss events that occurred during and after the conclusion of the Trojan War. The tales that are told in Gochberg’s books are reflective of the historical context and the conflict that occurred during the Trojan war between the Greeks and the Trojans (Haywood and Sweeney 11). Achilles and Odyssey, two of Homer’s most notable characters, are the focus of Homer’s epic poems ‘The Odyssey’ and ‘The Iliad,’ respectively, which describe their courageous deeds. How the main character interacts with destiny is reflected in Sophocles’ writing (Hatab 135). These tales shed light on several aspects of ancient Greek life, including cultural, theological, and material pursuits; hence, we can better understand Greek society.

In Homer’s epic poem “The Iliad,” the Trojan prince is depicted as stealing the king’s wife, resulting in a conflict between two kingdoms. Menelaus, king of Achaea, and Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, Menelaus’ brother, are instrumental in bringing the other Greek kings together and convincing them to take part in the operation over Troy. “Without a sign, his sword the brave man draws, and asks no omen, but his country’s cause.” (Just Great DataBase par 18). This illustrates that Greeks have been at war with the Trojans for years, and the war was bearing no significance. They were unfazed by the fact that the gods were not on their side. Greeks and Trojans believe that victory is the only way to validate the power of a society and its military at the same time.

Homer accounts for the development of democracy in ancient Greece within his epics. In contrast to the monarchies of Byzantium and the United Kingdom, the power of kings was not unchecked. Homer portrays the monarchs in his stories as tribe elders who inherited authority and were subject to the exceptional attributes of their royal sons. Most of the king’s power is used in the war, even though it is criticized. In Homer’s epic poem ‘The Odyssey,’ Agamemnon holds the position of supreme commander of the Greek kings. On the other hand, Achilles is displeased with him due to his undesirable traits, which are only interested in making a profit from every transaction. A statement like this would be nearly impossible to make in a monarchy with absolute power and a rigidly structured hierarchy, which indicates evidence of the political nature of the interaction between the military wing and the people in Greek Culture.

Odysseus, who is the principal figure in the Odyssey, is the story’s hero. In Homer’s “The Odyssey,” Odysseus returns to Ithaca after defeating the Trojans. It occurs after the events of the story. Odysseus first tried to keep out of the brawl; however, after being detained, he banded together with his other traveling companions to restore order and return Elena to her husband. Odysseus, a brave and astute commander, overcomes all obstacles to secure victory for his men and then returns home to inform his people of the good news. Homer’s narrative of history gives light on how historical events continue to echo in the present day. In the twentieth century, the Greeks were the first to defeat communism and achieve independence. They eventually defeated the Italian army, and their victory significantly impacted the rest of World War II. The United States of America is yet another example of this phenomenon due to its engagement in many conflicts.

As a result, before the turn of the century, the United States Armed Forces were not directly involved in numerous wars raging in Afghanistan or elsewhere. Despite tremendous domestic and international opposition, the United States of America is attempting to establish hegemonic power over an increasing number of nations, following in the footsteps of ancient Greece. There are parallels between the perseverance of ancient Greek soldiers and the desire to make America great, pushing Americans to work hard in the face of adversity. Furthermore, Homer’s epics feature strong and autonomous female characters. Penelope, for example, resisted the suitors’ persuasion and concocted lies in the hope that her husband would return (Lesser 197). Pallas is another example of purposeful action since she uses her intelligence to free Ulysses by exchanging Hermes for her own liberty. Pallas sent Hermes away in exchange for Ulysses. Spouses were less likely to join the military and serve in combat conditions a century ago than they are now (Rasi 23). The women have to hold on to Penelope’s words of encouragement and the hope that their husbands will return home safely.

Plato’s dialogues echo the central issue of justice and bravery that Homer explores in his descriptions of his wants. Due to this, justice was one of the social norms that existed in Ancient Greece (Haarmann 171). If everyone deserves to be happy and treated fairly, how should society reform. Plato addresses the issue of an ideal system and the qualities that should characterize it in the dialogues that he writes. These qualities include wisdom, discernment, courage, and justice. These principles are mirrored in the organization of modern society, specifically, the aim to ensure that all community members are afforded equal rights and justice.

Plato’s school of thought attracted philosophers and thinkers worldwide due to its prominence in the worldwide community. These individuals all made significant contributions to the development of the Western world (Hamzani et al. 387). They explained why Greek culture had such a huge impact on the formation of Western civilization. Although many of these traits, including politics, democracy, and ethics, may be traced back to the early cultures of Asia and the Middle East, they were not fully developed until Ancient Greece.

Ancient Greece is undoubtedly the cradle of European civilization resulting from Hellenism which had the most significant impact on human evolution and profoundly affected cultures worldwide. Greece did not play a unique political role in the past, nor did it possess any natural characteristics that marked it apart from its neighbors. Similarly, Greece has no natural characteristics that distinguish it from its neighbors. Learning about ancient Greece requires possessing at least one of these items. On the other side, this is where cultural advances were so revolutionary that their impossibility was widely acknowledged for several years prior to their achievement.

The epics written by Homer are among the most remarkable pieces of literature that have ever been penned and have had a significant influence on the development of contemporary thought. Democracy in ancient Athens serves as a model for anybody concerned with the rights and liberties of citizens in the contemporary world regarding how Greek philosophers defined it and how it was established at the time (Rasi 24). In addition, no other form of government allows its people as much of a voice in administrating things as the democratic system.

In conclusion, Homer’s ‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’ offer readers a window into ancient Greece’s social, religious, and economic life. Ancient Greece is the earliest example of a fully global civilization. It is attributed to the country’s sophisticated view of the world. The epics written by Homer provide evidence of democracy in ancient Greece. Most of the time, the kings of Homer are revered elders of their tribes who were placed on the throne by their offspring. The cultural movement known as Hellenism, which originated in ancient Greece, had a significant impact on the history of numerous countries and regions across the globe. Learning how democracy was founded and developed in classical Athens by Greek thinkers will help people better grasp how to defend and expand the liberties enjoyed by present citizens.

Works Cited

Haarmann, H. “Is the Odyssey a Text Corpus of Pre-Greek Oral Literature? Searching for Themes of Early Maritime Narrative.” Zeitschrift Für Balkanologie, vol. 56, no. 2, 2020, pp. 167–184.

Hamzani, Dayang Nurhazieqa, et al. “A Historical Appraisal of Ethics and Civilization in Malaysia from Pre-Colonial to Post-Colonial Era.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, vol. 11, no. 12, 2021, pp. 382-391.

Hatab, Lawrence J. “Tragic Values in Homer and Sophocles.”Logoi and Muthoi: Further Essays in Greek Philosophy and Literature (2019): 135. Web.

Haywood, Jan, and Sweeney Mac Naoíse. Homer’s Iliad and the Trojan War: Dialogues on Tradition. Bloomsbury Academic, an Imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2018.

Heath, Malcolm. “Greek Literature.” Greece and Rome, vol. 66, no. 1, 2019, pp. 113–118.

Just Great DataBase. “The Iliad Quotes.”Just Great DataBase, Web.

Just Great DataBase. “The Odyssey Quotes.”Just Great DataBase, Web.

Lesser, Rachel H. “Female Ethics and Epic Rivalry: Helen in the Iliad and Penelope in the Odyssey.” American Journal of Philology, vol. 140, no. 2, 2019, pp. 189–226.

Rasi, Fathor. “The Modern World and the History: The Perspective of a Man.”Konfrontasi: Jurnal Kultural, Ekonomi Dan Perubahan Sosial 6.1 (2019): 22-31. Web.

The mystery of the Mayan civilization’s decline

In spite of the fact the Mayan civilization disappeared many centuries ago, the mystery of the sudden fall of the successful and developed civilization which cultural achievements are still examined and discussed as significant ones remains to be one of the most controversial questions in the history. The results of the researchers’ investigations support the idea that the Mayan civilization was highly developed in comparison with the other civilizations of that period of time.

The modern researchers still refer to investigating such cultural and religious achievements of the Maya as their calendar and ritual places as the sources of the special knowledge which is significant for the contemporary social life, culture and art. That is why the causes of the Mayan civilization’s decline are considered to be the most intriguing historical mystery.

The theories of climatic changes and population’s density

There are a lot of theories with the help of which historians and archeologists try to explain the fall of the Mayan civilization. Many researchers focus on various factors and determine such possible causes of the process as conflicts with the other civilizations, natural disasters and climatic changes, epidemic diseases and the fall of the ruling class. All these theories are supported by little evidence provided by the archeological researches.

It is possible to concentrate on two theories which determine climatic changes and the problem of the population’s density as the main causes for the Mayan civilization’s disappearance. In 1983, William Folan presented his version of the Mayan civilization’s decline which depended on the problem of climatic changes (Folan et al., 1983).

The archeologist’s idea was supported by Tom Abate who offered his discussion of the question with references to the hazardous climatic changes which made it almost impossible for the Maya to successfully adapt to the abrupt changes of the cool and warm climates (Abate, 1994). Moreover, the archeologists’ vision of the problem was based on the theory that the civilizations’ collapses in the Mesopotamian valley were also affected by the climatic changes (Sayre, 2012).

The next significant theory was developed by Billie Turner in 1976. The geographer examined the archeological data and concluded that the Mayan civilization disappeared when the population density at the territories occupied by the Maya reached its maximum point.

The process had the extreme meaning for the development of the civilization because the Maya began to suffer from the lack of the cultivable land, their cropping techniques were ineffective, and the progress in agriculture could not address the needs of the civilization anymore (Turner, 1976).

The reasons for the theory of population’s density as the cause for the Mayan civilization’s decline

Billie Turner’s theory which is based on the issue of the population density can be discussed as more appropriate for explaining the mystery of the Mayan civilization’s decline in comparison with the theory worked out by Folan and Abate because Turner examined the factual archeological data from the point of the correlation between the number of the Mayan population and the territories’ carrying capacity.

Moreover, the main principles of Turner’s theory can be discussed as independent for explaining the mystery of the Maya when Folan and Abate stated that their theory’s ideas can be discussed with references to the other influential factors as the aspects of the social and political development of the Mayan civilization. That is why Billie Turner’s theory which is based on the complex of geographical, agricultural, and social analysis is more appropriate for answering the problematic question.

References

Abate, T. (1994). Climate and the collapse of civilization. BioScience, 44(8), 516-519.

Folan, W.J., Gunn, J., Eaton, J.D., & Patch, R.W. (1983). Paleoclimatological patterning in Southern Mesoamerica. Journal of Field Archaeology, 10(4), 453-468.

Sayre, H. M. (2012). The humanities: Culture, continuity and change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Turner, B. L. (1976). Population density in the Classic Maya Lowlands: New evidence for old approaches. Geographical Review, 66(1), 73-82.