Society in recent days has come a long way from what it used to be. About 2000 years ago, there were clearly defined roles for every member of the family. Men were expected to fend for their families while wives stayed at home taking care of their children. There were very few professions to choose from and the cost of living was quite low. (Forbes, 2007)
Arguments for western civilization
Health
Western civilization has brought about a lot of changes in the fields of medicine. Centuries ago, it was impossible to treat a variety of diseases; adults and children died from illnesses that were not very difficult to handle. Operations were done crudely – without anesthesia, children were not immunized against preventable diseases and many conditions were left unchecked. A case in history is the Black plague of the twelfth century.
This plague started in the continent of Asia and then spread to other parts of the world including Europe. This plague killed close to eighty million people all over the world. Europe was particularly hit by this pandemic century after century until the eighteenth century.
This plague diminished their population size until the continent’s social structure was dramatically changed. But after western civilization, people who were born with certain conditions could get help. E.g. there are spectacles for those with eye problems, operations are less painful, common diseases like malaria, TB, measles can now be prevented or even treated. There are artificial limbs for those without legs and many other advances. These activities have all served to improve the quality of life today.
Communication
Back in the olden days, messages were transmitted through slow and unreliable forms. These included; messengers and direct meetings. This meant that people had to wait for long periods of time before they could receive feedback and message content was frequently distorted. Communication has been greatly improved through western civilization. The landmark was the printing press that was discovered in the great Renaissance.
This led to numerous volumes of books landing in the hands of many; also information was stored in a way that was fast and easily accessible. There were about fifteen million books that were printed during the Renaissance. Before that, there was the master punch which was in use in 3000 BC. Bars were imprinted with designs then they were used to stamp images onto templates. It took too long and messages were very difficult to convey.
But due to the giant leaps in technology, it is possible to convey messages to someone who is halfway across the world. The introduction of mobile phones allows people to interact even when they may not be able to meet. It is also easy to move from one corner of the world to another. Planes and other aircraft have made it quite easy. The advantage of this is that it is now possible to exchange ideas with someone who one would never have met if society hadn’t advanced. This means that people can conduct business internationally, ideas can be shared and global society is getting unified. (Forbes, 2007)
Nutrition
Western civilization has also brought about a number of changes in the field of nutrition. This is because new innovations have been created and food is now more diverse. Back in the ancient days, it was quite monotonous and people ate because they had to live. Sometimes, they did not pay attention to their body’s requirements and ate whatever they could find. In the I6th century, it was common to find people suffering from infections that had arisen from eating rotten meat.
This was especially so after feasts like Dudley’s feasts in 1575. This meant that these people suffered from nutritional deficiencies like marasmus, scurvy, goiter, etc. All this was due to misinformation on the subject of nutrition. With the advent of western civilization, people have realized what their bodies need and they now have the choice of living healthily through proper diets.
Roles in society
Western society has brought about a revolution in society’s role. Back in the ancient days, society had a very firm line regarding what members could or could not do. Women were considered homemakers and could no take part in some male-dominated activities like horse riding or politics. Even leaders were not elected as most of the systems were monarchies. People were ruled by kings and queens. These leaders were born into their roles and even if they oppressed their citizens or demonstrated their weaknesses, it was impossible to eliminate them. People had very little democracy and could not participate in decisions that affect their lives.
This led to a low-quality life and a lot of unhappiness. But thanks to western civilization, leaders are elected by the people. Those who do not perform are thrown out and replaced with more competent ones. It is also possible for women to venture into fields that previously male-dominated. It is not an uncommon sight to see ladies in top CEO jobs these days, presidents, engineers, and technicians. This means that members of society can exploit their God-given talent without fear of retribution and can achieve fulfillment in their lives.
Back in the Roman Empire during the middle ages, a monk called Thomas Aquinas wrote about 21 volumes about how women should be unsubordinated and that they were inferior. He was one of the most influential forces at that time and his ideas were shared by the majority. In medieval times, one could get punished for simply being a woman. This was common because most of them were accused of being witches.
Arguments against western civilization
These same changes that have occurred after civilization have also brought a lot of problems in society. These problems will be examined below;
Health
The flipside to western civilization is that there is some progress that has reduced people’s health. People have now become dependant on drugs even for the slightest ailment. This has lead to weakened immune systems and addiction. Surgeries have also been done unnecessarily thus endangering the lives of patients who were not even sick in the first place. This applies to cosmetic surgery. Some forms of treatment have been known to have very serious side effects. (Forbes, 2007)
Communication
Because it is possible to communicate with distant people at the comfort of one’s home, society has developed individualistic tendencies. This means that relationships have faded as human contact has now been minimized.
Convenient communication has increased the number of con artists and schemers who use these same technologies to extort. In the transport sector, accidents have increased and millions of people lose their lives as a result of either road or aeronautic accidents. Open paths of communication have made borders within countries blurred thus causing heavy interaction amongst people. This means that some communities that are small in number can easily get absorbed by others and they can therefore lose their sense of identity. People without a sense of identity have low self-worth and esteem. (Forbes, 2007)
Nutrition
Western civilization has introduced a lot of unhealthy foods to society. More than half the population of America is obese and there are numerous patients that suffer from nutrition-related illnesses. These include high blood pressure and diabetes. All these problems were nonexistent in the olden days. This was because foods were natural, low in cholesterol, and high in fiber. Fruits and vegetables were a common part of their diets and that was the reason why people in the ancient days live longer. Lifespan has dramatically reduced after western civilization.
Roles in society
Because society doesn’t have clearly set boundaries, it has become increasingly difficult to have strict morals. Society has disintegrated and the close family unit that has been responsible for holding society together has fallen apart. Children now have fewer role models and this has hampered their psychological growth. This is the reason why many of them are resulting to drugs or teenage sex to find self-worth as the family unit no longer provides that these days.
Conclusion
Western civilization has improved people’s lifestyles by making things convenient and easy to do. But at the same time, it has made people less humane and more focused on themselves. Moral fiber has deteriorated. In my view, western civilization is a wonderful thing but problems arise when it is taken to the extreme. (Forbes, 2007).
Reference
Forbes (2007): U.S. Workplace Not Family-Oriented. Web.
This paper seeks to establish better coherence and content matter on the subject of women empowerment, especially in the light of western civilization. Since the Greek and Roman era, women have come to occupy a secondary position to men, in caring for their households, rearing children, and making themselves useful in household chores. However, in the present context, it is noted that the creative outlets of women not only assist in finding outlets for their creative talents but also help in shaping and changing the course of society. Perhaps, one of the great women who have left a deep impression in human nursing care is Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War. Another great woman humanist is the Nobel Peace Prize laureate, beatified Saint Mother Teresa, who attained worldwide fame for her life dedicated to serving the poor and destitute. Feminine writers like Jane Austen, Daphne du Maurier, Virginia Woolf, Ayn Rand, and others, have also contributed to the intellectual renaissance of women and have carved a niche of their own in contributing significantly to great writings by women over time.
It is seen that women writers have often adopted gender identity rather than national identity. They have thus proved that gender identity is often more potent than national identities, especially when having to identify with developing a strong rapport with their women readers. The future augurs well for the females of the human species, with a greater role to play, in their respective chosen fields of human endeavor, not only in the terms of autonomy and self-determination but also in creating more opportunities for personal fulfillment and development and in the wider context, community service and nation-building for the common good of all people. This paper seeks to establish better coherence and content matter on the subject of women empowerment, especially in the light of western civilization. Since the Greek and Roman era, woman has come to occupy a position second to man, in caring for his household, rearing his children and making herself useful in household chores. However, the roles are now being redefined in the 21st century and modern women need to inculcate new values and postulates with the challenges of modern society. In her excellent book, “Women’s Work – The First 20,000 Years”, its author, Elizabeth Wayland Barber traces the evolution of women ‘s lives from ancient civilization, and traces the various factors ranging from artistic to religious that help to mould women’s lives and environments. The author shows that “women were a powerful economic force, in the ancient and early modern worlds – with their own industry, fabric.” (Barber, 1994).
Title: The evolving role of women in western society
Opening statement: The role of women in contemporaneous society has undergone sea changes, since the days of weaving, stitching and darning. It is now seen that the creative outlets of women not only assist in finding outlets for their creative talents, but also help in shaping the course of society. It is seen that over the years, the clothes produced by women have created and maintained social order, thus not only posing challenges to the society’s gender hierarchy, but also introducing sea changes in the perspective held erstwhile by society of women’s role as homemakers and careers of children. According to the book, “Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves” by Sarah B. Pomeroy, “The ancient Greek Goddess, Athena, is significant because she presides over crafts, which at that time, for women, were mainly spinning and weaving. According to this mythology, a woman’s skill in the areas of fabric-making is attributable to the Goddess Athena.” (“Goddesses, whores, wives, and slaves”, 2009, para.2). Although it is true that the primary and predominant role of women have been to look after the children and the household, it is also necessary that they also need to indulge in primarily creative work in order to carve a niche of their own in a male dominated society.
Saga of Florence Nightingale, the lady with the lamp
Perhaps one of the great women who have left a deep impression in human nursing care is Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War.
Her “many accomplishments in improving health–decreasing the death rate in the Crimea, pioneering evaluative statistics, establishing the first secular nursing school, and improving sanitation in Great Britain” have raised her status from a nurse to that of “mystic, theorist, researcher, teacher, author, leader, activist, and visionary.” (Hensel, 2006, para.5).
Today’s nurses could truly draw inspiration from her life and deeds, and what contemporary nurses are performing are, in many ways, carrying forward the legacy of the legendary humanist and savior Florence Nightingale.
Another great woman humanist is the Nobel Peace Prize laureate and beatified Saint Mother Teresa. She “attained worldwide fame for her life dedicated to serve the poor and destitute.” (Mother Teresa, n.d., Biography Mother Teresa, para.1). Her life and work is a glowing example of the fact that championing the cause of the poor, diseased, suffering and the oppressed is best form of serving God, one of the main reasons for our life and stay on earth.
Assumptions/Hypothesis
The main assumption that needs to be considered is that women are not working women, but are engaged in household duties and occupations. This is important in the context of women playing a subservient role in terms of generating incomes through sewing, knitting that serves to supplement the household incomes, brought primarily by men folk. It could also be seen from the viewpoint that womenfolk attach primary consideration to the rearing of children and their well being, and only after these functions and objectives are met, would they be in a position to consider engaging in household occupations that would render surplus incomes. However, during present times it is evidenced that “….substantially more men are likely to share their creative work online than women even though both genders engage in creative activities at essentially equal rates.” (Why do men share their creative work online more than women, 2008, para.1)? However, over time it is seen that women lost a great deal of ground and could manage to focus on new and different experiments. Due to their many preoccupations women were reluctant to seek innovative practices and labor serving devices and the end result was that a lot of work which they used to do themselves was now transferred to men folk. Thus, women folk lost grounds to male counterparts who, being physically more robust and stronger, were able to take up and complete.
Another aspect that needs to be considered is that over the years, male dominance in European society ensured that women played only secondary roles as house makers and child bearers. Moreover, it is seen that this has sustained for a long time until perhaps the 20th Century, when women began to assert themselves more aggressively against male dominance and suzerainty.
Further, it is found by analyzing the role of women’s cultural landmarks and gains that long and arduous struggles provide newly fangled framework for considering the ethical, socio-economic, religious and political status in different women’s legal, socioeconomic, religious, and/or political influences in discrete time and situations. By study of such legendary characters, it is possible to adopt them as role models and for motivation and inspirational thoughts. “We also learned that bringing women and their voices to the forefront sometimes radically changed our understanding of certain periods of Western civilization and often introduced provocative new cultural forms, alternative visions of society and its institutions, and challenging critiques of values, ideas, and societal arrangements that many have regarded as “fixed” Western cultural traditions.” (Bryant, & Elder, 2005, preface, para.6).
Purpose of Study
The main purpose of studying this research paper is to know about the images of women in Western Civilization i.e. their lifestyle, culture, position etc in the society. Women’s role in the progress of western culture and sculpture from pre historic to modern world is evaluated and what are the changes occurred due to the involvement of women in the society. By doing this research paper, it helps the students to boost their skill and knowledge about women in western society as they investigate metaphors of women in art, culture etc and also the women’s experience and contribution in economical and political growth. As this paper deals with the images of women in the historical western civilization, it helps the students to know about the ancient civilization. In order to know more about history they will go through many of the literature reviews written by various authors, which can improve the reading and writing habits of students and progress their critical feelings and opinion. They will also able to compare the changes of women’s image from traditional to modern society.
Discussion of Findings
In the western civilization the image of women has improved a lot when compared to the ancient culture. In the book, “Western civilization: 1300 to 1815” by Jacckson J. Spielvogel the author says that “In the early modern era, women joined this debate by arguing against these male images of women. They argued that women also had rational minds and could grow from education.” (Spielvogel, 2008, p.498).
Women were also very intelligent, self-righteous, and moderate and the idea developed in women’s mind that if they get educated they can become along or above the position of males. The women started participating in every activity in which only male took part before and the result was also very excellent. Education was the turning point which changed the women’s image from traditional culture to modern culture. When taking the case of women in every country, one can see that the western women are better than others because they are very bold, intelligent, and no men have authority over them. In the book, “Western women and imperialism: complicity and resistance” by Nupur Chaudhuri, he says that: “The western women’s expressed superiority toward the Egyptian women is quite similar to that of western feminist and missionary women toward Indian women.” (Chaudhuri, & Strobel, 1992, p.6).
The lifestyle and culture of women in western civilization is totally different from others; even when they imitated or influenced the culture of other country it created distinction. According to Tylor in 1871, “culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, moral, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society.” (Oyedele, 2009, para.1). Culture and lifestyle is one of the major things which makes one differ from the other. The way of dressing, eating, talking etc is totally different in western culture when compared to others. Here, the women like to live with full freedom and they don’t like to live in the control of others even in the control of their parents and also don’t believe in married life and do not consider marriage is important in their life. There is no difference between men and women; women do anything from anywhere at any time and there are no restrictions at all. The number of women in the field of politics is greater here when compared to others as the women here are very bold, intelligent and also they are very strong to face any problem. Another striking factor is that women writers have often adopted gender identity rather than national identity. They have thus proved that “gender identity is often stronger than, or at least as strong as national identities.” (Maunu, 2007, p.19).
Recommendations
It is necessary that the research takes into account the main arguments that need to be put forth regarding women’s participation in creative work – whether at home, or outside the precincts of the household. The work or art depicts greater sensitivity, understanding of textual content, shades and other relevant matter which underpin quality products and designs. It could also be said that a detailed analysis needs to be made regarding the creative work of women not only in generally accepted areas, but also cases of women who have excelled as soldiers, astronauts, police officers, enforcement officials, etc. over the tumultuous and eventful time span of their lives. It is seen that traditional bastions of child rearing and housekeeping are now a thing of the past, and women have even ventured where men fear to tread. Further, it is often seen that household chores may not be “capable of easing the burden of unpaid housework that weighs on women and prevents them from playing a full part in public life, whether in terms of employment, education, politics, trade unionism or voluntary activity?” (Feuvre, 2000, p.12).
The remarkable transformation of meek and servile women over time has given rise to self-assertive, independent and goal seeking women who are ready to accept any challenges for self preservation and welfare. “We discovered that examining women’s cultural achievements and struggles provides an innovative framework for discussing women’s legal, socioeconomic, religious, and/or political status in different times and places.” (Bryant, & Elder, 2005, preface, para.6).
Next, the research needs to consider the impact that women bring upon society, especially their creative talent. It would also be within norms to analyze the contribution afforded by women and their remarkable role in contemporary society, perhaps shorn of materialistic and parenting characteristics. The creative potential of women is higher than that of others, and given the right kinds of inputs and opportunities, it is expected that they could outrun men in the event of a race for supremacy. However, the fact that male dominance is pervasive in all facets of living and society, with women playing a subservient role. Attitudinal changes could help impart correctional trends, and open up new vistas for creative thinking and execution in many facets.
There was and still exists a lot of debates, talks, and controversies on the subject of women’s role in society. An abundant number of books have been written about images of women in the Western world. Scholars and psychologists have argued, discussed, debated and tried at coming to a common and a mutual understanding of both the genders on this topic. Many feminists all over the world have, and are still coming up with many theories, instances and debates on the issue. A conclusion has never been reached, the main and original reason being: one thinks of oneself being superior to the other.
Sarah Pomcroy, a writer of the past, in one of her writings, “Goddesses, whores, wives and slaves” has with a deep insight explored on the subject along with various other writers’ works and references. Remarks, such as, ‘the woman’s bed never changed its place, nor did the arrangement of the kitchen, but the man’s bed did’ was pin-pointed out, argued and an explanation called out for. The above quotation was of James Mellaart. It said: children too only followed or were buried either with the women or under the remaining platforms, but they never accompany the master of the house. One can draw conclusions from many writers’ instances that a woman is always and only considered as a secondary ancient antique. This is also how the world perceives womenfolk. In fact, it is the opinion of the male public that makes the final impression.
Conclusions
It would not be farfetched to assume that the aspect of creative works by women is indeed profound and all encompassing, and may be beyond the scope of a paper. Over the years, facing innumerable challenges and tremendous odds, women have excelled not only in their home turf of culinary abilities and housekeeping, but in unusual occupations like members of the armed forces, nuclear research science and other strategic occupations (Kinnear, 1982). However, it could be said that “women skill perceive themselves with the foremost responsibility for reproduction work and they consequently choose their occupation with an eye to mobile auxiliary work, secondary in importance to a husband’s.” (Kinnear, 1982, p.189). Further, with broadening of mental horizons and equality of sexes being a major issue in corporate today, it would not be incorrect to assume that the future augurs well for the females of the human species, with greater role to play, not only in the sphere of self-determination, but also in terms of creating more opportunities for personal development and in the wider context, community service and nation building for the common good of all the inhabitants.
Bryant, JG., & Elder, E B. (2005). Creating women: an anthology of readings on women in western culture, volume 2 (Renaissance to the present): Preface. Pearson. Web.
Chaudhuri, N., & Strobel, M. (1992). Western women in imperialism: complicity and resistance. Indiana University Press.
Hensel, D. (2006). Florence nightingale today: healing, leadership, global action. BNET. Web.
Kinnear, M. (1982). Daughters of time: women in the western tradition. University of Michigan Press.
Maunu, L. (2007). Women writing the nation: national identity, female community, and the British French connection, 1770-1820: Introduction. Associated University Press. 19.
The development of Western Civilization is considered to be of great value for the world history as this culture refers to the most significant cultures being connected with such social issues as ethical values, religious and political systems, social norms heritage. This civilization underwent a number of stages in its historical formation. The period of Middle Ages taking place in 1300-1500 CE appeared to be one of the most important stages in Western civilization history leaving impact on its cultural position and social perception.
The period of Renaissance and its role in Western culture were thoroughly investigated throughout centuries. It is important to stress that the period of 1300 up to 1500 CE covered a number of huge historical events. Thus, the Constantinople fall and the America discovery referred to this stage of western culture history. The significance of this time is connected with its name of Dark Ages being explained by the great number of barbarians’ invasions and the loss of classical civilization wealth. This period is well known because of the Roman Catholic Church domination and the promotion of its teachings. Formal education in western culture was provided by the church which influenced even some aspects of political sphere.
Before 1300 EC Western Civilization experienced the prevailing form of government, feudalism. The position of the states was unstable until the monarchy formations at the beginning of 1300. The social life of Middle Ages in western civilization can be characterized by the establishment of political and social classes such as clergy, nobles and common people.
In the development of art and literature the period of Middle Ages is closely connected with the formation and promotion of European literature. Western culture was characterized by the creation of epics, ballads, sagas, etc. It is important to stress that such outstanding art representatives as Chaucer and Dante refer to the Western civilization of Middle Ages. Besides, it should be noted that such art forms as sculpture and painting began to develop at this very stage. Such music forms as secular and religious started to develop in Western culture of that time.
The empire of western civilization was merely focused on France and Italy cultural issues. The technological development and scientific researches were focused on the principles of Christianity spreading. Western culture of this period sponged the main positions of the Christian church and religion promotion.
It is necessary to underline the fact that to the significant representatives of Middle Ages in western civilization one can refer the following outstanding masters of art: Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo, Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli and many others. (Perry, 2006)
Gradual formation of western medieval cultural positions disclosed the principle conceptions of that period such as law equality and civil rights ideas. The population referring to western civilization managed to experience the establishment of procedural justice and the initial signs of democracy as the social form dominating in modern western world. The analysis of western civilization of 1300-1500 EC showed that the period of Renaissance and Middle Ages appeared to leave a significant print in the world history. The greatest historical events and the outstanding representatives of that epoch reflect the atmosphere of that period allowing to evaluate its role for the modern world. It should be stressed that a number of concepts developed in Middle Ages are faced by modern western civilization and throughput the world.
References
Perry, Marvin. Sources of the Western Tradition: From the Renaissance to the Present. University of Virginia. Houghton Mifflin. 2006.
Many years ago, people in the United States seemed to live in harmony with their surroundings. There was no pollution because of civilization and industrialization. White clouds would drift above the green fertile earth in the winter. During the autumn, maple, oak, and birch would set up color blazes that flickered and flamed across tall pines. Earth was peaceful, and travelers could enjoy the beautiful scenery such as wildflowers, great ferns, alder, viburnum, and laurel. The countryside gained much popularity due to the abundance and variety of birds. However, years later, green farmlands, fresh air, and peace vanished from the earth due to humans’ inventions and industrial development. One creation –technology – has devastated people through cell phones and social media. Modern know-how have caused problems to human relationships with their bodies, other persons, and the environment, whereas the United States citizens have a flawed interpretation of enlightenment because they have attacked nature.
Technology and Human Relationships
Modern technologies have adverse effects on human relationships with the nonhuman world, each other, and their bodies. Automation hampers sensuous engagement and collapses psychic space. Recent technologies have changed the rules of interaction involving people and their environment. Most people rely heavily on technology such as mobile devices and messaging applications that allow streamlined task completion at the expense of the time to connect with other people and the environment. Overexposure to contemporary technologies causes a disconnect between the environment and people, leading to a lack of empathy to participate in good causes such as conserving the environment (Melmed 345). As a result, people lose the psychic boundaries that enable them to have mental dignity and identity.
When psychic space is lost, people are vulnerable to intolerance of frustration, causing humans’ excessive dependence on the high-technology world. For example, self-driving cars have given people a sense of omnipotence and invincibility, creating a dissociation of individuals from their bodies (Melmed 350). Contrastingly, cell phones depict an example of an addictive technology that affords individuals material convenience and hinders honing enchanted sensory capacities. Therefore, people are compelled to innovate new machinery to solve new problems but fail to consider the consequences of their extractivism.
Humans invented automation; however, technology has reinvented people at significant basic levels, reshaping their relationship to place and time. The problem caused by modern technologies leads to climate catastrophe and loss of primary aloneness. People’s activities have caused the environmental crisis, which exacerbates future pandemics, low air quality, and poor nutrition. Food security and resources have dwindled, and human interaction with unknown pathogens has increased (Melmed 349). Current technologies restrict primary loneliness, suppressing a sense of obligation and deeper communion to the environment and other individuals.
Civilization and United States Citizens
United States citizens have a flawed perception of civilization due to their attack on nature. For instance, giant companies owned by the United States residents dump their waste in third-world countries (Fox). Waste disposal in developing nations is cheap and convenient. Government regulation in underdeveloped nations cannot prevent waste dumping by developed economies. Therefore, wealthier countries take advantage of emergent territories and use their land as a waste dump. More affluent states and their multi-billion-dollar companies take resources away from developing countries such as Congo. Foreign multinational firms have sponsored coal mining, leading to resource depletion, unclean air, land degradation, and increased chemical waste diseases. Some companies taking resources away from Congo are American-owned (Fox). It is convenient to wonder if civilized people ignore health hazards and dangerous environmental effects in favor of profits and wealth building.
United States citizens have cut trees in city streets and wild forests and increased the use of chemicals to curb pests. Consequently, it is logical to refer to US inhabitants’ civilization as flawed. Deforestation has devastating effects on the environment and human existence. For instance, it causes low rainfall, stronger winds, and weather change (Fox). In the chapter “Earth’s Green Mantle,” Rachel Carson explores the dangers of pesticides. She asserts that pests have affected many farmsteads, whether industrial or personal, but the farm owners have turned to pesticides and other chemicals to kill the insects affecting their produce and farming (Carson 67). Such insecticides are toxic, and they have disastrous effects on soil, humans, and cats.
Conclusion
In conclusion, up-to-date technologies have led to challenges in humans’ relationship with their bodies, fellow people, and the environment, while the citizens of the United States show a faulty interpretation of civilization. Humans invented the technology, and it ended up reinventing people. As a result, modern technologies changed the way people do their day-to-day activities. Current phones have applications that serve many tasks related to human existence. As a result, they have caused solitude as people’s interaction with others, their bodies, and nature has reduced significantly. Modern technologies led to a temperature crisis affecting food security and air quality. United States citizens have become destroyers of their fellow countrymen, which can be interpreted as defective civilization. Human’s attack on nature and the effect of man’s inventions fueled by unending desire is a topic that should cause concern to many people.
Fox, Louis, director. The Story of Stuff. Free Range Studios, 2007.
Melmed, Michael L. “Bound by Infinities: Technology, Immediacy and Our Environmental Crisis.” The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, vol. 80, no. 3, 2020, pp. 342–353., doi:10.1057/s11231-020-09258-8.
The development of arts and sciences, as well as old science in Islamic the empire, is explained by the inquisitive and speculative nature of the Arab people from long ago. Thus, there has always been a particular cultural attitude among the Arabian people before and after the rise of Islam. This cultural attitude is the need to advance their philological skills as well as the need to perfect their practice of etymology and lexicology (Sabra, 1975).
From constant observation of the earth, they were able to attain astrological, astronomical, and meteorological knowledge that they applied to their lifestyles. Further, with the advent of Islam, these Arabs focused on jurisprudence and philological sciences.
One other science that the people loved was the healing art, a profession that was only acquired by a minority of the population but was highly popular among the people due to the high demand for healing services.
Contribution to Mathematics
Arabs are credited with the invention of arithmetic. They essentially derived their knowledge of algebraic theories from two books. These are IX of Euclid’s Elements and the introduction to the science of numbers (Sabra, 1975).
The information obtained from the second book was later translated into the Arabic language by Thabit bin Qurrah, who also revised the information acquired from the first book titled Elements (Sabra, 1975).
Among the key things that Thabit did to contribute to this field of knowledge were his remarks on infinite collections. He espoused that infinite groups could be components of other infinite collections.
This idea is a fact, given that some even numbers happen to be natural numbers, yet both are infinite values. While it did not strike Thabit to try and develop a theory that would explain the idea of transfinite numbers, his statement was reflective of the exploratory and critical attitude present in most Arabians.
Gradually, the theory of figures progressed among Arabs with the need to explain the concept of irrational numbers. One of these developments was through the consideration of ratios as numbers. This was oblivious of whether they were incommensurable magnitudes of not (Sabra, 1975).
Astronomy
Traditional Arabic astronomical readings relied on Greek characters. This reliance was derived from the presumption that astronomy was an interpretation of both mathematical and physical premises. Resultantly, this prompted the Arabs to read many books, and one such book was the Planetary Hypotheses by Ptolemy.
However, this book was inadequate in converting scientific language into a physical language. In an attempt to present a better understating of astronomy, One Arabian, Ibn al-Haytham wrote the book Optics. The book explained various theoretical concepts like refraction, the reflection of light, as well as rectilinear propagation (Sabra, 1975).
It is through this research content that Kamal ad-Din was able to explain how the rainbow was formed. Through an analysis of the work by Al-Haytham, ad-Din was able to explain how both the primary and secondary bows are formed (Sabra, 1975).
Notably, the application of Arabian medieval research formed a basis through which other scientists and researchers were able to understand various scientific principles and phenomena (Sabra, 1975).
Internal and Clinical Medicine
All instances of healing in Islam are tied to the efforts of one Hunayn bin Ishaq al-Ibadi, who worked in liaison with his translators to ensure massive development in the world of medicine. Hunayn bin Ishaq is praised for his significant educational influence in the medical field, among which was his ability to convert the most important Greek medicinal writings into Arabic, through which a firm foundation for Arabic medicine was established (Hamarneh, 1983).
Further, this establishment also paved the way for the development, modification, and perfection of medicine art among the Arabian people. Among the principal contributions that Hunayn made to medicine, is that he wrote an article about the introduction to healing arts, also famous in Latin, which was a key precept for health sciences.
In effect, this writing was a great influence on the Islamic people, as well as other religions in regard to medical teachings and practical applications. Later, in the 19th century, there was a new development in the Arabic world with physician Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi emerging as a new star.
In effect, he was given the following names; the greatest physician, philosopher, and medical educator at the time. Through most of the works that he wrote, there was a significant advancement in medicine, with a particular interest in internal medicine (Hamarneh, 1983).
In fact, some of his creations, like psychiatric analysis, disease diagnosis, the doctor-patient relationship, chemotherapy, and treatment, are critical in today’s medical applications. Notably, his research on smallpox and measles enabled him to gain worldwide recognition.
Through his writing, he was able to make strategic development and come up with various brilliant ideas about smallpox. These were, among others, the symptoms associated with the disease, like headaches, fever, and redness of cheeks, among others. Other evident forms of signs that he discovered have been valuable in preventive day medicine.
Another Arabian medical scholar was al-Mukhtar bin Abdun bin Butland, who carried scholarly work on preservation and restoration of good health in medicine. It is this work that earned him numerous accolades in the medical field.
As a result, the publishing was later translated into Latin and published numerous times. Among the key things that he wrote about were the non-natural principles that had earlier been identified by Hunan. He further recommended that music is a core factor in enhancing patient morale and the key to ensuring faster patient recovery.
The second contribution of Arabic patrons in science is the development of hospitals and medical education. It is under the supervision of the Arab caliphs and during the Islamic period that hospitals first came into existence.
Essentially, most of the modern hospitals were constructed following the Arabian prototypes of medical facilities. The existence of these health care facilities and hospitals in the Arabian world served as a benchmark through which such facilities would be established around the world.
Notably, there were many hospitals in the Arab world, developed with the aim of promoting healthy societies and curing ailments, as well as with the need to teach and expand the knowledge of the people. It is under the Islamic domain that various hospitals operated during the 19th century with management and administration operations.
Owing to the nature of activities and services of the Audi hospital in Baghdad, its fame traveled all over the nations. Following its influential nature, most hospitals were developed in several large cities located all over the Muslim world.
Zoology and Veterinary Medicine
Before the advent of Islam, most Arab tribes had a profound way of life that meant that they were highly reliant on domestic animals for their survival. Among the factors that made them accustomed to animal rearing were the harsh climatic condition of the Arab land, their nomadic and semi-nomadic mode of living, and an economy that was highly reliant on trade and travel.
Thus, the rise of Islam and the outward movement of the Arabians created significant interest in animal husbandry as a type of science (Hamarneh, 1983). Notably, the first comprehensive animal study that occurred in the Arabian world was al Hayawan by al Jahiz.
The study by al Jahiz, as written in both eloquent and literal style, is meant to analyze animal life in Iraq, as well as in the neighboring cities. The article involved the analysis of different animal types, their behavior, and character traits, as well as the various diseases associated with them and how to treat them.
Some other literal works in the study of animal history dealt with particular issues like camels, sheep, and wild animals. However, one extensive work in the field of animal study was conducted at Hayat al Hayawan and drafted by one Egyptian philosopher, who is also a theologian.
This particular philosopher, Ad-Damiri, carefully analyzed animals by placing them in alphabetical order and discussing their character traits, their habits, and qualities, as well as the medicinal value that their organs bear. Just like other Arabian texts, this work involved some rudimentary concepts in evolution as well as how each of them struggles to survive.
Pharmacy and Pharmacology
Pharmacy, one of the most recognized professions, happens to be an Islamic/Arabic institution. Under the reign of Islam, this field became distinct from medicine, though it still collaborated with various medicinal aspects.
Among the first managed and owned pharmaceutical shops were established in Baghdad at the beginning of the ninth century. It is during this time that the number of drugs and spices available in the country increased following an abundant supply of supplies from Africa. Further, there was an increase in the number of military installations owing to a growing need for medicines (Hamarneh, 1983).
Thus, there was an increase in the number of pharmacy shops all over the Islamic cities. Following the degree of Arabic mastery in pharmaceutical dispensing, these medicines were manufactured and widely transported at the global marketplace and administered to people through the physicians depending on the severity of their illnesses.
Among the various forms of dispensation were troches, conservatives, pills, tinctures, and inhalations, among others. To ensure the proper administration of these medicines, most of them were skillfully prepared, and formulas for their creation tabulated in Arabic words.
Over time, these formulas were adopted by European countries, therefore, influencing the formulas and manufacture of these drugs. One renowned author for most Arabian formulas was Sabur Bin Sahl. Among the medicine formula that he was able to come up with is one that was composed of various recipes and medications with the ability to heal some diseases. After this, some discoveries were made in the pharmaceutical field, some of which were made by Ar- Razi and the two books by Ibn (Hamarneh, 1983).
Years later, Ibn was able to come up with various pharmaceutical compositions through which he offered instructions on how to prepare and administer several medications. It is this text that was adopted as the main reference for most pharmacists that were still learning pharmacy in major hospitals and shops.
Notably, the Arabs’ contribution to the field of medicine and the effects of drugs on human life is more than any contribution made by ancient people in this same field. In fact, the Arabs were able to discover a range of medicines in their simplest forms and were able to give precise descriptions of how and where these drugs would be located, their physical composition, and how they would be applied. Ideally, they explained how these drugs would be used as remedies and the various treatments and techniques applied during their manufacturing process.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Finally is the contribution to animal husbandry and agricultural science. Among the key tenets applied by the Arab people in the development of agricultural science were the teachings of the Nabateans and the Greeks. Notably, the al-Filahah ar Rumiyah, a famous Arabic manual, was developed from the Greek concepts of agriculture (Hamarneh, 1983).
Thus, with the expansion of Islam, both the agricultural and horticultural activities of the Arabian people became better. This also led to the publishing of various agricultural manuals in Arabic all over the eastern region and Andalusia.
Among the topics that these publications were based on included plant species, medicinal plants, animal husbandry, various farming techniques, how to cultivate, till and irrigate agricultural land, among others.
In effect, the manual was applied all over the Arab countries like Iraq, Egypt, and Syria. Other agricultural texts developed by the Arabs to guide on best farming practices were astrological matters concerning the right season to plant and the best locations for seed sowing and harvesting.
Overall Arabic contribution to the scientific world was at the highest time during the ninth and eleventh centuries. The inventions were later innovated and subjected to significant changes between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Notably, the West was also just awakening from the dark ages, meaning that they were welcome to read the bulk of Arabic literature translated into Latin. Thus, most of these Arabic authors are known for their contribution to the science field through their Latinized names. Thus, most of their literature was also primarily cited and read by people from the West.
References
Hamarneh, S. K. (1983). The life sciences. In R. J. Hayes (eds.), The genius of Arab civilization (2nd ed.) (pp. 95-113). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Sabra, A. I. (1975). The exact sciences. In R. J. Hayes (eds.), The genius of Arab civilization (2nd ed.) (pp. 80-94). Cambridge: MIT Press.
In the history of humankind, there have existed several mysterious phenomena that have attracted many people’s interest. One of these topics of attraction is the history of Maya. This ancient Mesoamerican civilization was extinct by the beginning of the 1500s, leaving behind a rich heritage in several large stone cities in the South American rainforest.
By origin, the Maya were one of Mesoamerica’s indigenous populations and represented a large civilized society that dominated the region throughout many centuries (“The Mayans,” 2017). Some of the occupations that the Maya practiced and developed were pottery, mathematics, the making of calendars, hieroglyph writing, art, and agriculture (“The Mayans,” 2017). The civilization continued to flourish for a long time; its history stretched throughout multiple periods, such as the Archaic, the Olmec, the Zapotec, and the Teotihuacan, to name a few (Mark, 2012). However, by 900 CE, most of the large Mayan cities were empty and abandoned.
Geographically, the ancient Maya occupied a rather large territory. In contemporary history, it belongs to a range of countries. The Mayan civilization covered the modern Mexican lands of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Tabasco, and Quintana Roo. To the south, the Maya lived in the territories of modern-day Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala. The overall location of the Maya was divided into three major areas separated from one another: the northern lowlands (the territory of Yucatan Peninsula), the southern lowlands (the northern part of Guatemala and the nearby areas of Belize and Mexico), and the southern highlands (the southern area of Guatemala with the mountains) (“The Mayans,” 2017).
When it comes to discussing the causes of the civilization’s collapse, Jared Diamond (2011) has presented an elaborate theory in which he attributes the decline of the Mayan society to climate change. According to Diamond’s theory, the rapid growth of the Mayan civilization resulted in the maximization of its population and the need for more food, which, eventually, caused overhunting, overfishing, deforestation, and destruction the soil. As a result, the degradation of soil, water, and animal habitat led to food shortages. It was followed by wars for resources with other people groups, political instability due to the population’s dissatisfaction with their leaders, economic problems, and the forced abandonment of the previously inhabited territories (Diamond, 2011).
In particular, Maya’s main subsistence strategy was focused on the agricultural practices of growing maize and creating irrigation systems. A prolonged period of cultivating a monoculture exhausted the soil and drained water bodies; overhunting caused the larger animals to migrate to farther locations. Moreover, the Mayans did not use animal-powered plows, so their agricultural practices’ effectiveness was limited, and the diet and the humid climate prevented them from being able to withstand long periods of resource shortage (Diamond, 2011).
In conclusion, based on Diamond’s theory, it can be stated that the Mayan civilization caused its decline through the poor management of resources and an unsustainable way of life. The author used his theory to compare what happened to the Mayans to the contemporary tendencies, such as the pollution, littering, and waste of resources as a warning as to the magnitude of the potential effects they can result in for our planet.
References
Diamond, J. (2011). Collapse: How societies choose to fail or survive. London: Penguin.
Mark, J. J. (2012). Maya civilization. In Ancient History Encyclopedia. Web.
The visit to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization was a great addition to the themes learned in class. The observed artifacts demonstrate the peculiarities of life and culture of the Egyptian people. Many contain a fascinating story that opens the door to Egyptian history and civilization formation. This paper examines one of the artifacts – boats and ships – and their role in Ancient Egyptian society.
Artifact Description
Fig.1: personal photo Fig.2: personal photo
I took these photos in the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization (Fig.1). The first image illustrates an artifact called “Ships and Boat.” The observer can see a large wooden ship in the middle and four small boats around. The boats are clearly driven by slaves who row the oars under the guidance of their leaders. Obviously, each boat has its own purpose since it can be seen that the crew is busy with various activities. In addition, the configuration and painting of the boats also differ. The central ship, meanwhile, is much more beautiful and more decorated. Based on the description of the artifact, it could probably be The Royal Bark of Amenhotep II of the 18th Dynasty (Fig. 2).
Artifact’s Relation to Ancient Egyptian History and Society
First of all, as mentioned above, the artifact is most likely related to the 18th Dynasty, thus, dating back to 1400 BC, the era of the New Kingdom (1549 – 1069 BC) (Ikram 98). As we remember from classroom readings, Amenhotep II was the New Kingdom’ seventh pharaoh and was known for his athletic achievements. Being the son and successor of Thutmose III, he also continued his father’s expansionary policy (Ikram 99). As we know, ships played an important role in military affairs, helping to expand the kingdom’s territory. Thus, the boat model is part of the accessories for the tomb of the pharaoh.
In general, such importance was attributed to boats and ships due to their massive role in the development of Ancient Egypt. They helped transport trade goods and building materials for the unique Egyptian architecture (Ikram 12). Considering the central place of the Nile in the geopolitical structure of the country, boats and ships, as an artifact, demonstrate an integral part of the culture of ancient Egypt.
The artifact also recalls the very first discussions when we talked about the role of the Nile in the development of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Literally, as the cradle of society, the Nile laid the foundation not only for the trade, economic and agricultural successes of the Egyptians but also gave birth to the theological ideas of the people (Ikram 9). That is why ships and boats have not only practical but also sacred meanings. It was believed that in the other world, there was a celestial river, along which spirits floated on their way to resurrection, and the gods traveled. Since in the Ancient Egyptian worldview, the pharaoh has a divine essence, in the afterlife, the ruler, like a god, will move on his ship along the river (Silverman 180). Overall, the artifact is precious in terms of reconstructing various perspectives of Ancient Egyptian society.
Works Cited
Ikram, Salima. Ancient Egypt: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Silverman, David. Ancient Egypt. Cairo: AUC Press, 1999.
Unlike other hominids, Homo sapiens did not have an archeological proof of origin as well as evolution. For this case, there have been controversies concerning the source of the species that transformed into the modern humans (Human Evolution 15). There are propositions regarding the origin of this species; one of them being the out-of-Africa model. The model supposes that Homo sapiens evolved about 200,000 years ago from Africa because of the discovery of the mitochondrial DNA eve and the chromosomal Adam. The findings involved a female and male ancestor of the human race that had all the DNA traces of all individuals (Human Evolution 17).
Homo sapiens and the Features That Distinguish Them from Homo erectus
There is a conventionally acceptable concept that all hominids that existed beyond the middle Pleistocene era belonged to the Homo sapiens group. Therefore, it means that there are a number species in the line of human evolution. For instance, the earliest forms of Homo sapiens consisted of a group of hominids that had intermediate features between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens (Human Evolution 34). This group of sapiens had a brain size; about 1200cc, which was larger than Homo erectus than but smaller than modern humans. The species referred to, in this case, had different names according to their places of discovery. An example of the hominids called archaic Homo sapiens was the Homo antecessor discovered in Spain, Homo heidelbergensis found in Germany and England, and the broken hill and Bodo in Africa.
Figure 1. The skull of Homo antecessor.
Next, there is the Homo neanderthalensis, which occurred between 30,000 and 230,000 years ago (Human Evolution 45). This species of Homo sapiens had a larger brain size than the modern humans, approximately 1450cc. However, the hominid had a lower brain case than the modern humans and had a bulge at the rare side of its skull. The skull of the species also had a receding forehead as well as protuberant jaws and a weak chin. Another feature of the skull of Homo neanderthalensis was the possession of a protuberant mid-facial region, which was an outstanding feature that differentiated the species from the rest of the sapiens.
Figure 2. The skull of Homo neanderthalensis.
Another species of the Homo sapiens was the Homo sapiens sapiens. This species appeared for the first time about 120.000 years ago (Bandelt, Vincent & Martin 100). They had an approximate brain size of about 1350 cc. The species has a forehead that rises sharply and has smaller eyebrow ridges or at times missing and also had smaller canines than its ancestors (Human Evolution 45). Homo sapiens sapiens also have a gracile skull and a super-intelligent brain capacity.
Figure 3. The skull of Homo sapiens sapiens.
Therefore, Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis alike have an elongated skull that have broad brow ridges, which is different from that of Homo sapiens. For this case, the Homo sapiens have reduced brow ridges that may at times be absent and a shorter skull. The eyebrow ridges of the neanderthalensis form arches above each eye, which is different with those of Homo erectus. However, Homo neanderthalensis also had a larger brain size than Homo sapiens, but a lower brain case than the Homo sapiens and had a bulge at the rare side of its skull (Human Evolution 23).
Figure 4. The skull of Homo erectus.
The Spread of Homo sapiens and the Theories for the Disappearance of Other Species
There are a number of models suggested by scientists and archeologists alike concerning the spread of Homo sapiens across the world. One such mechanism is explicable using the Out of Africa theory, which proposes that Homo sapiens could have moved out of Africa first as Homo erectus (Bandelt, Vincent & Martin, 76). The first migration resulted in interbreeding of the Homo sapiens with other hominids in the places that they settled. However, the initial movement did not give rise to sufficient genetic material that would have led to the formation of modern humans.
Therefore, the scientists propose that there was a second movement of the hominids out of Africa to other regions and Asia, in particular, this time around when they were fully Homo sapiens. The later migration occurred about 200,000 years ago resulted in a replacement of the initial populations around the world (Bandelt, Vincent & Martin 78). There were different ways, which led to the replacement of the populations of hominids across the continents. For example, one of them proposes that the Homo sapiens possessed better adaptive features to the environment, which made them survive while other suggest that there occurred passive replacements through interbreeding.
Another theory that explains the movement of Homo sapiens across the globe is the multi-regionalist approach, which suggests that human populations existed in the world at the time before Homo eructs (Human Evolution 67). The former populations interbred and resulted in the present man, which qualifies the idea that the Indonesian and Chinese material are the direct ancestors of East Asians while the material found in Africa give a direct evidence of the origin of Africans. Therefore, both theories propose that the spread of Homo sapiens across the world entailed gene flow from one species to another through interbreeding, and the parental forms became extinct with time.
Adaptive Strategies of Homo sapiens and Their Peculiar Qualities
Homo sapiens were the most flexible of the hominid groups because they settled in new regions of the world quickly. For instance, they used adaptive radiation, which referred to the development of features to suit their environments. The advantage that the sapiens possessed was the improved brain intelligence, which made them easy to adapt to new climates such as the colder regions that its ancestral forms had not explored (Coolidge & Thomas 89).
The brain size and intelligence of this hominid made them aware of the implication of the climate and climate change. They also started living in settlements that made them have security and the collaborative effects in their new colonies. Today, the Homo sapiens remain the most intelligent hominids, which puts them in control of the rest of the population. The intelligence that they have gives them the advantage of making rational thoughts and decisions as well as think critically, which is absent in the rest of the population.
The Early Civilization of Homo sapiens
It remains a mystery how Homo sapiens moved from Asia and Pittsburg to the western hemisphere because of the geographical barrier that existed in the form of the ocean. Therefore, there are only theoretical approaches that explain the event. One of the models devised to explain the occurrence is that early man could have entered the western hemisphere by use of a bridge that connected the region to Asia via the Bering Strait, which could have occurred about 40,000 years ago (Coolidge & Thomas 45). Another theory is that there existed an ancestral figure of the human race called the Clovis that lived in the region. Therefore, the theory supposes that there could have been no need for traversing the sea to the Americas.
Modern man also established settlements averagely 10,000 years ago in the Nile Valley of Africa because of his change in lifestyle from hunting and gathering to agricultural settings. The transition helped Homo sapiens to provide enough food for the population, which resulted in the swelling of the population. The community became even stronger and enabled early man to colonize more ecological niches (Coolidge & Thomas 89). Soon, there was migration across all continents because of the increase in the populations of Homo sapiens. The development of agriculture resulted from man’s increased abilities to make tools from iron as well as weapons that enabled him to conquer his environment.
Works Cited
Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen, Vincent Macaulay, and Martin Richards. Human Mitochondrial DNA and the Evolution of Homo sapiens. Berlin: Springer, 2006. Print.
Coolidge, Frederick L, and Thomas Wynn. The Rise of Homo sapiens: The Evolution of Modern Thinking. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.
Human Evolution: Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. U.S: Emilie M. Smyth, 2010. Print.
Mordecai Kaplan and Abraham Joshua Heschel are Jewish theologians who are the authors of several books that have been read and are still read by many people including the Jewish.
Among the books they have written, there are the Mordecai Kaplan’s Judaism as a Civilization and Abraham Joshua Heschel’s The Sabbath. Mordecai Kaplan’s Judaism as a Civilization focuses on the reconstruction of the American-Jewish life that would help the Jewish to change their traditional way of life through incorporations of the modern way of life, philosophy, religion and science as it develops in the U.S.
On the other hand, Abraham Joshua Heschel’s The Sabbath mainly focuses on the traditional way of life of the Jewish and Judaism and puts more emphasis on the Sabbath. Abraham Joshua views Judaism as a religion of time, which makes him focus on the past rather than the future.
Kaplan in Judaism as a Civilization views Judaism as a religion that is evolved from the traditional world to the modern world. He refers to the Judaism as a religion that has been undergoing cultural differences depending on the times that we are living. He believed in Judaism but felt that it was necessary for the Judaism to unite with other religions to form a common religion that was civilized. On the other hand, Abraham Joshua laid more emphasis on the traditional mode of life for the Jewish.
He claimed that the traditional mode of life in Judaism made the religion more spiritual and right with their God. In addition, he dealt with the traditional problems that were faced by the Judaism that he sought to find solutions. Abraham Joshua in his efforts to find solutions to the problems associated the problems faced by the Judaism with the modern life. This is a clear evidence that Abraham Joshua was against modernization.
Further, Kaplan rejected various traditions that the Jewish practiced. He found that the practices that the Jewish had were outdated. He concentrated more on the issues that would help the Jewish realize their religion and the status of life in which they were living. He further believed that some of the aspects that were inherent in Judaism were wrong and needed to be changed. In his writing, Kaplan disagreed with the Jewish category of Closeness that made them feel more superior to other religions.
In addition, Kaplan called for democracy in the synagogue, highly recommended membership to be voluntary, reconstruction of procedure of electing leaders and the individuals’ religion options respect. Kaplan believed in the time when individuals joined religion depending on their race and ancestral religion’s belief by force. On the contrary, Abraham Joshua having conservatism of the tradition, believed that the Judaism religion and culture was to remain.
He embraced and emphasized on the Jewish to maintain their status quo. Abraham Joshua believed that religion was an answer to human ultimate questions and thus religion had to be fully respected. He found that the alienation of modern man to religion was putting man into more threats. He therefore emphasized that the Jewish should leave modernity and embrace traditions that would make them more religious.
Although they had differences, there were a few similarities. They both encouraged the unity of the Jewish and encouraged them to embrace each other as brothers and sisters. They further encouraged the Jewish to have Judaism as their religion and to have faith in God. In addition, the two emphasized on prayer, as they believed that it connects man to God.
Views on Modern Society
Kaplan’s concept of civilization was optimistic about the modern society. He believed that modern society including the Jewish had a future if only they would embrace civilization. He encouraged the Jewish to be patient and work towards meeting their goals as the Americans used to do.
This gave the Jewish who read his books the ideology of the Americans who believed in hard work. Kaplan believed that with the improvement in science and technology, philosophy and culture, man had a chance to grow depending on the level of civilization he embraces.
On the other hand, Heschel’s views on civilization were pessimistic. He viewed civilization, as a way to alienate modern man from religion that he believed was the answer to all human ultimate questions. He believed civilization of man would make him more venerable to threats that made him to oppose civilization in religion.
Conclusion
Judaism is a religion associated with the Jewish’s who have origin in Israel. Their belief in God is strong and its what makes them more concrete with Him. Judaism as a religion embraces unity and peace but there are splits in relation to modernity.
These kinds of differences have caused splits in other religions. The views between the two theologians negate each other and none can be used to complement the other as they have several differences based on civilization. However, on their reference to God the two views can supplement each other.
There have been heated debates concerning contribution of religion in advancing peace and causing conflict. Proponents of religion argue that it is a source of peace and tranquility in the world.
They further argue that religion is the main source of hope for people because it promotes peace thus enabling people live harmonious and happy lives. On the other hand, opponents argue that religion is one of the main reasons for conflict in the world. Careful study and analysis of the contributions of religion in world’s civilization reveal that it contributes to both peace and conflict.
Religion creates and fosters hope by empowering people through teachings that encourage peace. This is achieved by establishing cooperation between members of different religions. In the 21st century, religion has been a great force in advocating for justice in many regions of the world, especially underdeveloped and developing countries. Religion also rallies people against social injustices such as wars.
For example, in the 1980s, Eastern and Western churches came together to promote peace in the world by participating in the peace movement. Many religions are involved in charity work and humanitarian aid activities. In many third world countries, the largest proportion of the population is poor. This means that they barely afford basic human needs. Churches create organizations to help poor people improve their lives by feeding, housing, and educating them.
Before the world attained civilization, religion played a great role in causing conflicts. Religion was then a political institution that sought to amass wealth and power by conquering the world. Different religions fought wars in the name of their God, gods, and goddesses.
Today, violent conflicts are linked to religious affiliations based on race, culture, economic and territorial factors, and ethnicity. Most religious conflicts are based on differences in beliefs, teachings, and ideologies. Religion-based conflicts usually result in bloody wars because each religion considers itself superior to other religions.
One of the religious groups that promote hate thus causing conflict is the Islamic extremists. Their beliefs promote hate and violence among people based on their religious affiliation. In ancient days, radical Christian groups exist that believed in violence as a problem resolution strategy.
However, Christianity has evolved significantly and eradicated extremism in most of its sects. Difference in ideologies ad beliefs is observed in the main religions of the world. These include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism. They all believe in one God but their beliefs and teachings are different.
Some religions advocate for structural violence by establishing authoritarian decision-making structures that suppress efforts to promote egalitarianism. In many countries, churches have supported and promoted policies of dictatorial regimes. Recently, the Vatican supported the eminence of military rule in Haiti by rejecting the candidature of Aristide. This is clear evidence of religion’s involvement in promoting conflict either directly or indirectly.
Islam has been accused many times of promoting hate and violence in the world. Its Jihad teaching has been a major cause of conflict and war especially in the Middle East and other parts of the world. Extremist groups such as Al Qaeda and Al Shabab use this teaching to launch attacks on members of different religions. The Middle East has undermined the eminence of religious tolerance as an avenue for peace and tranquility in the region.
Historically, religion has been the cause of some of the bloodiest wars in the civilization of the world. This is because religion was a political entity that sought wealth and power. Religious leaders were powerful people who controlled larger regions and multitudes of people. Different religions fought wars in the name of their God, gods, and goddesses. Today, violent conflicts are linked to religious affiliations based on race, culture, economic and territorial factors, and ethnicity.