It is widely believed nowadays that Africa is the cradle of humankind. Many thousand years ago Homo sapiens developed there and started to migrate to other lands and continents. However, when it comes to the matter of human civilization, the popular idea is that Europe was the place where it originated. For many centuries, the White population dominated science and culture, which helped to strengthen this viewpoint while perceiving Africa as the land of barbaric tribes.
Nevertheless, modern anthropology offers another theory, which claims that black people used to have a developed civilization for centuries before the appearance of other races. This paper focuses on the work by Cheikh Anta Diop, who uses paleontological findings to support the Afrocentric idea that the Negroid race culturally dominated during the ancient times, which puts into great question some historical facts offered in books.
Paleontological Evidence
One of the ways to study ancient communities is to analyze the remains of their culture. In the first chapter of his book, Dr. Diop begins the discussion by claiming that the migration of black people can be confirmed by the traces of African Upper Paleolithic art across various countries (11). Thus, similar cave carvings were found in Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia, and other territories. All of them belong to the Upper Paleolithic period, which makes them the oldest type of art.
Another important point made in the chapter is that the first European was a Black human who had migrated from Africa. Dr. Diop mentions the Grimaldi man found during one of the archaeological works in Italy (13). It was not until 40000 years ago that racial differentiation began among people. Until then, Europe was inhabited by black people, who carried the African culture. Moreover, the same ethnic group moved to other parts of the world, including Asia as far as Siberia. This theory is proved by the numerous findings of human remains found on those territories. More specifically, the skulls found across Europe and Asia were identified as belonging to Negroid people of the discussed period.
As the climate changed and the boundaries of habitable land moved, there occurred a mutation in genes of some human groups, beginning the process of racial differentiation. Dr. Diop mentions that the first White appeared only around 20000 years ago (15), known today as the Cro-Magnon. It most likely happened due to the cold conditions that people had to survive in Europe. The Yellow race, according to Dr. Diop, appeared five thousand years later, with the Chancelade Man being its prototype (16). The question of the racial identity of cultural groups is rather important for various fields of science, whether it is history, anthropology, medicine, or other studies.
As the glacial zone changed, communities traveled further to the North. This event gave the start to the formation of the Scandinavian and German branches. The former migrated to Eastern Europe, creating the group of Slavs. Dr. Diop mentions other branches including the Celts, the Iberians, the Greeks, the Latins, and others (18). The African culture could have been dominant even in the times of the currently known civilizations like ancient Greece.
Ancient Civilization
If the Black race originating from Africa dominated in prehistory, there must be material evidence for this theory. Dr. Diop mentions that the findings in England, which belong to the Megalithic period, support the idea of a strong Negroid influence (19). For instance, Egyptians used to mine tin on the territory of England during the Bronze age. The author goes even further and claims that the ancient Saxon language developed from the African vocabulary (19). This unexpected theory sheds new light on the understanding of contemporary European culture.
The developed civilization based on the African culture existed around the Mediterranean and even further. Dr. Diop refers to the findings of M. Gimbutas, who claimed that societies in ancient Europe were characterized by sedentary life, agriculture, a cult of the mother goddess (19). This culture ceased to exist with the invasions of the Kurgans from the East, who enforced their nomad, patriarchal way of life. However, Dr. Diop argues with Gimbutas about the question of the Kurgan culture and the matriarchy. He notes that Crete, for instance, acquired writing from the Egyptian colonization and not from the invaders (Diop 21).
The issue of whether the ancient societies were matriarchal remains open as well. However, there is a proven existence of Hellenic Black virgins and goddesses (Diop 21). What seems evident is that the Kurgan invasions destroyed the peaceful agricultural community of Europe and started a new civilization.
Personal Response
The work of Cheikh Anta Diop gave me an unexpected viewpoint on the origins of European culture. What used to be attested as the findings of White people may have deep African roots. Of course, the theories of Dr. Diop rely on limited facts such as the few paleontological findings on the European territory. However, it may be valuable to understand, for example, that ancient Egyptians perceived themselves as black people. This explains how the famous and praised European civilization grew from the culture cultivated by African people for thousands of years even before the first White appeared.
Conclusion
Dr. Diop offers a theory of Black culture dominance during prehistoric times. He uses paleontological evidence to build his viewpoint and presents such facts as shapes of human skulls, cave art, and other material traces of Negroid representatives across Europe. The invasion of people that developed later in other parts of the world destroyed the peaceful African culture and set the base for what is nowadays known as the European civilization.
Work Cited
Diop, Cheikh Anta. Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology. Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
The Decline of Western Civilization is a documentary film by Penelope Spheeris that was first released in 1981. The documentary consists of three parts; the first part was released in 1981 while the second part debuted in 1988. The third and last part of the film was released in 1998. The Decline of Western Civilization is a documentary film that focuses on the evolution of the punk rock music genre as it changes from punk to heavy metal and then to gutter punk culture.
The documentary film explores the accompanying punk rock lifestyle as revealed by musicians, fans, and other music stakeholders. When The Decline of Western Civilization was first released in 1981, the then Los Angeles chief of police issued a directive that the film should not be screened within the city. The film was also blamed for promoting an unhealthy lifestyle among the youth.
Critics have praised the film for presenting a near-accurate biography of punk rock and rock stars. The generational impact of the documentary series is also well represented in the film. Nevertheless, The Decline of Western Civilization is a valuable source of historical accounts of punk rock, and it depicts the negative influence of this music genre on the youth in the 1980s and 1990s in Los Angeles.
The first part of the documentary features scenes with some of the most famous rock bands of the time. In most of these scenes, the filmmaker conducts interviews with renowned Los Angeles punk rock bands, the punks or the fans of this genre, and the publishers of a popular punk rock magazine. One of the musicians who were featured in the film later died from a heroin overdose. The second part of the documentary depicted a period when heavy metal took precedence over the original punk rock.
The list of the musicians who are featured in this second part includes such names as Ozzy Osbourne, Aerosmith, and Alice Cooper. The filmmaker also compares the musical situation of known bands with that of unknown ones. Also, the documentary ventures into the vanity and mediocrity that had become part of the music business.
The history of the Los Angeles Punk movement is well highlighted in Spheeris film. The film was first considered a bad influence but gained an almost-cult-status later. According to Spheeris, her documentary intended to show the role that the punk movement was playing in both Los Angeles and the United States as a whole (MacLeod 132).
During the 1970s, punk rock had already been banned in most parts of Los Angeles. The antagonists of this music genre included administrative units, nightclubs, and music performance venues. However, by the time Spheeris was filming her documentary, the punk rock genre had only been a recognized music faction for approximately two years (The Decline of the Western Empire). The fast-rising punk rock movement had been becoming Americas unwanted addiction by the 1980s.
Consequently, the punk rock institution was considered in the same light as the war on drugs. In the 1970s and 1980s, the consumption of narcotics was high in most of the main entertainment capitals of the United States. Therefore, the contempt that accompanied the debut of punk rock was understandable.
Punk rock is one of the few music genres that have had a negative association with violence. Before punk rock, rocknroll was arguably the most popular music genre. Although rocknroll was associated with activist tendencies and rampant drug use, the genre was never fully associated with violence. In The Decline of Western Civilization, punk rock is depicted as a genre of music that is closely associated with violence and pointless riots. Some of the concerts that are featured in the film end up being riotous for no reason.
For instance, some concerts by the groups Catholic Discipline, Germs, X, and Fear are portrayed in the film as being riotous (The Decline of the Western Empire). The dominance of violence in any music genre came to a climax with the help of punk rock. Later on, the hip-hop genre was to adopt a similar violence-tag, albeit in the form of gun violence.
In subsequent years, the violence that was a characteristic of punk rock subsided mostly because the genre became too commercial. For example, the first part of The Decline of Western Civilization features several riotous and violent scenes.
However, the second part of the documentary features excesses of drug use and degenerate lifestyles for both artists and fans. The shift from heavy violence to excesses in lifestyle as portrayed by the filmmaker is not specific to punk rock. Later on, the hip-hop genre underwent a similar transformation where violence was only used as a tool of popularizing the genre.
When The Decline of Western Civilization premiered in Los Angeles, the police department deployed a sizeable contingent of anti-riot police in anticipation of violence. The local and business communities within the Hollywood Boulevard Theatre were also in a panic mode during the premiere of this film (MacLeod 127).
In spite of all these measures, the premiere of the documentary film still caused some violent actions. Commercialization has been known to precipitate the tension surrounding some music genres as exemplified in this documentary. Commercialization requires mass markets and violent music concerts. Moreover, the ones depicted in Spheeris documentary might act as obstacles of this agenda.
The historical impacts of punk rock on the young generation are adequately brought to the fore in this documentary. In the second of the documentary, the liveliness of the fans who attend punk rock concerts has changed completely. The filmmaker takes her time to explore the new practices that are consequently associated with punk rock. Some of these practices are depicted through the scenes where rock stars are indulging in alcohol and drug abuse. Also, fans and artists engage in various forms of sexual exploitation actively.
These forms of lifestyles were the source of major concern for various Los Angeles stakeholders during the 1980s and 1990s. Feminists were particularly concerned with the genres treatment of women. For instance, in one scene a musician is quoted saying that chicks dont get in the (their) house unless they have a sack of groceries with them (The Decline of the Western Empire). The scenario in which women were willing to be exploited by self-destructive men presented a new angle of exploitation to the feminists of the time.
The Decline of Western Civilization is a film with a rich historical significance. The film witnessed the birth and the death of punk rock. However, the unpopular nature of the genre during its inception is a common phenomenon as it has happened to other music genres. The effect of the genre on the young generation of the time has also been identified as weak and short-lived when it is compared to other popular music genres.
Works Cited
MacLeod, Dewar. Social Distortion: The Rise of Suburban Punk Rock in Los Angeles. America Under Construction: Boundaries and Identities in Popular Culture 34.4 (1997): 123-148. Print.
The Decline of the Western Empire. Dir. Penelope Spheeris. Perf. Aerosmith, Kiss, and Ozzy Osbourne. New Line Cinema, 1981, Film.
Eastside Heritage Center ( Bellevue History para. 1)
The image in question can be interpreted as a hint at the possibility of the sustainable use of natural resources by the residents of the city. The image, clearly made in the first half of the previous century, incorporates the hopes for urbanization that would, later on, turn into threats for the sustainability of cities and the appropriate use of natural resources.
Depicting women working in the field, the picture in question can be considered an encouragement for agricultural development and, therefore, sustainable use of resources as opposed to the consumerist attitudes of the urban dwellers. Moreover, the artifact in question allows for tracing the history of the city from the point where it only started developing to the present days, when it has become a large and technologically advanced community.
A graffiti image on the wall of one of the Bellevue buildings (Bennett para. 1)
The significance of graffiti as an art form may be doubted, yet the very phenomenon will never go away. Whether it is a fierce protest against the social and cultural norms or a naively blatant manifestation of ones artistic abilities, graffiti will always be a part of the urban artifacts treasure trove. The opportunities that graffiti opens in terms of rendering a specific idea are truly ample, which makes the subject matter one of the most powerful, though often administratively punishable, elements of the urban culture.
The graffiti depicted above was drawn under 405 North overpass roughly in 2008. It has a very peculiar structure, with the elements of various nature and colors of different intensity intertwined in a single artwork. The floral patterns that can be noticed in the center and the upper left corner of the picture display the tendency to rejuvenate the sustainability concept popular in the 2000s.
A picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Art ( Bellevue Festival of the Arts para. 2)
The first page of the booklet for the Bellevue Festival of the Arts is a graphic example of the key urban concepts of industry and progress mix with the ones that represent nature. Thus, rather witty commentary on the need for urban sustainability is represented. The choice of colors also hints at the significance of the nature-vs.-nurture conflict in the present-day urban setting.
The designing choices made to create the image on the left side of the picture send a very clear message to the audience, hinting at the need to establish a deeper connection between nature and the city. The artifact, therefore, can be viewed as an attempt for reconciliation between the proponents of urbanization and those supporting the return to nature.
Urbanization rates in 2013 ( Urban Development para. 2)
The statistical data provided above shows the increasing pace of the city urbanization process in a rather graphic way. As the information offered in the graph below displays, there is an obvious tendency for cities all over the world to develop technologically, which can be viewed as a rather positive change. The lack of emphasis on the effects that this technological progress has on the environment and the use of exhaustible resources, however, are beyond deplorable.
According to the graph, the urbanization process has swept even small towns are nowadays striving to develop into urban areas. Consequently, the emphasis on sustainability as the key to reasonable use of the city resources has become quite tangible in the urban area. The statistical data provided above represents both the threats and opportunities of the increasingly strong emphasis on technology and industry as opposed to agriculture.
A poem concerning the farmers market ( Bellevue Farmers Market Schenectady para. 1)
Though the city background with the silhouettes of down-to-earth office buildings can hardly spark any poetic thought, poems devoted to cities and their inhabitants exist; moreover, these poems take a special niche in the realm of urban literature. As a rule, these poems are related to a certain hot-button social, economic, or political issue and have a comparatively short shelf life, becoming long-forgotten after the issue in question is resolved.
The poem under analysis can hardly be viewed as an exception; it represents the spirit of commercialism, which every large community in the United States is shot through with. The poem, therefore, while being full, represents the direction in which most cities tend to go nowadays, i.e., the attempt at expanding through the enhancement of their private entrepreneurship sector.
Crossroads Bible Church (Crossroads Bible Church para. 1)
Religion is an admittedly big part of many peoples lives, which is why ignoring some of the artifacts of the city that are related to religion is barely possible. Therefore, the church, as an essential element of the urban community development, must be considered as well. The Crossroads Bible Church is one of the places that allow for the spiritual analysis of the progress that the city has made over the years.
While the specified institution cannot technically be viewed as a part of either the urbanization process or the environmental concern, it helps shed some light on human nature and, therefore, understand the problem from both the individualist perspective and the standpoint of the community. The specified institution adds a moral dimension to the problem.
Promised Land (Berry para. 127)
Being one of the most powerful means of expressing emotions, songs are often devoted to cities as the places where dreams are born and may come true. Chuck Berrys famous Promised Land is no exception to this rule; exploring the idea of another wayward son searching for the Promised Land, where dreams come true, it takes the lead character to the big city.
It helps the audience realize the charm of small towns, such as Norfolk, VA, that used not to be affected by the urbanization process greatly. Though the theme of the song can be considered somewhat corny, the timeless feeling that it renders, as well as its ability to get the charm of a small city across, makes the song a part of the urban classics.
A doll from the Bellevue Museum of Doll Art (Rosalie Whyel Museum of Doll Art 2)
Though dolls are universally considered charming, some of the exhibits of the Rosalie Whyel Museum of Doll Art will inevitably make the audience cringe. Even though the museum was shut down in 2014, the dolls are still available for sale.
The artifacts might not be the kind of toys that loving parents would buy for their children, yet they display the progression of the citys history in a rather detailed way. For example, the dresses that the figures and dolls wear, help locate the stages in the urbanization process of the city. For example, while some of the dolls feature pastoral designs, others are dressed in the clothes that can be described as the attributes of an average industrial city dweller.
Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge ( A Day in Seattle para. 1)
Although a bridge cannot be technically defined as an artifact, the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge falls under the latter category. The reasons for this are that the bridge is not only a technological advance that allowed creating a connection between Seattle and Mercer Island ( A Day in Seattle para. 2), but also the remnant of the U.S. history. Indeed, the creation of the bridge contributed to the industrialization of the city and its further development.
In other words, by building the artifact in question, the residents of Washington, DC, predetermined the premises for the further urbanization of the city. Magnificent and beautiful, the construction adds an unforgettable touch to the scenery, though clearly defining the boundaries between the artificial world created by the human civilization and the realm of nature.
Artifact Brewery (Steigerwald para. 115)
Liquor might not be considered the highlight of the modern art of food production, yet the history of breweries that survived years after they had been founded deserve closer attention. The Jackson Brewery previously located in Northside and recently being moved to a different venue may not be the most valuable artifact, yet is one of the most peculiar ones.
The age of the brewery determines its uniqueness the artifact dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The evolution of the brewery is nonetheless interesting. The fact that the place used to be a church and a gymnasium may spark some controversies, though. In some way, the progress that the building has undergone can be viewed through the lens of progress as the victory of business over the traditions and values that seem to belong to a different community.
The Car, the Cinema and the Blues Brother ( Hollywood Boulevard para. 1)
Perhaps, one of the most bizarre and at the same time, unique artifacts, the one created by fans of the classic movie, is also the most memorable. Though the specified artifact does not belong to a different era (in fact, it was built in the second half of the previous century) and does not feature any fantastic art, it is still beyond impressive.
Whereas the artifact in question is not related to the subject matter directly, it displays the significance of one of the most powerful tools for promoting urbanization, which is media. The latter affects people greatly. It shapes their mind frame, helps them transfer information faster, and reinforces progress; therefore, exploring the significance of media of various genres is essential to the analysis of the pace at which present-day urbanization occurs.
The Space Needle ( Space Needle para. 1)
Another unique attempt at capturing the charm of the urbanization process, the creation of the so-called Space Needle, triggered an unceasing flow of tourists in Bellevue, WA. Seeing that the architectural artifact is comparatively young, it does not embrace the uniqueness of the city culture, unlike other artifacts.
Instead, it provides an opportunity of taking a glance at the future of the urbanization process. The Space Needle is an interesting metaphor for reaching out to the heights that used to be unattainable several decades prior, yet are part and parcel of the near future.
Chicago ( The City as Artifact para. 1)
One of the fascinating things about artifacts is that their scale often goes entirely out of proportions. While a work of art has certain limitations in terms of size, artifacts often happen to take a rather impressive amount of space. It is not merely a house or a block thereof that is being talked about; the focus of the study concerns an entire city this time.
Chicago is no stranger to tourists and major attention. Here is a tourist attraction basically around every corner of the city. As a result, Chicago is often considered the artifact of the United States ( The City as Artifact para. 1). Having gone a long way from a small transportation hub to a major city, Chicago includes both the remnants of its past and the references to its modern days.
Urban Forests (UW Botanic Garden News para. 1)
Though the term artifact is traditionally applied to the elements of the urban design that have been manufactured, the artificial forest grown in Bellevue, WA, can also be viewed as a specimen of urban artifacts. Created by people, urban forests are supposed to play the role of delicate support for nature in the hostile environment of big cities.
Because the process of urbanization affects biodiversity and the overall natural evolution heavily, the urban artifacts under analysis are of huge essence to the residents of the area. To the concern of the local dwellers, though, urban forests are quite hard to maintain; moreover, the restoration of a completely natural setting is barely possible. Still, the concept of urban forests is one of the few ideas that may work as a tool for restoring the balance between nature and nurture.
Lake Washington ( Photo of Mt. Rainier and Lake Washington ) para. 1
Much like urban forests, urban lakes fall under the category of artifacts, as they are created by people, and Lake Washington is one of those. The lake represents an endeavor of restoring the balance between the rapid urbanization process and the need for sustainability. Despite being artificial and suffering several instances of industrial pollution, the lake has improved local ecology impressively.
Bunny Man ( The Legend of the Bunny Man para. 1)
Talking about urban artifacts is impossible without touching upon urban folklore. Though the creepy story of Bunny Man originates from Virginia, it has spread quickly across the Washington, DC area and is still used as a local horror story. The myth about the Bunny Man shows that, while being technologically advanced, city residents may succumb to a common fear of the supernatural.
The Mysterious Disappearance of the Letter J ( No Way, No Jay para. 1)
Rumors say that there is no street name starting with J in entire Washington, DC, since Pierre LEnfant, the architect, was at odds with the local chief justice, John Jay. However, a closer look at the records of the city will reveal that the story has nothing to do with the truth. Nevertheless, tourists still flock to the area, threatening the sustainability of the district.
Bellevue Downtown Park ( Bellevue Downtown Park para. 1)
Placed in the heart of the citys downtown, the park serves its purpose of providing residents and tourists with an opportunity of having some rest. The park can be viewed as the perfect response to the urbanization concern, which has been brewing in Washington, DC, for decades. A solution to a range of environmental issues, the park is a major step in the right direction.
Bellevues Downtown War Memorial ( Bellevues Downtown War Memorial para. 1)
Despite being an artifact in itself, the Bellevues Downtown Park has a range of artistic elements to offer to its viewers, and the Bellevues Downtown War Memorial is one of them. Honoring the memory of the people, who died in battles for the greater justice, and promoting their qualities to the present-day dwellers of the city, the monument links the past of Washington and its future, therefore, teaching an essential lesson about the significance of fending for ones rights.
Wilburton Hill Park ( Wilburton Hill Park para. 1)
The image of a tree stump, which has been stubbed out of its natural environment, is a far more obvious, in-your-face message concerning the need for sustainability in the city than any other artifact that has ever been produced. While the message could have been delivered in a much more subtle way, it is still quite impressive and serves its purpose.
Unfortunately, while it was designed to be the big wakeup call, it is viewed nowadays merely as an original representation of a rather worn-out idea. Nevertheless, as an urban artifact, it works perfectly and conveys the key message concerning the need to preserve the environment in a very efficient manner.
Artifacts and Their Significance
The phenomenon of urbanization is traditionally viewed as a positive one, which is quite understandable urbanization promoted further progress, making it possible for numerous industries to evolve, not to mention the fact that it encourages companies to expand and, therefore, creates new job opportunities.
However, the cost that urbanization comes at is not to be forgotten, either; because of the emphasis on the economic and financial benefit that follows the urbanization process and the subsequent lack of concern for the environment, the latter suffers greatly.
The environmental concern has been raised several times, with enthusiasm concerning the improvement of the situation gradually fading away. Because of their ability to incorporate personal and social issues, numerous city artifacts embrace the variety of ideas regarding the problem, a range of the artifacts in question suggesting rather unusual solutions.
As it is rather easy to spot, the artifacts described above, though very diverse, concern the process of urbanization and the transfer from the agricultural stage to the urbanized one. Claiming that technological progress should not be encouraged would be hardly reasonable; indeed, it is the promotion of IT that helps improve the functioning of a range of services, therefore, making peoples lives better all over the world.
However, people seem to disregard the fact that continuous urbanization without a thorough analysis of the consequences comes at a price. Unless a sustainable path for city development and the urbanization of the nearby areas is introduced, the people living in these areas may face a serious crisis concerning the lack of natural resources and biodiversity.
Much to the credit of the people living in the areas that are subjected to rapid changes and evolve from agricultural to urban ones, they attempt at making the progression not as rapid and challenging to nature as it might be. Claiming that people fail to understand the adverse effects of urbanization would be unfair to the progress of the civilization; more to the point, there have been numerous attempts at raising awareness regarding the issue, as well as shed some light on the subject matter, artifacts being only a part of the campaign.
It can be assumed that people are trying to locate the solution that will allow for each party of the conflict to benefit, which numerous artifacts mentioned above display rather graphically. The specimens of street art described above, perhaps, are the most sincere, though not the most elaborate, examples of a gradual realization of the problem.
The graffiti artworks discussed above may seemingly contain little to no sense, as they are most likely to have little to no connection with the setting in which they have been painted. Being the brainchild of an unknown author, the artifact contains the themes and references that a side viewer will fail to guess. Nevertheless, one can track down the ideas that have influenced the author rather clearly.
First and most obvious, floral patterns hint at the tendency to incorporate the elements of a pastoral in the artwork. Herein the reference to the nature-vs.-nurture theme lies; whether consciously or not, the creator of the graffiti under analysis tries to reference the notorious environmental conflict.
Even the artifacts that do not seem to suggest a reasonable solution to the problem of cities expansion at the cost of biodiversity and natural resources abuse, some elements of the design still hint at the possibility of a change. For example, the bridge mentioned above (i.e., the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge) can be considered a metaphor in itself, i.e., a reminder about the possibility of establishing a connection between nature and the civilization.
The subtle touches that certain design choices add to the development of the problem-solution cannot but be appreciated. It should be noted, though, that the metaphorical environmental significance, which the bridge in question bears, cannot possibly match the negative effects, which it has had on the environment of the area. Specifically, the fact that its creation has disrupted the ocean flora and fauna deserve to be mentioned.
Nevertheless, some elements of the urban design can be viewed as a major compromise between the need to evolve and the necessity to retain the connection to nature. The picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Arts ( Bellevue Festival of the Arts para. 1) can be considered one of the most subtle endeavors at pointing at the obvious significance of the sustainability policy. It is quite remarkable that, unlike other artworks carrying a similar message, the bulletin from the Bellevue Festival of the Art is entirely deprived of any obnoxiously obvious messages showing the dread of the refusal to sustain nature.
Instead of portraying the supposedly terrible outcomes of peoples unwillingness to reconcile with nature and accept the idea of sustainable use, the bulletin shows that people are, in fact, an integral part of nature. This idea has much more dignity and worth to it, as it credits the viewers of the artifact as being intelligent enough to understand a specific message without being scared into believing it.
The last, but not the least, the sculpture of a stump that has been taken out of the ground, deserves to be mentioned among the most powerful artifacts that serve their purpose in conveying the necessity to shift to the more sustainable use of natural resources and to make the process of industrialization less painful.
While admittedly less subtle than the picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Arts announcement, the given artifact can be deemed as essential due to its expressivity. Unlike the rest of the artifacts mentioned previously, it makes people think.
The thought-provoking artwork was intended to have no double meaning; otherwise, it would have been viewed as another elegant argument in favor of sustainability and, therefore, would have failed as a piece of art.
Although the artifact does not serve as the warning of a specific danger that the unrestrained process of urbanization will lead to, it still carries enough weight to impress the viewers and convey the intended message clearly and concisely. A perfect example of form following the function and enhancing expressivity, the given artifact has an exemplary impact on the audience.
One could argue that the Crossroads Bible Church should have been viewed as the focus of the analysis and the most significant element of the list. Indeed, apart from containing a range of artifacts that are both spiritual and essential to the evolution of human culture, the Church itself is, in fact, a large artifact that serves to prove the connection between the present-day society that is concerned with the evolution of technology, and the society of the past, which viewed the nature as a part and parcel of the divine and, therefore, having a special place for nature in its set of values.
Therefore, though it might be considered a rather far stretch, the Crossroads Bible Church, incorporates the elements that belong to both the modern, technologically advanced era and the society that considered the connection to nature the top priority. Therefore, the specified artifact or, to be more specific, the collection of artifacts can be considered the symbolic representation of the opportunities for people to locate the compromise between the urbanization process and the environmental policies.
Each of the elements mentioned above, therefore, represents a step in the process of urbanization. One must not delude oneself by thinking that urbanization is something to be avoided, though; as most of the artifacts listed above show, the process is the graphic representation of the progress that the civilization has made so far. More importantly, the artifacts listed above display the complex path of understanding the relationships between civilization and nature.
The timid attempts at copying nature and its creations were replaced with the endeavors of building something even more grandeur, and finally approached the rejection of the harmonic principles suggested by nature.
However, as soon as the urbanization process took its toll and the environmental concern appeared on the agenda of the global community, urban artifacts started reflecting the related concerns, rendering the timeless nature-vs.-nurture conflict. At present, some of the artifacts hint at the possibility of the conflict resolution. Yet, the vagueness of these solutions shows that more time and effort must be put into addressing the issue.
There were many changes that took place in the western civilization in 1300 AD and they are the social, institutional, economic and intellectual changes. In social there was the rise in nation state in that nationalism took , in institutional there was rise of church that is protestant church, in economic there was agriculture and the intellectual there was renaissance. Nationalisms that was a sense of identity with a nation was enforced in the western countries mainly due to the fact that people in these countries were in need of freedom therefore they saw that because with the rule of Muslim they could not have what they were in need of then they has to have their sovereign so that they can do what they though was of importance therefore they sort for a nation. This meant that due to the slavery that existed then these people would no longer accept this to continue and they therefore came into agreement to make relevant changes in the government. This nation state came up due to industrial revolution that took place in the country this was because thee were changes that took place therefore the people sought to have a nation.
At first these countries that are in the western had catholic as the main church that had fought and conquered the Muslim religion that was viable and ruling in many of these countries there was need to have change made in these religion so that they can give way to other religions therefore the countries required freedom for all people to stay in there places this meant that they had to fight for their freedom and therefore the catholic paved way and it was later fought and there was rise in protestant.( Daniel,1992)
The consolidated power created the foundation for Europe first modern nation sates in France. The evolution began in the middle ages but they grew weaker in the Eastern Europe during the middle ages. The new monarchies did not achieve absolute power; these new monarchies were not nation states as the populations did not necessarily feel they belonged to a nation. The characteristics of these new monarchies were to reduce the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands and creation of standing armies. There was advent of gun powder that resulted in the production of musket and cannon and increased the vulnerability of armies and their knights. There was reduction of the political power of the clergy in that the medieval notion of the church being supreme of the state was replaced in belief and practice. There was creation of more efficient bureaucracies in that they enabled the new monarchies to begin centralizing control of their realms. There was increased political influence of the bourgeoisies. There was increased public debt by taking loans from merchants bankers. There was growth in power of the state and competition among the nation states of Europe and the effects of spread of secular and religious ideas on the politics, economics and societies in Europe there was impact of economic innovation on the standard of living and traditional ways of life of European people. The influence was mainly in literature, philosophy, art, politics, science and religion. The main causes of these changes was the revolutions that took place in these countries this made that there was need for the people to get in line with the changes therefore they had to ensure that what they brought in place could not affect the operations that were taking place to the people. This meant that what the people had to do is to have changes in religion and other fields this was clear that the countries in western civilization where ready for changes to occur. With renaissance the arts where in link with dedication to the church therefore with the other religions that existed they could not accept these new arts and this meant that they had to have a religion that could not have hindrances to the new arts. (David, 1990)
Changes that took place in western civilization were clear indication that with changes that is the industrial revolution then there was need for people to have another view to what ever they held on. This meant that they needed changes made in several areas so that they could have these revolutions enforced in the country. Therefore the changes were in line with whatever people required changing for industrial revolution.
Reference:
David, Y. (1990): Western civilization. American historical review, vol, 104, pp, 125.
Daniel, T. (1992): Renaissance. Washington state university.
Jackson, S. (2002): Growth of power of the state. Western civilization 6th edition.
This work is a comprehensive analysis of the activities of the most significant Western thinkers: Freud, Darwin, and Marx. Each of them had a special impact on Western civilization, making a great contribution to science and culture. They worked in different fields (psychology, biology, and philosophy), but in part, their ideas overlap. The achievements of these scientists are still relevant and are used in many areas of human life. Some of them, on the contrary, have lost their relevance due to the development of modern science. However, these ideas in any case became a pillar for the development of modern society.
Introduction
The history of human thought development is inextricably linked with those who have the most significant influence on it. In the course of history, more significant personalities, such as scientists, psychologists, and philosophers have constantly appeared. These professionals ideas are new and innovative for individuals living in contemporary society. When most people accept these ideas, it leads to a fundamental change in the social order. Therefore, it is crucial to understand who influenced people in history and where this led. Moreover, according to Tarnas (2010), the cultural and intellectual history can serve as a preparatory education for the challenges that face us all (p. 11). Indeed, by relying on experience, people can avoid their predecessors mistakes and use only the most useful and vital achievements.
Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud are a few of the most notable examples of people who have had the most significant influence on Western civilization. As mentioned by Caplan et al., the theoretical movements inspired by these men have fundamentally reoriented our modern understanding of biological nature, society, and the human mind (11). These people worked in different fields, but each of them played a crucial role in their science. The purpose of this paper is to propose the main ideas of these scientists and; therefore, prove that their role in the development of Western civilization is substantial.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is still one of the most well-known scientists in the world. Once, in 2010, the historian of science Peter Bowler tried to imagine the world without him, and it appeared meaningless and underdeveloped (White). Although his ideas proved to be revolutionary, now people understand that Darwinism is one of the keys to the understanding of biology. Born based on a generalization of the data of selection and domestication, Darwinism is considered to be the scientific foundation of practical selection. It is widely used in biomedical research and for the development of scientific methods for managing the evolutionary process in the conditions of modern civilization. Evolutionary theory played a critical role in developing the philosophy of dialectical materialism (Blancke and Denis). It still retains the importance of one of the leading areas in developing philosophical problems of natural science. The practical use of the evolutionary theory data in solving national economic problems includes many different directions. This includes selection work and regulating the number of biological species. Thus, the evolutionary theory contributes to peoples development of multiple methods for the optimal density of crops in agrocenoses.
The history of medicine also presents how fruitful were the approaches to the study of human pathology based on the principles of Darwinism. The successful development of research in such areas as epidemiology, medical genetics, and immunogenetics is unthinkable without using the principles of evolutionary theory. Most of the known diseases of humans, animals, and plants can be divided into four main groups: infectious, allergic, somatic, and social. The successful fight against the first three groups of diseases is directly or indirectly related to the knowledge of the causes and laws of living creatures evolution.
Darwins teaching was the first materialistic theory of the evolution of living creatures. Furthermore, his theory played a considerable role in substantiating and strengthening the historical view of organic nature. It gave advanced meaning and new goals to all biological sciences, such as the studies of the environment, ecology, genetic regulation, and molecular medicine (Mesoudi 7855). First, this theory substantiates the objectivity of the development of the organic world. Evolutionary development can be presented as a process of adaptation of organic forms to environmental conditions that are continuously occurring in nature.
Darwin always went into theoretical constructions from the facts of nature to the conclusions following from them. This feature of his evolutionary theory is manifested in its deep and organic connection with animal husbandry and plant growing practice. As a talented observer, Darwin saw things that no natural scientist had noticed before. He highlighted the dialectical relations between variability, heredity, and selection, although all three factors were separately already known before his work. Darwin proved that organic evolution depends on the interaction of all factors and that individually they cannot provide the evolutionary process. Evolutionary changes are expressed in the accumulation of small quantitative changes, but the result of these quantitative changes are qualitative changes. Thus, Darwin gave a causal explanation of the evolutionary process, revealing organic natures objective dialectics. In this connection, this theory is, in many respects, the key to the further development of not an only evolutionary doctrine in biology but also the whole of natural science.
Karl Marx
The influence of Marxs thought on Western socioeconomic and philosophical thought is an extensive and complex topic. Interest in Marx as a philosopher comes mainly in the XX century (Vivek 357). This is due not only to the fact that many of his philosophically important works were first published in this century. His ideas and creativity gained importance primarily among the activities of other philosophers and scientists. They were responsible for the fulfillment of an essential, fundamental shift in the spiritual culture of Western civilization. The essence of this shift is diverse, but it is mainly associated with a radically different interpretation of consciousness compared to the tradition of classical philosophizing. In particular, the works of Marx have become a significant phenomenon among many studies on this topic.
People have concluded that human thinking is determined by many factors, partly overlapping with each other. These include innate mental categories, history, culture, social class, biology, language, and many other factors. As it turned out, one cannot rely only on reason as a source of accurate judgments about reality. The recognition of the deep mediation of all types of human spiritual activity was gaining increasing influence. In this light, the world turns out to be what rather deserves the name of a human project. It no longer seems to scientists, including Marx, a complex of objects that contains a complete meaning and order independent of people.
The openness, incompleteness, and semantic uncertainty of the new world prompts us to define the goals of human searches differently, directed to philosophy. In the development of new types of philosophical discourse, designed to consolidate these changes, Marxs name appears to be one of the most significant. This explains the repeated bursts of interest in him among representatives of various philosophical trends from existentialists to structuralists.
All this gave reason to speak not just about the influence of Marxs ideas, but about the existence of the phenomenon of Western Marxism. It is possible to conclude that there is a lively interest in the philosopher Marx even in the modern world. It is also critical to understand that such interest is determined by the great importance of his general philosophical ideas. Even though they are associated with his communist utopia, they develop in an independent direction.
Sigmund Freud
Freuds teachings had a significant impact on the development of modern culture. Without his ideas, it is difficult to imagine fiction, painting, cinema, and other human activity spheres. The most prominent representatives of post-culture and avant-garde often turn to the unconsciouss idea, trying to embody it in their works. Dadaism, surrealism, expressionism, the stream of consciousness literature, theater of the absurd, pop art, and many phenomena of postmodernism creatively transformed the Austrian psychiatrists ideas and often put a fairly serious emphasis on them.
According to Freud, eroticism is believed to be an integral part of human existence. This also began to be actively used in art culture and even in advertising. For example, advertisements often show a half-naked body on the screen or various erotic symbols such as brightly painted lips. Sex is entirely liberated and flourishes in all conceivable and almost unthinkable forms in everyday life and art. In addition, the Freudian idea of the compensatory functions of art provides a powerful lever for the development of modern mass culture. According to Freud, when perceiving such works, ordinary people who empathize with the heroes identify themselves with such art. Hence, people get rid of complexes and embody their dreams; in other words, compensate for the things that they cannot embody in real life.
Freudian ideas were equally influential in the field of the arts. Freud presented the initial paradigm for the use of psychoanalysis in the realm of literature and art (Reed 285). He gained many talented followers among philosophers, philologists, and art critics. The entire foreseeable history of literature, art, and culture has been revised and rewritten from the standpoint of psychoanalysis or methods based on it. Due to the Freudian methodologys peculiarities, the authors of these studies began to pay serious attention to the biographies of writers and artists, their sexual side of life, and mental disorders.
The first major psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, heralded a new era in the 20th-century culture. Along with Freuds other works, it acted as a reference book for many literary and art critics (Turner 600). This book fed the creative imagination of artists of many avant-garde movements. Even now, the interpretation of dreams and peoples actions with their unconscious help is a relevant and essential activity.
Thus, summing up, it can be noted that the ideas of Sigmund Freud are one of the foundations of modern Western culture. The primary influence of Freudianism on modern culture is applying its ideas of the unconscious, the instincts of sex, fear, and aggressiveness. Thanks to these ideas, people can describe what is happening to them and those around them. In addition, Freuds theories had a significant impact on various areas of art, emphasizing the importance of his works for humanity.
Conclusion
Undoubtedly, modern science goes beyond the achievements of Darwin, Marx, and Freud. People continue to study the world around them, put forward new concepts, and make discoveries. However, this would not have been possible without the strong foundation laid decades ago. In particular, these three scientists have created the basis for biology, philosophy, and psychology. Even with modern changes in scientific thought, people worldwide are continually referring to these authors works. This allows new ideas to be confirmed, refuted, or corrected. In addition, based on experience, it is possible to predict how science will develop in the future. Thus, it is proved that the importance of these three researchers work for modern Western science and society cannot be denied. It is thanks to them that people have the opportunity to develop now and predict future processes.
Works Cited
Blancke, Stefaan, and Gilles Denis. Bringing Darwin into the Social Sciences and the Humanities: Cultural Evolution and its Philosophical Implications. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, vol. 40, 2017.
This article is devoted to the study of the relationship between cultural and evolutionary processes occurring in humanity. The authors note the importance of Darwins teachings for the humanities. It allows you to trace the modifications of various cultural phenomena and connect them with changes in other areas of human activity. Thus, this article proves the inextricable link between the development of human nature, society, and culture.
Dhareshwar, Vivek. Marx, Foucault and the Secularization of Western Culture. Rethinking Marxism, vol. 28, no. 3-4, 2016, pp. 354-366.
The author of this article describes the main philosophical ideas of Marx related to religion. This allows him to give the reader a deeper understanding of Marxs views. In particular, most attention is paid to issues of secularization and their criticism. This comprehensive view allows readers to better understand Marxs ideas and examine them from different angles.
Caplan, Arthur L., and Bruce Jennings, eds. Darwin, Marx and Freud: their influence on moral theory. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
This books main idea is to prove that Darwin, Marx, and Freud are one of the most influential personalities that were able to change the world for the better and provide future generations with essential knowledge. In addition, the book proves that their contribution significantly changed peoples understanding of the modern world, nature, society, and the human mind.
Mesoudi, Alex. Pursuing Darwins Curious Parallel: Prospects for a Science of Cultural Evolution. PNAS, vol. 114, no. 30, 2017, pp. 7853-7860.
In this article, the cultural processes taking place in society are described using genetic characteristics. It is because of this that major changes occur both in the field of biology and within beliefs, languages, and attitudes. Thus, the ideas of Darwinism are closely related to each area of human activity, which emphasizes their value.
Reed, Isaac Ariail. Sigmund Freud and Social Theory Manqué. Society, vol. 57, 2020, pp. 281-286.
The author notes the importance of Freuds ideas for modern sociology. He claims that without Freud, the development of this science becomes more difficult. In addition, he stresses that even non-Freudians support the ideas of this scientist. Thus, Freud is one of the key figures for the development of many humanities.
Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind. Random House, 2010.
This book is a kind of guide to the world of Western civilization. The author has systematized information about the most important events and persons in Western history. This allows readers to get the most complete and structured information about any historical period or philosophical idea.
Turner, Stephen. Freud in Many Contexts. Society, vol. 57, 2020, pp. 599-605.
The author of this article examines Freuds activities from different angles, emphasizing its importance. He notes the depth of ideas related to human mental activity. The author also examines the cultural and historical aspects that influenced the work of Freud. Thanks to this, the reader receives a comprehensive description of the scientists activities.
White, Paul. Introduction: Science, Literature, and the Darwin Legacy. 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 11, 2010.
This source presents the legacy and thought of Darwin by discussing the origins of his work, his interests and aspirations, and his love for science. At the moment most of his works are complete and can be accessed by professionals and individuals who desire to have a substantial amount of knowledge in science.
The history and historical development of civilizations pose great challenges to mankind and relations between people and society. It all began with the idea that human beings, by their very nature, have rights. The man said the classical liberals, are born into a state of natural freedom, and his rights to life, liberty, and property may be limited by governments only when his exercise of these rights infringes on the rights of others (Spielvogel 2004). The greatest challenge facing Western Civilization today is gender inequalities and the low position of women in society.
Gender inequality is the most terrible process which has deep roots and goes back to primeval times. But what about the rights of women? Arent they human beings also? Historically, the woman was placed at a legal and social disadvantage and usually not educated to develop her true talents. But these did flower when circumstances permitted and were demonstrated in female authorship and whenever men and women had marriages that rose above household partnership to intellectual companionship and joint spiritual pursuits. The fact that alone among the animal kingdom, women are supported by men has distorted the way in which women have developed. Cott (1989) dissects the contention that women earn partnership with their husbands by the unpaid work they do, pointing out that no man divides his income with a paid housekeeper, even though she may free him to earn his living. Males have become more human than females have because they have interests in industry, commerce, science, manufacture, government, art, religion (Cott 1989).
The challenge is that modern society speaks about freedom and human rights, democracy, and liberty but supports the oppression of women at home and at work. Women have had to concentrate on their sexual role and on a role as nonproductive consumers. Fortunately, these tendencies are checked by heredity, Only recently, in 1898, has the rise of a group of working women who earn a wage begun to change this aspect of society, which has had centuries to pit the instinct of self-preservation (which in all species requires independent action) against the instinct of race preservation (which in all species develops sexual differentiation of certain organs and functions) (Evans 1980). Migrating birds or cattle cannot have a weaker sex, she points out (Evans 1980). The human races overemphasis on sex relationships is responsible for the rise of prostitution, which is merely another expression of the emphasis women must put on the economic value of their sexual functions. Evans examines in some detail the legal implications of the marriage contract and their injustice; addresses the limitations on womens activities, including their inability to vote; and outlines the ways in which equality of the sexes would benefit society (Cott 1989).
It is not easy to change this situation and century-old prejudices, but society and the world, in general, should reevaluate the position of women and level gender differences. Since the subjection of women contradicts the liberal philosophy of merit, the true equality of women in the home would mean that a child would for the first time in mans existence on earth, be trained in the way he should go, rather than being told to respect others by a mother not respected as an equal. The competition of women in occupations would double the mass of mental faculties available for the higher service of humanity (Cott 1989, p. 29). Human beings like other species are affected by their environment, but they are also uniquely affected by social conditions. The duty of states and communities is to restructure social institutions and involve men in housing and childbearing activities. As the aims of the movement shift, from stress on individualism, social cooperation, and negative rights to stress on collectivism (not just any collective action, but in the sense of using government power) and positive rights.
References
Cott, N. F. (1989). The Grounding of Modern Feminism. Yale University Press, 1989.
Evans, S. (1980) Personal Politics: The Roots of Womens Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement & the New Left. Vintage.
Spielvogel, J.J. (2004). Western Civilization: A Brief History, 3rd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing.
In the video, the tour guide said that civilization is the effort to provide a shield for human beings against the hazards of the natural world. However, people are often familiar with the definition that involves the development of a group whereby they have made intellectual achievements, technological advancements, interconnected living communities, and division of labor. The two descriptions sound different, but the basis is contrary to expectations similar.
The focus of civilizations was always development, which was triggered by various things, the terms for which was provided by the tour guide hazards of the natural world. It may include any hardship in the life of a human being, especially primal ancestors of homo sapiens who continuously suffered from bad weather and threats in the face of predators and disease. This fact makes a distinct resemblance of our common understanding to the definition introduced in the video.
Nevertheless, it lacks the area, which also refers to the level of civilization culture. Culture can be traced through art and literature in their broader definitions. Art in this sense includes sculptures, jewelry making, clothing production, paintings, and every other product with artistic value. Literature refers to oral and written traditions, local folklore, scriptures, and documents. These cultural indexes refer to the level of civilization because they require attendance for human communities basic needs and safety. The safer a community is, the more significant is the deviation in pursuit of artistic values and knowledge is possible.
In summary, technically, the two definitions are the same, but the one given in the video accounts for the smaller portion of what civilization is. Civilization requires the development and accumulation of artistic value and knowledge combined with the need for shelter and means of protection in the form of technological advancements and the formation of communities.
The Arabs were the major settler in the Middle East and along the Arabian Peninsula. They majorly practiced a traditional way of life that is different in different aspects of life. Some of the main traditional aspects they embraced include staying in houses built out of the mud and primarily practicing nomadic activities. The strategic location of their settlement was majorly in remote areas whose main objective was to keep them away from the environments of the outside world and enhance family bonds (Abdurrahman).
However, living along the Arabian Peninsula exposed them to different Islamic cultures, where most of them became assimilated. The Muslim Koran portrays the geographical and cultural values of the Arabian individuals in the 6th and 7th centuries as individuals who want to stay away from the effects of civilization and adhere to their cultural orientation.
A large population of the Muslim community across the world holds very mixed reactions and views about individuals who are oriented to the Christian and Jewish faith. Some of the views about Christianity from the Muslim faithful and leaders worldwide are very negative and unfavorable. However, the Europeans and Christians also have a different perceptions of the Islamic religion and culture (Abdurrahman). Some Jews and Christians argue that it is a religion of sword and a culture of extremism. Some individuals also think that the religion is more jihadist and terrorist due to some terrorist activities conducted by some of the Islam faithful.
According to the traditional Arabian culture, womens attire was majorly veiled, covering most parts of their bodies. They adopted the dressing code to help them hide their women from the worldly social scene. Over the years, the female dressing code has increasingly become very restrictive, and women and young female children must adhere to their attire restrictions (Abdurrahman). One of the main reasons why Muslim women should adhere to the Islamic dressing code is because the Koran requires them to do so and hence have to adhere to the teaching and values of the Koran. The dressing code is also a show of loyalty to the Islamic culture amidst the changing social norms across the world.
The Gupta period in India is considered the phase when India recorded great advancements in different nation sectors. It was at this time that Indians embraced various scientific ideologies and approaches to enhance effectiveness and increase production in India. The Gupta period is perceived to be having a similar concept to Greece as observed by the westerners (Abdurrahman). This is because they both embraced science in politics and science to improve the quality of life for their people. This was the period when India experienced significant improvements in innovation and technology, engineering, and different forms of art.
The Abbasid Empire was one of the strongest empires to ever exist due to the appropriate leadership skills practiced by the then emperor Al-Rashid. However, his sons began fighting against themselves to succeed in their fathers throne and legacy upon his demise. This brought about an unwarranted conflict that negatively affected the stability of the empire. Political instability within the empire weakened the empires important sections, which led to invasions from their enemies and internal conflicts. As the empires lost their glory, the leaders in different sectors increasingly became incompetent, which contributed to the collapse of the Abbasid Empire.
The Arabian individuals are considered to be the prominent individuals who embraced the Islamic culture across the world. Nevertheless, other communities were also assimilated into the Islamic way of life (Abdurrahman). Some communities include the settlers in the Middle East, Northern parts of Africa, the Iranian nations, and the Hamito-Semitic communities.
Work Cited
Abdurrahman, Dudung. Multiculturalism in Islamic Civilization during the Classic Period. Addin, vol. 11, no. 1, 2017. Web.
The culture of Mayan civilization continues to exist nowadays in many parts of South America. The people of Maya have lived for almost four thousand years, stemming from the Olmecs (Carmack et al., 2016). Carmack et al. (2016) write that the Formative period (1800 B.C.A.D. 200) saw the origin of Mesoamerica as a distinctive cultural entity (p. 39). Throughout their history, these people were able to achieve numerous breakthroughs that greatly benefited their society and developed a sophisticated culture.
The echoes of the Mayan sociocultural complexity continue to attract scholars across the globe, as they are not fully studied up to today. Regions have been known to contain multiple groups with different languages, deities, and views on the world, which created an amazingly intricate ethnic diversity (Carmack et al., 2016). This made cultural traditions of people who lived there highly based on their social interactions, which led to regular conflicts, as well as interesting religious and political confluxes.
As a result of these developments, modern Mayans have a unique, diverse culture that has a strong connection to its roots and stands out from the contemporary traditions. Alas, Mayan civilization was also a subject of heavy oppression and continues to face inequality in modern times (Anderson, 2020). Some Mayans were able to preserve their culture by escaping Spanish invaders and fleeing to the remote parts of the land, which made their contribution to the modern understanding of Mayan culture even more valuable ( Maya people of Belize, 2020). The history that led this civilization to its current place in the world did not undermine their identity, however, Mayans are currently viewed as underrepresented in many sources (Carmack et al., 2016). This notion goes as far as some historians have claimed that Mayans no longer exist, although it is not so (Leventhal et al., 2012). This essay examines the modern presence of Mayan culture and its effects on the countries of Belize and Guatemala.
The Life of Mayan Descendants in Modern Society
Nowadays, an overwhelming majority of Mayan descendants populate Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and, partially, El Salvador (Anderson, 2020). While they had to adapt to the modern cultural views of their respected nations, these people did manage to retain many beliefs of their ancestors (Anderson, 2020). Their culture had to go through multiple problems in the face of globalization, government oppression, and loss of cultural identity.
The culture of Mayans is preserved via various sources, including art forms. Mayans had developed writing systems and promoted literacy long before contact with Spanish colonists (Carmack et al., 2016). This fact is reflected in the modern Mayan literature, which shows excellent fluency of forms, can be considered highly expressive and is heavily based on oral language traditions (Carmack et al., 2016). Modern Mayan art provides an insight into the views of the existing population, as its primary focus remains on the natural wonders of the world (Anderson, 2020). Moreover, the theme of ancient aspects of the Mayan civilization is very common among modern Mayan artists (Anderson, 2020). Moreover, regarding oral tradition, Carmack et al. (2016) argue that eloquence in the spoken word, in fact, often ranks as the single most important qualification for leadership and public service (p. 489). Mayan languages are a reflection of the diverse community that uses them, and they serve as the continuation of the culture.
There are over 30 languages that originate from Proto-Mayan origin. Several of these languages are alive in modern times, for example, there are approximately 360,000-400,000 speakers of the Qeqchi language across Guatemala and Belize (Wichmann & Hull, 2009). The reason behind this prevalence of Qeqchi is the fact that this group of Mayans has been more successful than others in repelling Spanish military advances (Wichmann & Hull, 2009). Many languages took a hard impact after Spanish persecutions, and their speakers were mostly assimilated, yet Qeqchi remains one of the Mayan languages that have the highest number of monolingual speakers (Wichmann & Hull, 2009). The fact that Mayan languages did not go extinct is essential for cultural vitality, as the multifaceted society of Mayan people was built upon these differences, making them an integral part of their identity (Letts, 2003). This preservation is vital for the culture to persist throughout the ages, and Mayans continue to put effort into defending their legacy.
The land of Mayans has been under dispute as well, which led to several conflicts before governments were able to realize the importance of the Maya Forest. The protection of lands that belong to Mayans from industrial developments is an integral part of cultural preservation. The history of Mayan civilization has a substantial impact on the safety of the Maya Forest, which is located in the territories of Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico (Primack et al., 2013). Ecotourism became a popular alternative for financial exploitation of the forest, which has a significant positive influence on the preservation of local communities, as it discourages destructive activities such as logging or agricultural expansion (Primack et al., 2013). Mayan ruins continue to attract visitors, providing a boost for local villages and encouraging people who live there to educate themselves on the knowledge of ancient Mayan history and the English language to engage with tourists (Primack et al., 2013). Through this intricate way, the remnants of Mayan civilization continue to help their descendants.
Despite the apparent erosion of Mayan culture that occurred after their defeat by Spain forces, Mayans have preserved many aspects of their culture, including religious beliefs, art forms, and social structure. Nowadays, the issue remains, as Mayans combat the homogenization of their culture and avoid being assimilated by Mexican traditions (Letts, 2003). Anderson (2020) writes that, in Guatemala, most women of Maya heritage dress is a type of hand-woven clothing thats traditional to their culture. The efforts toward the preservation of the culture show prominent success, as the number of indigenous people who are not afraid to demonstrate their identity grows.
Recent Mayan Movements
The people of Maya have been struggling to keep their identity for a prolonged time. After the Spanish conquest, Mayans were largely oppressed across their lands. Native people were placed at the bottom of societal structure, as invaders took power for themselves and reigned for a prolonged time. In their efforts to unite people, Mesoamerican countries have attempted to create a common national culture, which led to several conflicts with indigenous populations, who were heavily persecuted (Carmack et al., 2016). However, the situation has changed during the past century in favor of indigenous people as liberal views promoted equality and justice instead of oppression (Carmack et al., 2016). Regarding the future of Mesoamericans in modern society, Carmack et al. (2016) argue that widespread opposition to the injustices accompanying residual old-fashioned liberalism and the new developmental reforms led to revolutions throughout the region (p. 296). In the past decade, Mayan society has achieved multiple recognitions of its rights and legacy ( Belize: Advocating Maya peoples rights to land, 2017). Through confrontations with governments and the combined efforts of all of their communities, Mayan descendants were able to secure their cultural heritage.
One of the most global Mayan movements has occurred in Guatemala in the twentieth century. This movement has focused on the protection of Mayan culture against governmental repercussions, which was achieved by both peaceful protests and military actions against the state-wide genocide of indigenous people (Medina, 2008). In Belize, the situation was reflected by local Mayan communities, who similarly demanded to have cultural autonomy, linguistic recognition, and greater land claims (Medina, 2008). Through these actions, Mayans were able to protect their identity from outside influence.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the culture of Maya did not only survive throughout the ages, it was able to take its unique place among other modern cultures that are more dominant without losing much of its identity. Nowadays, Belize and Guatemala do contain not only a vast amount of Mayan ruins but also a significant portion of the Mayan population. The indigenous people of Mesoamerican countries continue to grow steadily, and, along with it, increase the interest in the understanding of Mayan history (Chase, D., & Chase, A., 2016). Currently, over 6 million Maya people are living in Belize, Guatemala, and other Mesoamerican countries, who have preserved their heritage throughout the ages ( Maya people of Belize, 2020). These people are an integral part of these countries, and their culture allows people to gain insight into one of the most ancient civilizations on the planet.
The essential part of the preservation has been achieved in the past century, although not without bloodshed. The bonds within their communities show the results of their ancestors life experiences, as their common languages and beliefs unite these people to stand against the erosion of their heritage. Mayans have shown the world that they are not obsolete and that their culture still thrives across several countries of South America.
Modernization is a critical issue for this culture, as it revolves around the traditional way of living. Letts (2003), in his prognosis regarding the future of the culture, writes that Mayans will continue to be successful in the midst of modernization while maintaining cultural vitality (p. 17). It is essential for indigenous people to exercise their rights to preserve as much of their culture as possible while acknowledging the outside world. Mayans have followed their traditions throughout the ages, and attempts to force changes into their culture were resisted so far. This unique set of customs has been put to the test by many external factors, yet Mayan culture prevails.
This culture brings more than just diversity to these countries, as many tourists are interested in experiencing the Mayan way of life. Many aspects of the ancient culture live today in these parts of the world, which continue to attract visitors through their charming uniqueness and colorful magnificence of Mayan rituals and art (D.C. Team, 2016). Old stone structures are but a small part of the Mayan legacy, the primary cultural mediums are people and their traditions.
Carmack, R. M., Gasco, J. L., & Gossen, G. H. (2016). The legacy of Mesoamerica: History and culture of a Native American civilization (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Primack, R. B., Bray, D., Galletti, H. A., & Ponciano, I. (2013). Timber, tourists, and temples: Conservation and development in the Maya forest of Belize Guatemala and Mexico. Island Press.
The reforms that began in the Renaissance period are still relevant in the modern age. Man has evolved through time, with the Christianity and Muslim religions explaining the origin of man as God’s creation. In fact, Pico della Mirandola exclaimed: “There is nothing to see more wonderful than man!” (Della, 1). Della is particularly awed by the magnificence of man, his closeness to the gods and the superiority of his senses amongst other animas in the creation. Maybe, that is why humans are able to reform from one type of a society, to an improved, better version of the same society through civilization, which comes with scientific inventions, commercialization, changing political landscape, growth of cities, and reformation of the agricultural practices. Civilization is a significant reform that started in Renaissance period and continues to have undisputable implications on the human life. Peter Stearns, in his work, ‘Western Civilization in World History’, revealed how commercialization was and still is an important part of reforms that have occurred in human civilization, describing it as “a form of human organization” (Stearns, 31). Civilization is also a coherence that develops in form of “surplus populations, attractive institutions and values, shared trading systems, common institutions, and larger social patterns” (Stearns, 32). While early modern civilization may not be highly regarded in the modern society, it continues to prevail because of how it influenced trade, growth of cities, patterns of human organization, agriculture and religion.
Civilization led to the development of cities and urban influence. Stearns argued that that civilization came as a means through which cities and urban centers developed. These urban centers acted as centers of economic surplus because they were mostly meeting centers for the merchants to exchange their valuables. Cities such as Mexico, which had developed during the age of reform, are still upfront today and centers of economic power in their countries. For example, Hernan Cortes, was writing the ‘Letters from Mexico’ to the King of Spain, informing him of the conquest that was taking place around 1521 (Cortes, 161). This shows that cities had grown out as centers of civilization during the reform period and were becoming centers of political and economic power. This trend of urbanization has continued until the modern times, with cities being the centers of economic power through industrialization and manufacturing activities.
Civilization has been a reform in human organization that has not only seen the development of cities and urban centers, but also has aided the development of writing as a means of communication. Writing was a common form of expression that began in the Renaissance period and is still a reliable and sustainable method of expression. Stearns explains that “writing allows for record keeping, promotes new ways to record knowledge and promotes new kinds of intellectual activities” (Stearns, 31). Writing has emerged through the process of human civilization, especially with the advancement of religious ideals such as Christianity and Islam. For instance, Martin Luther used writing as a form of expressing his disputation, posting his “theses on the castle door at Wittenberg in 1517” (Luther, 1). Through such writings, Luther made his philosophical ideologies and known, and can still be used to inform the modern society what happened in the early modern past. Writing is also used in teaching the Christian doctrine, like the one written by John Calvin, explaining that the true wisdom of man consists in the knowledge of God the Creator and Redeemer. If there were no writing civilization, there would be scant evidence of such teachings in the modern world, and religion would barely exist in the first place. Writing is still a widely used form of civilization in the modern society. It is used in teaching, writing newspapers, books, periodicals, journals, among other materials. Writing is still a source of knowledge and transformation that continues to be evidenced in the human society.
Civilization widely expanded the trading activities in the early modern times, mostly through the merchants. Stearns explained that “commercialization was possible in part because of the merchant activity, and the distinctive place of merchants in urban life” (Stearns, 81). The Western civilization, for instance, copied the trading methods from the Arabs during the Middle Ages (1450-1850s). If such civilization had not existed, it would probably have been impossible to have shared trade between the nations today and the advancement of the industrialization in the modern world. Civilization has also seen the rise of commercialized agriculture in countries such as Japan (Stearns, 73). Through the link to the earlier period of the activities of the trading merchants, the trading relationships were formed, which have extended up to the modern period where commercialization has intensified and continued to transform economies, cities, and the urban centers. However, the commercialization has also brought about inequalities in the social structure, leading to the emergence of the rich who have the abundance of resources, and the poor, who live in misery, and are faced with constant threats of hunger and deprivation. Such inequalities have led to the criticism of civilization, as a reform that has disrupted the human society from its original form, creating social class divisions, and spreading the economic inequalities of capitalism. Civilization has also been said to cause political disunity due to different coherences in civilization such as Chinese Civilization and Western civilization (Stearns, 33). As much as civilization has can cause harm to society, its expansion of trading activities has more benefits to be earned.
In conclusion, it is evident that civilization has been a significant reform that has taken place in the human society. There have been potential implications of the civilization process including the proliferation of the cities and the urban centers. Civilization began in the reform period when there were establishment of cities and urban areas, which served as political centers and trading centers. An example has been given of the city of Mexico, which underwent the conquest of Spain. Such cities have grown to become notable industrial centers, opening up the economies of their countries to trading activities. Civilization is also the source of commercialization. Through the early modern civilization that saw the trading merchants exchange their goods through informal markets, and now there is shared trading agreements between nations. Such an implication may have been difficult or not have existed at all were there no trading activities in the early modern period. There has also been commercialization of agriculture due to civilization process. Civilization is a human reform that changes the way people live and behave. In the context of making their lives better, humans have now discovered better ways of doing commercial agriculture, which is economically rewarding. Finally, civilization is a transformation that has enhanced learning process through the discovery of writing as a means of storing and communicating information. Religious ideals on Christianity, Islam, and other religions have been spread through the writing process. Civilization has acted as a reform that has been a foundation of the modern religion, the industrialization process, the growth of cities, proliferation of commercial agriculture, and a boost to the intellectual process through writing. Without these important changes that have been brought about by civilization as a means of human reform, the modern achievements would have been minimal.
Works Cited
Calvin, John. The Institutes of the Christian Religion: eBook Edition. Jazzybee Verlag, 2012.
Cortés, Hernán. Letters from Mexico. ed. by A.R. Pagden, New York: Grossman Publishers, 2001.
Della Mirandola, Giovanni Pico. Oration on the Dignity of Man. Regnery Publishing, 1996.