To begin with, everyone knows a brilliant saying that everything new is forgotten old truths. The Greek civilization impresses by its originality and incontestability in the manners of people and in a number of philosophers who made a great impact on the further flow of scientific thought. Architects, painters, and people of art left many features of their execution while creating works. The scheme of political implementation is also a result of Greek culture and people due to whom it was done.
Western civilization should be thankful to ancient Greeks for their innovative approaches and views which made a splash of political, cultural, and humane development afterward. This paper is aimed to evaluate the most significant standpoints in todays Western World due to the Greeks. The first point concerns the conception of politics and its development since ancient times. Greeks saw the significance in making masses of people controlled and felt a responsibility to keep a strict eye on the social issues so that to find solutions. Bruce Thornton in his book evaluates this statement in the following way: The Greeks recognized that their conception of human flourishingthe achievement of virtue and the good life, which in turn create happinesswas dependent on living politically. (Thornton, p. 123) In fact, many contemporary terms originate from the Greek language, i.e. democracy, aristocrat, tyranny, etc. One of the most eminent philosophers of mankind, Aristotle, compared the extent of politics with a state of well-being for people and saw direct dependence of the word (polis city) with community of families and aggregations of families in well-being, for the sake of a perfect and self-sufficing life. (Cited in Thornton, p.124).
The creation of Greek rationalism invoked many points on the emotional and perceptional peculiarities of a mans soul in connection with rational thinking. Euripides in the fifth century began designating the limitations of reason and the strong impact of passion trying to enslave a man with the inner calling for vicious behaviors (Thornton, p. 159). The Greeks tried to look at the things maintained in the surrounding world in their diversity and wholeness as well. They contributed to the West by means of designation of all strong and weak points of a man in prospects of worlds context and conceptualization or, as once Thucydides called the human thing (Thornton, p. 190). Greeks also widely discussed the idea of freedoms in society and the most significant one which was loaned in the West concerned the gender conflict with regards to insights of feminism or gender studies observed in many artistic works of ancient Greeks (Haynes, p. 45).
The contribution to the cultural heritage of the world was also huge due to ancient Greeks, whose civilization created its own concept full of mystical features, i.e. mythology. A picturesque description of heroes in myths and divine support of them made great contributions to world literature and that of the Western World. W. Barksdale Maynard saw in the American architecture style many things borrowed from ancient Greeks and also believed that Greek Revival style has many things in common as of the political sympathy of American culture to provide a policy with that of Greek (Manca, p. 418+).
Thus, the vast majority of approaches towards politics, rationalism, freedoms, and arts were borrowed by Western civilization from Greek ones. This is not surprising due to the original interpretation and survey of Greeks on the global issues implemented in society.
Works cited
Haynes, Katharine. Fashioning the Feminine in the Greek Novel. London: Routledge, (2002): 45.
Manca, Joseph. Architecture in the United States, 1800-1850. Journal of Southern History 70.2 (2004): 418+.
Thornton, Bruce. Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization. San Francisco: Encounter Books, (2000): 123, 124, 159, 190.
Cultures and civilizations are somewhat similar terms in aspects of a peoples distinctive characteristics. The core concept of both notions is the difference from the others, which can be explored. As such, in the essay, several civilizations are compared: the Ashanti civilization of West Africa in 1600 AD, the Latin American civilization in 1800 AD, and the Cherokee civilization of North America in 1700 AD. The common characteristic for these civilizations is the flourishment before European colonization.
The first category of comparison between civilizations is social and cultural. In Ashanti, people knew smithery, gathered fruits for food from fertile soils, hunted with dogs, and cultivated yams, batatas, cassada, and maize. The Ashanti society was matrilineal and consisted of family classes with a selected male chief under a king (Reindorf, 2020). Next, in Latin America of the 1800s, the culture and social order resembled contemporary Europe since native peoples of the region were mostly assimilated. Namely, people relied on agriculture and trade, practiced Catholicism, absorbed ideas of Enlightenment, and were primarily patriarchal and dependent on the Spanish king until Revolution (Restall & Lane, 2018). In turn, the Cherokee people also were agrarian; moreover, they had a matrilineal clan system and classes like warriors and priests. In 1700, they acquired European technologies and engaged in war with other clans and the French (Sapp, 2018). Thus, the three civilizations are similar in their reliance on agriculture and authority ruling over them.
Next, it is useful to turn to the political and economic aspects of the civilizations. Firstly, the Ashanti was a kingdom in the 16th that consisted of villages with their chiefs. The king had a Golden Stool symbolizing his dominance over the territorial divisions of Ashante. The kingdom engaged in trade with neighboring states (Reindorf, 2020). In the 19th centurys Latin America, an age of independent countries began after being a colonial territory; republics were established instead of monarchies. The Latins traded with each other and European countries on free trade (Restall & Lane, 2018). Finally, Cherokee was united in a tribal government in the 1700th and traded with the Americans and Europeans by providing primarily deerskins and beeswax (Sapp, 2018). Thus, the three civilizations had different political systems, yet they all participated in the trade as far as they could.
Lastly, one should consider the civilizations diplomatic and military situations in the mentioned periods. Namely, Ashante leaders dring the 17th century managed to unite the separated tribes into one kingdom, also subjugating the Denkyira people and neighboring regions. They were the greatest military power of WestAfrica at this time (Reindorf, 2020). In turn, Latin Americans fought for their independence from Spain and often had diplomatic relations with other European nations (Restall & Lane, 2018). Furthermore, the Cherokee entered an age of battles in the 18th century, engaging with British and later US forces against French and hostile Native American tribes. They also maintained contact with the US government to discuss the state of their lands. Unfortunately, they were forced to leave their places of inhabitance (Sapp, 2018). Therefore, the three civilizations were in different political situations because the periods chosen for analysis are too diverse in the events that determine them.
Thus, the essay analyzed and compared the three civilizations by different criteria. It was established that matrilinear succession is inherent in Ashante and Cherokee and tribal order. However, all the civilizations recognized a supreme authority of their own. They participated in trade and practiced agriculture in their everyday lives, although the technologies differed. All the civilizations had contact with Europeans (Ashante experienced it later), which influenced their political forces and destiny.
References
Reindorf, C. C. (2020). History of the Gold Coast and Asante, based on traditions and historical facts: Comprising a period of more than three centuries from about 1500 to 1860. Alpha Edition.
Restall, M., & Lane, K. (2018). Latin America in Colonial Times (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Sapp, R. (2018). Native Americans state by state (Illustrated ed.). Chartwell Books.
Art serves as a powerful tool for conserving and influencing culture. Like language, some artistic works are specific to particular regions and persons, thus providing a crucial way of learning about different cultures. Anthropologists utilize artifacts to comprehend previous and present civilizations ways of living. It is not rare finding a piece of art or artistic movement shared by people among different communities. Knitting is an example of an artifact with deep meaning across the world. The art has a specific origin, utilization, movements, and promoters. As a predominantly feminine thing, knitting offers an excellent opportunity to link particular female figures with definite civilizations. Consequently, the present work covers the subject of women, art, and western culture based on the knitting relic. The work utilizes Molly Rinker and Phyllis Latour as critical female characters and influencers in knitting history. The two womens creative use of knitting skills and products in areas where no one imagined before their time and todays knitting for activism facet significantly depicts connection between women, art, and western evolution.
Knitting and Activism: Important Female Figures
Knitting is a feminine hobby mostly taught to young women by their parents and grandparents to pass the time. The artifacts perspective has been changing since its conception in the Middle East (Zimmer, 2013). For example, Molly Rinker and Phyllis Latour applied knitting in the eighteen and twentieth centuries for different purposes, instead of spending leisure (Melton & Wallace, 2021). These two women did not live during the same period but dominate a crucial place in the knitting history and its application in the western philosophy.
Molly Rinker
Molly Rinker lived during the eighteenth century and served as a barmaid and innkeeper in Philadelphia, one of the thirteen colonies in America. Information about the ladys birthplace and age are never available, possibly due to societys little recognition of womens role in social issues during her time. Nonetheless, Molly was an England migrant living in the U.S. during the American Revolution. She was married and operated the family business (bar) together with her husband before the emergence of the British army.
The foreign soldiers fighting General Washingtons group in Philadelphia chose Mollys inn for accommodation and forced the husband away. However, the army commander demanded that Molly remains to serve the soldiers, an opportunity she utilized to spy for the American side. Melton and Wallace (2021) argue that Molly Rinkers meek and non-aggressive personality depicted her innocence, luring the British soldiers to trust her physical innocence. The soldiers carelessly discussed their plans and attack missions, allowing Molly to hear them (Melton & Wallace, 2021). As an English descendant, Molly exhibited knitting skills, which she utilized for the espionage mission. The lady spent sleepless nights listening to the drunk British militia, writing notes concerning their plans on pieces of paper. She then rolled the notes around small pieces of stones and utilized her knitting abilities to form large balls of yarn on a rock next to a cliff.
Molly secretly rolled the knitted balls down the cliff to reach Washingtons troops. A member of the American forces passed via the route often to collect the message, which helped them counter attacks by the British armies, especially in Philadelphia. Melton and Wallace (2021) describe the first American soldiers accounts concerning the central role played by Molly through her knitting talents. The authors cheer the spys creativity and boldness to use a hobbys skills to serve her nation when womens position mainly remained domestic. Arguably, Mollys actions come from her wish to participate in the nations struggle for freedom.
Molly also knitted socks for the American troops for warmth during winter, revealing womens place in nation-building and war times. Hopkins-Benton (2020) reports that showing connections with the American fighters during Mollys time amounted to treason, punishable through hanging. Nonetheless, Mrs. Rinker applied her above suspicion knitting skills to make pairs of socks for the American militia while using the opportunity to spy and help deliver America from the British despotism. Consequently, Molly Rinkers employment of knitting talents for risky public missions forms the first application of the artifact for activism, a common culture in the western world today.
Phyllis Latour Doyle
Phyllis Doyle is a renowned WWII spy who applied knitting gears and ingenuity to conceal clandestine encryptions leading to Americas triumph over German soldiers in Normandy. Doyle was born a South African in April 1921 (Napoleoni, 2020). Her father was a French physician, and the mother a British citizen. Phyllis lost her father months after birth through tribal clashes in South Africa, after which the mother remarried years later. However, Phyllis mom died in a racing car accident, forcing the lad to live with the foster fathers cousins family. Latour moved to Europe in 1939 to further her studies, allowing her to specialize in flight mechanics. The training background indorsed Phyllis to join the British Womens Auxiliary Air Force in 1941, aged twenty years (Napoleoni, 2020). The SOE (British Special Operations Executive) identified Phyllis potential and acquired her in the union.
The SOEs uncertainties towards Phyllis ability made the officials somehow hesitant, giving the young lady three days to decide whether to join the force or not. Nonetheless, Phylliss drive and determination immediately led her to accept the role. Napoleoni (2020) purports that the young ladys quick decision came from her desire to revenge her godmothers dads murder by the German soldiers. As an orphan, Phyllis depended significantly on the patroness, who committed suicide after being arrested and imprisoned by the Nazi group. Consequently, the brilliant lady viewed SOEs opportunity as the best way to make Germany pay for the loss and pain caused by their atrocities. Knitting was a feminine hobby in England during the 1920s, with several schools teaching the knowledge (Napoleoni, 2020). Phyllis studied the skills after migrating to Britain to further studies, an ability she would later apply to cause a global impact. As a novice under the SOE, Phyllis cultured combat know-how, including building scaling, using Sten guns, and repairing wireless sets.
Nevertheless, none of the skills acquired as the SOE officer helped Doyle in the same way as the knitting knowledge during the risky task in Normandy. Phyllis participated in her mission of life in May 1944, aged 23 years (Napoleoni, 2020). She dropped into Germany-controlled Normandy for an undercover mission that previously led to the deaths of multiple American and British soldiers. Latour invented a teenage French girls personality and started supplying soap to the German combatants, thus tracking their position and movements (Napoleoni, 2020). Employing silk fiber, the lad knitted materials bearing secret Morse codes and used radio sets to transfer the message to London (Napoleoni, 2020). Doyle notes that she wrapped the silk piece with the utilized cryptograph around a knitting spike, put it in a shoelace, and then used it to tie her hair to secure and transport confidential information (Napoleoni, 2020). Accordingly, not even a female German soldier managed to decode Phylliss tactics despite subjecting her to searches severally.
Phyllis used knitting as a noble act for a poor innocent French girl to prove her soap businesss innocence, while the needles and the knitted material concealed the ciphers. The spys brilliance in using knitting skills allowed sending 135 codes to the British and American soldiers, leading to a successful takeover during the D-Day attack (Napoleoni, 2020). The ladys actions show knittings role and centrality in delivering Normandy and granting success and a sense of accomplishment to the western world. Therefore, Phyllis mission and application of the skills significantly merge women, knitting, and western civilization, just like Mollys case. Doyle now resides in New Zealand, and she is a proud owner of the Chevalier of the Legion of Honor , Frenchs premier honor, bestowed to her in 2014 (Napoleoni, 2020). Doyle is also a principal figure in knitting history and significantly informs the present-day western culture of steganography and social activism through knitting.
Knitting History and Creative Process
Many people do not appreciate knitting as art due to the past cultures disregard towards the skills. However, the artifact has a significantly remarkable history that makes life meaningful, especially considering humans application of the same over the years. According to Zimmer (2013), knitting constitutes many peoples preferred pastime activity due to its harmony and ability to create lovely attire for the family using ones hands. Despite its attractiveness, the arts origin is not very clear. However, investigations link the crafts roots to the ancient Egyptian cultures, which spread the skills and products to the Middle East (Harkison, 2019). Arabs then modified the knitting designs and distributed them to various parts of the world through trade routes.
The link between knitting origin and communities living around the Mediterranean Sea comes from the latters potential to invent the art while creating fishing nets. Egypt provides the oldest acknowledged knitted material in the form of socks from the eleventh-century CE (Harkison, 2019). The classy knitting from the pharaohs tombs exhibits complex designs with the purl stitch and comprehensive colorwork. Ou et al. (2019) confirm Egypt as the origin of knitting and provides the period between 500 and 1200 AD as the appropriate time for the invention. The argument relies on the scientific dating system that utilizes the same tombs socks and other knitted fragments.
Knitting in Europe
Knitting activities in Europe started later than in the Middle East and Africa. Ou et al. (2019) provide the thirteenth-century AD as the earliest time for the continent to experience hand knitting. The early products belonged to the Spanish royal Christian families and exhibited Islam designs. Such material includes high-quality gloves and cushion covers, retrieved from the Spanish Monastery tombs, such as that of Prince Fernando (Harkison, 2019). Spanish archives containing Catholic fabrics also feature many knitted objects belonging to the thirteenth century, all bearing Muslim designs from the Middle East. Ancient trade routes extending from the Arab kingdom to Spain reached the U.K. in the fourteenth century, based on scientific investigations on the U.K.s Madonna knitting on the Virgin Mary sculpts.
Knitting became a popular thing in the U.K. during the fourteenth century. Close (2018) describes archeological findings showing trade on knitted goods on tax lists across Europe to prove the products dominance in the continent during the century. However, the knitting design from Egypt significantly changed on reaching the U.K. and other parts of Europe. As well, the art also acquired its name knitting in Europe in the sixteenth century from the term knot (Harkison, 2019). Zimmer (2013) associates Queen Elizabeth Is reign to the significant growth in demand for smooth knitted silk stockings. The monarch particularly cherished the materials softness, attractiveness, and durability. Under her rulership, the U.K. established several knitting schools, with the artifact becoming a significant source of income for the impoverished families.
The queens move also made knitting skills necessary among British women, especially those from lower socioeconomic classes. Knitting then moved from Britain to the U.S. in the seventeenth century, where prolific personalities, such as George Washingtons wife, embraced and significantly supported the craft industry (Close, 2018). Europe took the knitting culture a notch higher between the sixteenth and eighteen centuries by forming knitting guilds for men. Individuals interested in joining such professional crafting groups underwent six years of training, the first three years involving real learning, while the last three involved traveling around the world to research new styles (Harkison, 2019). Apprentices coming from research work tackled a thirteen weeks assessment to measure their mastery of skills and innovativeness (Harkison, 2019). Knitting a carpet constituted the bulk of such final test, with those excelling joining the associations.
Knitting and the Industrial Revolution
Knitting experienced significant transformation through the industrial revolution in Europe. According to Ou et al. (2019), the U.K. established the first crafting machine in the 1580s and upgraded it over time. Nottingham became the center for the machine knitted objects during the industrialization age, with the city reaping highly from the portable crafting machines invention. Similarly, knitting also grew in the U.S. during the civil war as citizens participated in keeping their soldiers warm. Nonetheless, no nation invented the factory machine for bulk knitting until the mid-nineteenth century when the American engineers adopted the large steam-powered device for large volume production (Ou et al., 2019). The transition into machine-based knitting made hand knitting less attractive, leading to a slow death of the hand-crafting sector and converting knitting into a popular hobby. Accordingly, knitting activities became a sporting and leisure endeavor in the U.S. in the 1920s (Ou et al., 2019). The demand for hand-crafted sweaters for children, women, and men also rose during the period, leading to the famous thriving twenties fashion aspect.
High fashion entities support for the knitted material and the emergence of WWI also contributed significantly to the crafting activities boom. The American and British soldiers wanted socks and other uniform material, leading the government to encourage women to learn the skills and support the troops by knitting the necessities. WWII also increased the materials demand, forcing companies to increase their needles and wool productivity. For example, Britains knits for victory campaign required individuals with knitting skills to make socks, gloves, sweaters, balaclavas, and scarves for the soldiers to protect them against coldness (Close, 2018). The war also forced specific characters to use their crafting knowledge for espionage activities, such as Phyllis Latour Doyle, further reintegrating knitting into western societies. Russias losing troops during the World Wars bolted to China, where they shared the knitting skills with the Chinese convoys.
Inventions such as the zip and synthetic yarn further transformed knitting art. Other crucial events affecting the artifacts growth worldwide include the Great Depression, where knitting formed the only way of getting a new cloth (Napoleoni, 2020). Women entered the sector through womens magazines support that published new designs to the populace. Handcrafting became a profitable part-time job during the depression as companies closed due to unfavorable economic times. The 1950 and 1960s haute couture movement in Britain gave knitting activities a significant boost before the industrys downturn between the 1980s and 1990s (Ou et al., 2019). However, the art exhibits a comeback with new styles and applications emerging during the twenty-first century. Emerging cultures and generations also embrace the crafted stuff they use for various purposes (Close, 2018). A major point of interest among the current American generation concerns the use of knitting for activism, with the Yarn Mission and hurt for peace movements following Molly and Phyllis routes.
Western Civilization
Western civilization refers to the social, economic, political, and cultural enlightenment experienced in modern societies due to the ideas evolving from the eastern Mediterranean region afore the Common Era. The Greeks philosophies play a chief role in the emancipatory process and western advancement. Looking at the relationship between women and art implies the tangible link between the past females and cultural transformation. For example, Molly and Phyllis utilization of knitting skills during the eighteenth and twentieth centuries meaningfully influence the previous and present European and American cultures. The two characters role in the contemporary knitting objects utilization in activism is undeniable.
Molly crafted yarn balls with a specific pattern to pass the message to Washingtons troops. The American soldiers collecting the knitted material understood their meaning, which was to hide a confidential note inside informing American fighters about the British armys plans. Accordingly, Mollys knitting implied no sense to the British soldiers who observed her craft the yarn innocently seated on a rock. Arguably, Mollys 1770s actions make her part of the inventors of the steganography movement, which uses noble artistic styles to hide meaning in standard features. Belgian knitters also utilized this style during the World Wars to report Germans train movement, where two close lines indicated the passage of a train with ammunition to the interpreters. The Belgians crafted the material on the windows while watching the railway lines and encoding the message (Close, 2018). Such shows Mollys influence on culture and artistic movement regarding knitting practices and their ability to conceal confidential messages to groups with a similar understanding.
Mollys use of knitting skills for espionage purposes also paved the way for contemporary societies to use civilians and women in war. Harkison (2019) insists that many ancient cultures viewed domestic settings as the only place for women. Such is the same mentality among the British soldiers chasing Mollys husband while forcing her to remain behind to serve them. Perhaps, it is also possible that Washington and his army expected nothing from Molly because she was a woman. However, the characters intelligence and courage surprise the then-American fighters, who must rely on a woman for spy missions. Subsequently, Phyllis boldness and successful participation in French liberation from Nazi fighters and Americas victory during WWII reiterates this aspect. Napoleoni (2020) reports that all the male soldiers sent to the Normandy mission before Phyllis died in the hands of the Nazi people. However, the female soldiers utilization of knitting knowledge to conceal her codes and appear poor and innocent paved the way for Britain and its allies to win the battle.
Phyllis once removed a loaded shoelace from her hair and shook her head to satisfy a female German soldier that she was innocent. According to Napoleoni (2020), the Nazi officer viewed the lace as a meaningless object while it contained Doyles encoded silk. The facet makes Molly and Doyle pioneers of steganography, which forms the basis of the hippie movements communication in contemporary societies (Hopkins-Benton, 2020). Mollys achievements significantly influence modern societies call for civilians to offer specialized services to national militants during wars. On the other hand, Doyles success paves the way for womens equal considerations for the army job in modern-day cultures.
Doyles knitting knowledge and accomplishment as a young lady eliminate the misconception about females choice on a military career. Many ancient societies viewed military jobs as masculine professionals, thus encouraging women to avoid them. Such traditionalists least expected a womans innate talent would allow her to realize a rare honor and survive a situation in which men fail. However, Doyles triumph breaks the odds, motivating more young females into the armies. Consequently, counties such as the U.S. have female militants serving in critical positions during missions. The ladies employ intelligence and instincts to overcome typical challenges that overwhelm male peers. Wibben (2018) reports that the number of female soldiers and spies in the U.S. almost parallels males. Arguably, the case would be different, but for the success of pioneers such as Phyllis Doyle, whose courage and creativity offered her the highest French honor.
Lastly, Molly and Phyllis usage of knitting skills to communicate, deliver essential services, and protect people they care about significantly informs the twenty-first handmade revolution. War times usually feature constrained economies such as those faced during the present pandemic. Undertaking some activities during such times takes one considerable sacrifice. Parents, especially mothers, further intend to keep their family members safe and warm during such times. Molly and Phylliss knitting of socks and other warm clothes, at times using wool from unpicked old knitted objects, meaningfully motivates the current rise in handmade attire. Due to price-driven inflation, the global economy is underperforming, forcing many people to go the past legends way. Matthews (2020) says that learning other peoples proven ways of handling situations motivates followers to act. Accordingly, Mollys knitting promoted meditation and possibly allowed her to manage stress concerning the British troops forceful inhabitation of her house and sending away of her husband. Therefore, a significant population joins the artifact world to handle pressure, especially from family issues, making knitting normal for the many single mothers rearing children alone with fixed budgets.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the above work links women, art, and cultural and artistic transformation among modern-day societies. Molly Rinker and Phyllis Latour are the two female characters discussed in this work. The two exhibit a significant connection with the knitting history due to their utilization of the aspect for espionage purposes. Molly Rinker and Phyllis Latour are pioneers of the steganography style of art, common in the knitting world. The facet forms contemporary espionage tactics, with Phyllis ability to employ Morse codes making her endeavors more impacting. Other modern-day influences from the two characters include the present-day governments invitation of civilians to participate in wars by providing necessary resources and females desire to take up military roles, unlike before. Moreover, the worlds hippie movements apply Molly and Phyllis steganography to relate, while the two individuals survival tactics during war significantly influence the COVID-19 era handmade revolution.
References
Close, S. (2018). Knitting activism, knitting gender, knitting race. International Journal of Communication, 12(2018), 867889. Web.
Harkison, T. (2019). The hospitableness of knitting. In CAUTHE 2019: Sustainability of tourism, hospitality & events in a disruptive digital age: Proceedings of the 29th annual conference. Central Queensland University, Australia.
Hopkins-Benton, A. (2020). Crafting dissent: Handicraft as protest from the American revolution to the Pussyhats edited by Hinda Mandell. New York History, 101(2), 387-389. Web.
Matthews, R. (2020). The mindfulness in knitting: Meditations on craft and calm. Leaping Hare Press.
Melton, H. K., & Wallace, R. (2021). Spy sites of Philadelphia: A guide to the regions secret history. Georgetown University Press.
Napoleoni, L. (2020). The power of knitting: Stitching together a fractured world. TarcherPerigee.
Ou, J., Oran, D., Haddad, D. D., Paradiso, J., & Ishii, H. (2019). SensorKnit: Architecting textile sensors with machine knitting. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 6(1), 1-11. Web.
Wibben, A. T. (2018). Why we need to study (US) militarism: A critical feminist lens. Security Dialogue, 49(1-2), 136-148. Web.
Zimmer, T. (2013). The history of knitting in art: A collection of paintings, drawings, and prints from western art in the 19th century. Crystal Moon Publishing.
It is widely believed nowadays that Africa is the cradle of humankind. Many thousand years ago Homo sapiens developed there and started to migrate to other lands and continents. However, when it comes to the matter of human civilization, the popular idea is that Europe was the place where it originated. For many centuries, the White population dominated science and culture, which helped to strengthen this viewpoint while perceiving Africa as the land of barbaric tribes.
Nevertheless, modern anthropology offers another theory, which claims that black people used to have a developed civilization for centuries before the appearance of other races. This paper focuses on the work by Cheikh Anta Diop, who uses paleontological findings to support the Afrocentric idea that the Negroid race culturally dominated during the ancient times, which puts into great question some historical facts offered in books.
Paleontological Evidence
One of the ways to study ancient communities is to analyze the remains of their culture. In the first chapter of his book, Dr. Diop begins the discussion by claiming that the migration of black people can be confirmed by the traces of African Upper Paleolithic art across various countries (11). Thus, similar cave carvings were found in Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia, and other territories. All of them belong to the Upper Paleolithic period, which makes them the oldest type of art.
Another important point made in the chapter is that the first European was a Black human who had migrated from Africa. Dr. Diop mentions the Grimaldi man found during one of the archaeological works in Italy (13). It was not until 40000 years ago that racial differentiation began among people. Until then, Europe was inhabited by black people, who carried the African culture. Moreover, the same ethnic group moved to other parts of the world, including Asia as far as Siberia. This theory is proved by the numerous findings of human remains found on those territories. More specifically, the skulls found across Europe and Asia were identified as belonging to Negroid people of the discussed period.
As the climate changed and the boundaries of habitable land moved, there occurred a mutation in genes of some human groups, beginning the process of racial differentiation. Dr. Diop mentions that the first White appeared only around 20000 years ago (15), known today as the Cro-Magnon. It most likely happened due to the cold conditions that people had to survive in Europe. The Yellow race, according to Dr. Diop, appeared five thousand years later, with the Chancelade Man being its prototype (16). The question of the racial identity of cultural groups is rather important for various fields of science, whether it is history, anthropology, medicine, or other studies.
As the glacial zone changed, communities traveled further to the North. This event gave the start to the formation of the Scandinavian and German branches. The former migrated to Eastern Europe, creating the group of Slavs. Dr. Diop mentions other branches including the Celts, the Iberians, the Greeks, the Latins, and others (18). The African culture could have been dominant even in the times of the currently known civilizations like ancient Greece.
Ancient Civilization
If the Black race originating from Africa dominated in prehistory, there must be material evidence for this theory. Dr. Diop mentions that the findings in England, which belong to the Megalithic period, support the idea of a strong Negroid influence (19). For instance, Egyptians used to mine tin on the territory of England during the Bronze age. The author goes even further and claims that the ancient Saxon language developed from the African vocabulary (19). This unexpected theory sheds new light on the understanding of contemporary European culture.
The developed civilization based on the African culture existed around the Mediterranean and even further. Dr. Diop refers to the findings of M. Gimbutas, who claimed that societies in ancient Europe were characterized by sedentary life, agriculture, a cult of the mother goddess (19). This culture ceased to exist with the invasions of the Kurgans from the East, who enforced their nomad, patriarchal way of life. However, Dr. Diop argues with Gimbutas about the question of the Kurgan culture and the matriarchy. He notes that Crete, for instance, acquired writing from the Egyptian colonization and not from the invaders (Diop 21).
The issue of whether the ancient societies were matriarchal remains open as well. However, there is a proven existence of Hellenic Black virgins and goddesses (Diop 21). What seems evident is that the Kurgan invasions destroyed the peaceful agricultural community of Europe and started a new civilization.
Personal Response
The work of Cheikh Anta Diop gave me an unexpected viewpoint on the origins of European culture. What used to be attested as the findings of White people may have deep African roots. Of course, the theories of Dr. Diop rely on limited facts such as the few paleontological findings on the European territory. However, it may be valuable to understand, for example, that ancient Egyptians perceived themselves as black people. This explains how the famous and praised European civilization grew from the culture cultivated by African people for thousands of years even before the first White appeared.
Conclusion
Dr. Diop offers a theory of Black culture dominance during prehistoric times. He uses paleontological evidence to build his viewpoint and presents such facts as shapes of human skulls, cave art, and other material traces of Negroid representatives across Europe. The invasion of people that developed later in other parts of the world destroyed the peaceful African culture and set the base for what is nowadays known as the European civilization.
Work Cited
Diop, Cheikh Anta. Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology. Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
The Decline of Western Civilization is a documentary film by Penelope Spheeris that was first released in 1981. The documentary consists of three parts; the first part was released in 1981 while the second part debuted in 1988. The third and last part of the film was released in 1998. The Decline of Western Civilization is a documentary film that focuses on the evolution of the punk rock music genre as it changes from punk to heavy metal and then to gutter punk culture.
The documentary film explores the accompanying punk rock lifestyle as revealed by musicians, fans, and other music stakeholders. When The Decline of Western Civilization was first released in 1981, the then Los Angeles chief of police issued a directive that the film should not be screened within the city. The film was also blamed for promoting an unhealthy lifestyle among the youth.
Critics have praised the film for presenting a near-accurate biography of punk rock and rock stars. The generational impact of the documentary series is also well represented in the film. Nevertheless, The Decline of Western Civilization is a valuable source of historical accounts of punk rock, and it depicts the negative influence of this music genre on the youth in the 1980s and 1990s in Los Angeles.
The first part of the documentary features scenes with some of the most famous rock bands of the time. In most of these scenes, the filmmaker conducts interviews with renowned Los Angeles punk rock bands, the punks or the fans of this genre, and the publishers of a popular punk rock magazine. One of the musicians who were featured in the film later died from a heroin overdose. The second part of the documentary depicted a period when heavy metal took precedence over the original punk rock.
The list of the musicians who are featured in this second part includes such names as Ozzy Osbourne, Aerosmith, and Alice Cooper. The filmmaker also compares the musical situation of known bands with that of unknown ones. Also, the documentary ventures into the vanity and mediocrity that had become part of the music business.
The history of the Los Angeles Punk movement is well highlighted in Spheeris film. The film was first considered a bad influence but gained an almost-cult-status later. According to Spheeris, her documentary intended to show the role that the punk movement was playing in both Los Angeles and the United States as a whole (MacLeod 132).
During the 1970s, punk rock had already been banned in most parts of Los Angeles. The antagonists of this music genre included administrative units, nightclubs, and music performance venues. However, by the time Spheeris was filming her documentary, the punk rock genre had only been a recognized music faction for approximately two years (The Decline of the Western Empire). The fast-rising punk rock movement had been becoming Americas unwanted addiction by the 1980s.
Consequently, the punk rock institution was considered in the same light as the war on drugs. In the 1970s and 1980s, the consumption of narcotics was high in most of the main entertainment capitals of the United States. Therefore, the contempt that accompanied the debut of punk rock was understandable.
Punk rock is one of the few music genres that have had a negative association with violence. Before punk rock, rocknroll was arguably the most popular music genre. Although rocknroll was associated with activist tendencies and rampant drug use, the genre was never fully associated with violence. In The Decline of Western Civilization, punk rock is depicted as a genre of music that is closely associated with violence and pointless riots. Some of the concerts that are featured in the film end up being riotous for no reason.
For instance, some concerts by the groups Catholic Discipline, Germs, X, and Fear are portrayed in the film as being riotous (The Decline of the Western Empire). The dominance of violence in any music genre came to a climax with the help of punk rock. Later on, the hip-hop genre was to adopt a similar violence-tag, albeit in the form of gun violence.
In subsequent years, the violence that was a characteristic of punk rock subsided mostly because the genre became too commercial. For example, the first part of The Decline of Western Civilization features several riotous and violent scenes.
However, the second part of the documentary features excesses of drug use and degenerate lifestyles for both artists and fans. The shift from heavy violence to excesses in lifestyle as portrayed by the filmmaker is not specific to punk rock. Later on, the hip-hop genre underwent a similar transformation where violence was only used as a tool of popularizing the genre.
When The Decline of Western Civilization premiered in Los Angeles, the police department deployed a sizeable contingent of anti-riot police in anticipation of violence. The local and business communities within the Hollywood Boulevard Theatre were also in a panic mode during the premiere of this film (MacLeod 127).
In spite of all these measures, the premiere of the documentary film still caused some violent actions. Commercialization has been known to precipitate the tension surrounding some music genres as exemplified in this documentary. Commercialization requires mass markets and violent music concerts. Moreover, the ones depicted in Spheeris documentary might act as obstacles of this agenda.
The historical impacts of punk rock on the young generation are adequately brought to the fore in this documentary. In the second of the documentary, the liveliness of the fans who attend punk rock concerts has changed completely. The filmmaker takes her time to explore the new practices that are consequently associated with punk rock. Some of these practices are depicted through the scenes where rock stars are indulging in alcohol and drug abuse. Also, fans and artists engage in various forms of sexual exploitation actively.
These forms of lifestyles were the source of major concern for various Los Angeles stakeholders during the 1980s and 1990s. Feminists were particularly concerned with the genres treatment of women. For instance, in one scene a musician is quoted saying that chicks dont get in the (their) house unless they have a sack of groceries with them (The Decline of the Western Empire). The scenario in which women were willing to be exploited by self-destructive men presented a new angle of exploitation to the feminists of the time.
The Decline of Western Civilization is a film with a rich historical significance. The film witnessed the birth and the death of punk rock. However, the unpopular nature of the genre during its inception is a common phenomenon as it has happened to other music genres. The effect of the genre on the young generation of the time has also been identified as weak and short-lived when it is compared to other popular music genres.
Works Cited
MacLeod, Dewar. Social Distortion: The Rise of Suburban Punk Rock in Los Angeles. America Under Construction: Boundaries and Identities in Popular Culture 34.4 (1997): 123-148. Print.
The Decline of the Western Empire. Dir. Penelope Spheeris. Perf. Aerosmith, Kiss, and Ozzy Osbourne. New Line Cinema, 1981, Film.
Eastside Heritage Center ( Bellevue History para. 1)
The image in question can be interpreted as a hint at the possibility of the sustainable use of natural resources by the residents of the city. The image, clearly made in the first half of the previous century, incorporates the hopes for urbanization that would, later on, turn into threats for the sustainability of cities and the appropriate use of natural resources.
Depicting women working in the field, the picture in question can be considered an encouragement for agricultural development and, therefore, sustainable use of resources as opposed to the consumerist attitudes of the urban dwellers. Moreover, the artifact in question allows for tracing the history of the city from the point where it only started developing to the present days, when it has become a large and technologically advanced community.
A graffiti image on the wall of one of the Bellevue buildings (Bennett para. 1)
The significance of graffiti as an art form may be doubted, yet the very phenomenon will never go away. Whether it is a fierce protest against the social and cultural norms or a naively blatant manifestation of ones artistic abilities, graffiti will always be a part of the urban artifacts treasure trove. The opportunities that graffiti opens in terms of rendering a specific idea are truly ample, which makes the subject matter one of the most powerful, though often administratively punishable, elements of the urban culture.
The graffiti depicted above was drawn under 405 North overpass roughly in 2008. It has a very peculiar structure, with the elements of various nature and colors of different intensity intertwined in a single artwork. The floral patterns that can be noticed in the center and the upper left corner of the picture display the tendency to rejuvenate the sustainability concept popular in the 2000s.
A picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Art ( Bellevue Festival of the Arts para. 2)
The first page of the booklet for the Bellevue Festival of the Arts is a graphic example of the key urban concepts of industry and progress mix with the ones that represent nature. Thus, rather witty commentary on the need for urban sustainability is represented. The choice of colors also hints at the significance of the nature-vs.-nurture conflict in the present-day urban setting.
The designing choices made to create the image on the left side of the picture send a very clear message to the audience, hinting at the need to establish a deeper connection between nature and the city. The artifact, therefore, can be viewed as an attempt for reconciliation between the proponents of urbanization and those supporting the return to nature.
Urbanization rates in 2013 ( Urban Development para. 2)
The statistical data provided above shows the increasing pace of the city urbanization process in a rather graphic way. As the information offered in the graph below displays, there is an obvious tendency for cities all over the world to develop technologically, which can be viewed as a rather positive change. The lack of emphasis on the effects that this technological progress has on the environment and the use of exhaustible resources, however, are beyond deplorable.
According to the graph, the urbanization process has swept even small towns are nowadays striving to develop into urban areas. Consequently, the emphasis on sustainability as the key to reasonable use of the city resources has become quite tangible in the urban area. The statistical data provided above represents both the threats and opportunities of the increasingly strong emphasis on technology and industry as opposed to agriculture.
A poem concerning the farmers market ( Bellevue Farmers Market Schenectady para. 1)
Though the city background with the silhouettes of down-to-earth office buildings can hardly spark any poetic thought, poems devoted to cities and their inhabitants exist; moreover, these poems take a special niche in the realm of urban literature. As a rule, these poems are related to a certain hot-button social, economic, or political issue and have a comparatively short shelf life, becoming long-forgotten after the issue in question is resolved.
The poem under analysis can hardly be viewed as an exception; it represents the spirit of commercialism, which every large community in the United States is shot through with. The poem, therefore, while being full, represents the direction in which most cities tend to go nowadays, i.e., the attempt at expanding through the enhancement of their private entrepreneurship sector.
Crossroads Bible Church (Crossroads Bible Church para. 1)
Religion is an admittedly big part of many peoples lives, which is why ignoring some of the artifacts of the city that are related to religion is barely possible. Therefore, the church, as an essential element of the urban community development, must be considered as well. The Crossroads Bible Church is one of the places that allow for the spiritual analysis of the progress that the city has made over the years.
While the specified institution cannot technically be viewed as a part of either the urbanization process or the environmental concern, it helps shed some light on human nature and, therefore, understand the problem from both the individualist perspective and the standpoint of the community. The specified institution adds a moral dimension to the problem.
Promised Land (Berry para. 127)
Being one of the most powerful means of expressing emotions, songs are often devoted to cities as the places where dreams are born and may come true. Chuck Berrys famous Promised Land is no exception to this rule; exploring the idea of another wayward son searching for the Promised Land, where dreams come true, it takes the lead character to the big city.
It helps the audience realize the charm of small towns, such as Norfolk, VA, that used not to be affected by the urbanization process greatly. Though the theme of the song can be considered somewhat corny, the timeless feeling that it renders, as well as its ability to get the charm of a small city across, makes the song a part of the urban classics.
A doll from the Bellevue Museum of Doll Art (Rosalie Whyel Museum of Doll Art 2)
Though dolls are universally considered charming, some of the exhibits of the Rosalie Whyel Museum of Doll Art will inevitably make the audience cringe. Even though the museum was shut down in 2014, the dolls are still available for sale.
The artifacts might not be the kind of toys that loving parents would buy for their children, yet they display the progression of the citys history in a rather detailed way. For example, the dresses that the figures and dolls wear, help locate the stages in the urbanization process of the city. For example, while some of the dolls feature pastoral designs, others are dressed in the clothes that can be described as the attributes of an average industrial city dweller.
Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge ( A Day in Seattle para. 1)
Although a bridge cannot be technically defined as an artifact, the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge falls under the latter category. The reasons for this are that the bridge is not only a technological advance that allowed creating a connection between Seattle and Mercer Island ( A Day in Seattle para. 2), but also the remnant of the U.S. history. Indeed, the creation of the bridge contributed to the industrialization of the city and its further development.
In other words, by building the artifact in question, the residents of Washington, DC, predetermined the premises for the further urbanization of the city. Magnificent and beautiful, the construction adds an unforgettable touch to the scenery, though clearly defining the boundaries between the artificial world created by the human civilization and the realm of nature.
Artifact Brewery (Steigerwald para. 115)
Liquor might not be considered the highlight of the modern art of food production, yet the history of breweries that survived years after they had been founded deserve closer attention. The Jackson Brewery previously located in Northside and recently being moved to a different venue may not be the most valuable artifact, yet is one of the most peculiar ones.
The age of the brewery determines its uniqueness the artifact dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The evolution of the brewery is nonetheless interesting. The fact that the place used to be a church and a gymnasium may spark some controversies, though. In some way, the progress that the building has undergone can be viewed through the lens of progress as the victory of business over the traditions and values that seem to belong to a different community.
The Car, the Cinema and the Blues Brother ( Hollywood Boulevard para. 1)
Perhaps, one of the most bizarre and at the same time, unique artifacts, the one created by fans of the classic movie, is also the most memorable. Though the specified artifact does not belong to a different era (in fact, it was built in the second half of the previous century) and does not feature any fantastic art, it is still beyond impressive.
Whereas the artifact in question is not related to the subject matter directly, it displays the significance of one of the most powerful tools for promoting urbanization, which is media. The latter affects people greatly. It shapes their mind frame, helps them transfer information faster, and reinforces progress; therefore, exploring the significance of media of various genres is essential to the analysis of the pace at which present-day urbanization occurs.
The Space Needle ( Space Needle para. 1)
Another unique attempt at capturing the charm of the urbanization process, the creation of the so-called Space Needle, triggered an unceasing flow of tourists in Bellevue, WA. Seeing that the architectural artifact is comparatively young, it does not embrace the uniqueness of the city culture, unlike other artifacts.
Instead, it provides an opportunity of taking a glance at the future of the urbanization process. The Space Needle is an interesting metaphor for reaching out to the heights that used to be unattainable several decades prior, yet are part and parcel of the near future.
Chicago ( The City as Artifact para. 1)
One of the fascinating things about artifacts is that their scale often goes entirely out of proportions. While a work of art has certain limitations in terms of size, artifacts often happen to take a rather impressive amount of space. It is not merely a house or a block thereof that is being talked about; the focus of the study concerns an entire city this time.
Chicago is no stranger to tourists and major attention. Here is a tourist attraction basically around every corner of the city. As a result, Chicago is often considered the artifact of the United States ( The City as Artifact para. 1). Having gone a long way from a small transportation hub to a major city, Chicago includes both the remnants of its past and the references to its modern days.
Urban Forests (UW Botanic Garden News para. 1)
Though the term artifact is traditionally applied to the elements of the urban design that have been manufactured, the artificial forest grown in Bellevue, WA, can also be viewed as a specimen of urban artifacts. Created by people, urban forests are supposed to play the role of delicate support for nature in the hostile environment of big cities.
Because the process of urbanization affects biodiversity and the overall natural evolution heavily, the urban artifacts under analysis are of huge essence to the residents of the area. To the concern of the local dwellers, though, urban forests are quite hard to maintain; moreover, the restoration of a completely natural setting is barely possible. Still, the concept of urban forests is one of the few ideas that may work as a tool for restoring the balance between nature and nurture.
Lake Washington ( Photo of Mt. Rainier and Lake Washington ) para. 1
Much like urban forests, urban lakes fall under the category of artifacts, as they are created by people, and Lake Washington is one of those. The lake represents an endeavor of restoring the balance between the rapid urbanization process and the need for sustainability. Despite being artificial and suffering several instances of industrial pollution, the lake has improved local ecology impressively.
Bunny Man ( The Legend of the Bunny Man para. 1)
Talking about urban artifacts is impossible without touching upon urban folklore. Though the creepy story of Bunny Man originates from Virginia, it has spread quickly across the Washington, DC area and is still used as a local horror story. The myth about the Bunny Man shows that, while being technologically advanced, city residents may succumb to a common fear of the supernatural.
The Mysterious Disappearance of the Letter J ( No Way, No Jay para. 1)
Rumors say that there is no street name starting with J in entire Washington, DC, since Pierre LEnfant, the architect, was at odds with the local chief justice, John Jay. However, a closer look at the records of the city will reveal that the story has nothing to do with the truth. Nevertheless, tourists still flock to the area, threatening the sustainability of the district.
Bellevue Downtown Park ( Bellevue Downtown Park para. 1)
Placed in the heart of the citys downtown, the park serves its purpose of providing residents and tourists with an opportunity of having some rest. The park can be viewed as the perfect response to the urbanization concern, which has been brewing in Washington, DC, for decades. A solution to a range of environmental issues, the park is a major step in the right direction.
Bellevues Downtown War Memorial ( Bellevues Downtown War Memorial para. 1)
Despite being an artifact in itself, the Bellevues Downtown Park has a range of artistic elements to offer to its viewers, and the Bellevues Downtown War Memorial is one of them. Honoring the memory of the people, who died in battles for the greater justice, and promoting their qualities to the present-day dwellers of the city, the monument links the past of Washington and its future, therefore, teaching an essential lesson about the significance of fending for ones rights.
Wilburton Hill Park ( Wilburton Hill Park para. 1)
The image of a tree stump, which has been stubbed out of its natural environment, is a far more obvious, in-your-face message concerning the need for sustainability in the city than any other artifact that has ever been produced. While the message could have been delivered in a much more subtle way, it is still quite impressive and serves its purpose.
Unfortunately, while it was designed to be the big wakeup call, it is viewed nowadays merely as an original representation of a rather worn-out idea. Nevertheless, as an urban artifact, it works perfectly and conveys the key message concerning the need to preserve the environment in a very efficient manner.
Artifacts and Their Significance
The phenomenon of urbanization is traditionally viewed as a positive one, which is quite understandable urbanization promoted further progress, making it possible for numerous industries to evolve, not to mention the fact that it encourages companies to expand and, therefore, creates new job opportunities.
However, the cost that urbanization comes at is not to be forgotten, either; because of the emphasis on the economic and financial benefit that follows the urbanization process and the subsequent lack of concern for the environment, the latter suffers greatly.
The environmental concern has been raised several times, with enthusiasm concerning the improvement of the situation gradually fading away. Because of their ability to incorporate personal and social issues, numerous city artifacts embrace the variety of ideas regarding the problem, a range of the artifacts in question suggesting rather unusual solutions.
As it is rather easy to spot, the artifacts described above, though very diverse, concern the process of urbanization and the transfer from the agricultural stage to the urbanized one. Claiming that technological progress should not be encouraged would be hardly reasonable; indeed, it is the promotion of IT that helps improve the functioning of a range of services, therefore, making peoples lives better all over the world.
However, people seem to disregard the fact that continuous urbanization without a thorough analysis of the consequences comes at a price. Unless a sustainable path for city development and the urbanization of the nearby areas is introduced, the people living in these areas may face a serious crisis concerning the lack of natural resources and biodiversity.
Much to the credit of the people living in the areas that are subjected to rapid changes and evolve from agricultural to urban ones, they attempt at making the progression not as rapid and challenging to nature as it might be. Claiming that people fail to understand the adverse effects of urbanization would be unfair to the progress of the civilization; more to the point, there have been numerous attempts at raising awareness regarding the issue, as well as shed some light on the subject matter, artifacts being only a part of the campaign.
It can be assumed that people are trying to locate the solution that will allow for each party of the conflict to benefit, which numerous artifacts mentioned above display rather graphically. The specimens of street art described above, perhaps, are the most sincere, though not the most elaborate, examples of a gradual realization of the problem.
The graffiti artworks discussed above may seemingly contain little to no sense, as they are most likely to have little to no connection with the setting in which they have been painted. Being the brainchild of an unknown author, the artifact contains the themes and references that a side viewer will fail to guess. Nevertheless, one can track down the ideas that have influenced the author rather clearly.
First and most obvious, floral patterns hint at the tendency to incorporate the elements of a pastoral in the artwork. Herein the reference to the nature-vs.-nurture theme lies; whether consciously or not, the creator of the graffiti under analysis tries to reference the notorious environmental conflict.
Even the artifacts that do not seem to suggest a reasonable solution to the problem of cities expansion at the cost of biodiversity and natural resources abuse, some elements of the design still hint at the possibility of a change. For example, the bridge mentioned above (i.e., the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge) can be considered a metaphor in itself, i.e., a reminder about the possibility of establishing a connection between nature and the civilization.
The subtle touches that certain design choices add to the development of the problem-solution cannot but be appreciated. It should be noted, though, that the metaphorical environmental significance, which the bridge in question bears, cannot possibly match the negative effects, which it has had on the environment of the area. Specifically, the fact that its creation has disrupted the ocean flora and fauna deserve to be mentioned.
Nevertheless, some elements of the urban design can be viewed as a major compromise between the need to evolve and the necessity to retain the connection to nature. The picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Arts ( Bellevue Festival of the Arts para. 1) can be considered one of the most subtle endeavors at pointing at the obvious significance of the sustainability policy. It is quite remarkable that, unlike other artworks carrying a similar message, the bulletin from the Bellevue Festival of the Art is entirely deprived of any obnoxiously obvious messages showing the dread of the refusal to sustain nature.
Instead of portraying the supposedly terrible outcomes of peoples unwillingness to reconcile with nature and accept the idea of sustainable use, the bulletin shows that people are, in fact, an integral part of nature. This idea has much more dignity and worth to it, as it credits the viewers of the artifact as being intelligent enough to understand a specific message without being scared into believing it.
The last, but not the least, the sculpture of a stump that has been taken out of the ground, deserves to be mentioned among the most powerful artifacts that serve their purpose in conveying the necessity to shift to the more sustainable use of natural resources and to make the process of industrialization less painful.
While admittedly less subtle than the picture from the Bellevue Festival of the Arts announcement, the given artifact can be deemed as essential due to its expressivity. Unlike the rest of the artifacts mentioned previously, it makes people think.
The thought-provoking artwork was intended to have no double meaning; otherwise, it would have been viewed as another elegant argument in favor of sustainability and, therefore, would have failed as a piece of art.
Although the artifact does not serve as the warning of a specific danger that the unrestrained process of urbanization will lead to, it still carries enough weight to impress the viewers and convey the intended message clearly and concisely. A perfect example of form following the function and enhancing expressivity, the given artifact has an exemplary impact on the audience.
One could argue that the Crossroads Bible Church should have been viewed as the focus of the analysis and the most significant element of the list. Indeed, apart from containing a range of artifacts that are both spiritual and essential to the evolution of human culture, the Church itself is, in fact, a large artifact that serves to prove the connection between the present-day society that is concerned with the evolution of technology, and the society of the past, which viewed the nature as a part and parcel of the divine and, therefore, having a special place for nature in its set of values.
Therefore, though it might be considered a rather far stretch, the Crossroads Bible Church, incorporates the elements that belong to both the modern, technologically advanced era and the society that considered the connection to nature the top priority. Therefore, the specified artifact or, to be more specific, the collection of artifacts can be considered the symbolic representation of the opportunities for people to locate the compromise between the urbanization process and the environmental policies.
Each of the elements mentioned above, therefore, represents a step in the process of urbanization. One must not delude oneself by thinking that urbanization is something to be avoided, though; as most of the artifacts listed above show, the process is the graphic representation of the progress that the civilization has made so far. More importantly, the artifacts listed above display the complex path of understanding the relationships between civilization and nature.
The timid attempts at copying nature and its creations were replaced with the endeavors of building something even more grandeur, and finally approached the rejection of the harmonic principles suggested by nature.
However, as soon as the urbanization process took its toll and the environmental concern appeared on the agenda of the global community, urban artifacts started reflecting the related concerns, rendering the timeless nature-vs.-nurture conflict. At present, some of the artifacts hint at the possibility of the conflict resolution. Yet, the vagueness of these solutions shows that more time and effort must be put into addressing the issue.
There were many changes that took place in the western civilization in 1300 AD and they are the social, institutional, economic and intellectual changes. In social there was the rise in nation state in that nationalism took , in institutional there was rise of church that is protestant church, in economic there was agriculture and the intellectual there was renaissance. Nationalisms that was a sense of identity with a nation was enforced in the western countries mainly due to the fact that people in these countries were in need of freedom therefore they saw that because with the rule of Muslim they could not have what they were in need of then they has to have their sovereign so that they can do what they though was of importance therefore they sort for a nation. This meant that due to the slavery that existed then these people would no longer accept this to continue and they therefore came into agreement to make relevant changes in the government. This nation state came up due to industrial revolution that took place in the country this was because thee were changes that took place therefore the people sought to have a nation.
At first these countries that are in the western had catholic as the main church that had fought and conquered the Muslim religion that was viable and ruling in many of these countries there was need to have change made in these religion so that they can give way to other religions therefore the countries required freedom for all people to stay in there places this meant that they had to fight for their freedom and therefore the catholic paved way and it was later fought and there was rise in protestant.( Daniel,1992)
The consolidated power created the foundation for Europe first modern nation sates in France. The evolution began in the middle ages but they grew weaker in the Eastern Europe during the middle ages. The new monarchies did not achieve absolute power; these new monarchies were not nation states as the populations did not necessarily feel they belonged to a nation. The characteristics of these new monarchies were to reduce the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands and creation of standing armies. There was advent of gun powder that resulted in the production of musket and cannon and increased the vulnerability of armies and their knights. There was reduction of the political power of the clergy in that the medieval notion of the church being supreme of the state was replaced in belief and practice. There was creation of more efficient bureaucracies in that they enabled the new monarchies to begin centralizing control of their realms. There was increased political influence of the bourgeoisies. There was increased public debt by taking loans from merchants bankers. There was growth in power of the state and competition among the nation states of Europe and the effects of spread of secular and religious ideas on the politics, economics and societies in Europe there was impact of economic innovation on the standard of living and traditional ways of life of European people. The influence was mainly in literature, philosophy, art, politics, science and religion. The main causes of these changes was the revolutions that took place in these countries this made that there was need for the people to get in line with the changes therefore they had to ensure that what they brought in place could not affect the operations that were taking place to the people. This meant that what the people had to do is to have changes in religion and other fields this was clear that the countries in western civilization where ready for changes to occur. With renaissance the arts where in link with dedication to the church therefore with the other religions that existed they could not accept these new arts and this meant that they had to have a religion that could not have hindrances to the new arts. (David, 1990)
Changes that took place in western civilization were clear indication that with changes that is the industrial revolution then there was need for people to have another view to what ever they held on. This meant that they needed changes made in several areas so that they could have these revolutions enforced in the country. Therefore the changes were in line with whatever people required changing for industrial revolution.
Reference:
David, Y. (1990): Western civilization. American historical review, vol, 104, pp, 125.
Daniel, T. (1992): Renaissance. Washington state university.
Jackson, S. (2002): Growth of power of the state. Western civilization 6th edition.
This work is a comprehensive analysis of the activities of the most significant Western thinkers: Freud, Darwin, and Marx. Each of them had a special impact on Western civilization, making a great contribution to science and culture. They worked in different fields (psychology, biology, and philosophy), but in part, their ideas overlap. The achievements of these scientists are still relevant and are used in many areas of human life. Some of them, on the contrary, have lost their relevance due to the development of modern science. However, these ideas in any case became a pillar for the development of modern society.
Introduction
The history of human thought development is inextricably linked with those who have the most significant influence on it. In the course of history, more significant personalities, such as scientists, psychologists, and philosophers have constantly appeared. These professionals ideas are new and innovative for individuals living in contemporary society. When most people accept these ideas, it leads to a fundamental change in the social order. Therefore, it is crucial to understand who influenced people in history and where this led. Moreover, according to Tarnas (2010), the cultural and intellectual history can serve as a preparatory education for the challenges that face us all (p. 11). Indeed, by relying on experience, people can avoid their predecessors mistakes and use only the most useful and vital achievements.
Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud are a few of the most notable examples of people who have had the most significant influence on Western civilization. As mentioned by Caplan et al., the theoretical movements inspired by these men have fundamentally reoriented our modern understanding of biological nature, society, and the human mind (11). These people worked in different fields, but each of them played a crucial role in their science. The purpose of this paper is to propose the main ideas of these scientists and; therefore, prove that their role in the development of Western civilization is substantial.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is still one of the most well-known scientists in the world. Once, in 2010, the historian of science Peter Bowler tried to imagine the world without him, and it appeared meaningless and underdeveloped (White). Although his ideas proved to be revolutionary, now people understand that Darwinism is one of the keys to the understanding of biology. Born based on a generalization of the data of selection and domestication, Darwinism is considered to be the scientific foundation of practical selection. It is widely used in biomedical research and for the development of scientific methods for managing the evolutionary process in the conditions of modern civilization. Evolutionary theory played a critical role in developing the philosophy of dialectical materialism (Blancke and Denis). It still retains the importance of one of the leading areas in developing philosophical problems of natural science. The practical use of the evolutionary theory data in solving national economic problems includes many different directions. This includes selection work and regulating the number of biological species. Thus, the evolutionary theory contributes to peoples development of multiple methods for the optimal density of crops in agrocenoses.
The history of medicine also presents how fruitful were the approaches to the study of human pathology based on the principles of Darwinism. The successful development of research in such areas as epidemiology, medical genetics, and immunogenetics is unthinkable without using the principles of evolutionary theory. Most of the known diseases of humans, animals, and plants can be divided into four main groups: infectious, allergic, somatic, and social. The successful fight against the first three groups of diseases is directly or indirectly related to the knowledge of the causes and laws of living creatures evolution.
Darwins teaching was the first materialistic theory of the evolution of living creatures. Furthermore, his theory played a considerable role in substantiating and strengthening the historical view of organic nature. It gave advanced meaning and new goals to all biological sciences, such as the studies of the environment, ecology, genetic regulation, and molecular medicine (Mesoudi 7855). First, this theory substantiates the objectivity of the development of the organic world. Evolutionary development can be presented as a process of adaptation of organic forms to environmental conditions that are continuously occurring in nature.
Darwin always went into theoretical constructions from the facts of nature to the conclusions following from them. This feature of his evolutionary theory is manifested in its deep and organic connection with animal husbandry and plant growing practice. As a talented observer, Darwin saw things that no natural scientist had noticed before. He highlighted the dialectical relations between variability, heredity, and selection, although all three factors were separately already known before his work. Darwin proved that organic evolution depends on the interaction of all factors and that individually they cannot provide the evolutionary process. Evolutionary changes are expressed in the accumulation of small quantitative changes, but the result of these quantitative changes are qualitative changes. Thus, Darwin gave a causal explanation of the evolutionary process, revealing organic natures objective dialectics. In this connection, this theory is, in many respects, the key to the further development of not an only evolutionary doctrine in biology but also the whole of natural science.
Karl Marx
The influence of Marxs thought on Western socioeconomic and philosophical thought is an extensive and complex topic. Interest in Marx as a philosopher comes mainly in the XX century (Vivek 357). This is due not only to the fact that many of his philosophically important works were first published in this century. His ideas and creativity gained importance primarily among the activities of other philosophers and scientists. They were responsible for the fulfillment of an essential, fundamental shift in the spiritual culture of Western civilization. The essence of this shift is diverse, but it is mainly associated with a radically different interpretation of consciousness compared to the tradition of classical philosophizing. In particular, the works of Marx have become a significant phenomenon among many studies on this topic.
People have concluded that human thinking is determined by many factors, partly overlapping with each other. These include innate mental categories, history, culture, social class, biology, language, and many other factors. As it turned out, one cannot rely only on reason as a source of accurate judgments about reality. The recognition of the deep mediation of all types of human spiritual activity was gaining increasing influence. In this light, the world turns out to be what rather deserves the name of a human project. It no longer seems to scientists, including Marx, a complex of objects that contains a complete meaning and order independent of people.
The openness, incompleteness, and semantic uncertainty of the new world prompts us to define the goals of human searches differently, directed to philosophy. In the development of new types of philosophical discourse, designed to consolidate these changes, Marxs name appears to be one of the most significant. This explains the repeated bursts of interest in him among representatives of various philosophical trends from existentialists to structuralists.
All this gave reason to speak not just about the influence of Marxs ideas, but about the existence of the phenomenon of Western Marxism. It is possible to conclude that there is a lively interest in the philosopher Marx even in the modern world. It is also critical to understand that such interest is determined by the great importance of his general philosophical ideas. Even though they are associated with his communist utopia, they develop in an independent direction.
Sigmund Freud
Freuds teachings had a significant impact on the development of modern culture. Without his ideas, it is difficult to imagine fiction, painting, cinema, and other human activity spheres. The most prominent representatives of post-culture and avant-garde often turn to the unconsciouss idea, trying to embody it in their works. Dadaism, surrealism, expressionism, the stream of consciousness literature, theater of the absurd, pop art, and many phenomena of postmodernism creatively transformed the Austrian psychiatrists ideas and often put a fairly serious emphasis on them.
According to Freud, eroticism is believed to be an integral part of human existence. This also began to be actively used in art culture and even in advertising. For example, advertisements often show a half-naked body on the screen or various erotic symbols such as brightly painted lips. Sex is entirely liberated and flourishes in all conceivable and almost unthinkable forms in everyday life and art. In addition, the Freudian idea of the compensatory functions of art provides a powerful lever for the development of modern mass culture. According to Freud, when perceiving such works, ordinary people who empathize with the heroes identify themselves with such art. Hence, people get rid of complexes and embody their dreams; in other words, compensate for the things that they cannot embody in real life.
Freudian ideas were equally influential in the field of the arts. Freud presented the initial paradigm for the use of psychoanalysis in the realm of literature and art (Reed 285). He gained many talented followers among philosophers, philologists, and art critics. The entire foreseeable history of literature, art, and culture has been revised and rewritten from the standpoint of psychoanalysis or methods based on it. Due to the Freudian methodologys peculiarities, the authors of these studies began to pay serious attention to the biographies of writers and artists, their sexual side of life, and mental disorders.
The first major psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, heralded a new era in the 20th-century culture. Along with Freuds other works, it acted as a reference book for many literary and art critics (Turner 600). This book fed the creative imagination of artists of many avant-garde movements. Even now, the interpretation of dreams and peoples actions with their unconscious help is a relevant and essential activity.
Thus, summing up, it can be noted that the ideas of Sigmund Freud are one of the foundations of modern Western culture. The primary influence of Freudianism on modern culture is applying its ideas of the unconscious, the instincts of sex, fear, and aggressiveness. Thanks to these ideas, people can describe what is happening to them and those around them. In addition, Freuds theories had a significant impact on various areas of art, emphasizing the importance of his works for humanity.
Conclusion
Undoubtedly, modern science goes beyond the achievements of Darwin, Marx, and Freud. People continue to study the world around them, put forward new concepts, and make discoveries. However, this would not have been possible without the strong foundation laid decades ago. In particular, these three scientists have created the basis for biology, philosophy, and psychology. Even with modern changes in scientific thought, people worldwide are continually referring to these authors works. This allows new ideas to be confirmed, refuted, or corrected. In addition, based on experience, it is possible to predict how science will develop in the future. Thus, it is proved that the importance of these three researchers work for modern Western science and society cannot be denied. It is thanks to them that people have the opportunity to develop now and predict future processes.
Works Cited
Blancke, Stefaan, and Gilles Denis. Bringing Darwin into the Social Sciences and the Humanities: Cultural Evolution and its Philosophical Implications. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, vol. 40, 2017.
This article is devoted to the study of the relationship between cultural and evolutionary processes occurring in humanity. The authors note the importance of Darwins teachings for the humanities. It allows you to trace the modifications of various cultural phenomena and connect them with changes in other areas of human activity. Thus, this article proves the inextricable link between the development of human nature, society, and culture.
Dhareshwar, Vivek. Marx, Foucault and the Secularization of Western Culture. Rethinking Marxism, vol. 28, no. 3-4, 2016, pp. 354-366.
The author of this article describes the main philosophical ideas of Marx related to religion. This allows him to give the reader a deeper understanding of Marxs views. In particular, most attention is paid to issues of secularization and their criticism. This comprehensive view allows readers to better understand Marxs ideas and examine them from different angles.
Caplan, Arthur L., and Bruce Jennings, eds. Darwin, Marx and Freud: their influence on moral theory. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
This books main idea is to prove that Darwin, Marx, and Freud are one of the most influential personalities that were able to change the world for the better and provide future generations with essential knowledge. In addition, the book proves that their contribution significantly changed peoples understanding of the modern world, nature, society, and the human mind.
Mesoudi, Alex. Pursuing Darwins Curious Parallel: Prospects for a Science of Cultural Evolution. PNAS, vol. 114, no. 30, 2017, pp. 7853-7860.
In this article, the cultural processes taking place in society are described using genetic characteristics. It is because of this that major changes occur both in the field of biology and within beliefs, languages, and attitudes. Thus, the ideas of Darwinism are closely related to each area of human activity, which emphasizes their value.
Reed, Isaac Ariail. Sigmund Freud and Social Theory Manqué. Society, vol. 57, 2020, pp. 281-286.
The author notes the importance of Freuds ideas for modern sociology. He claims that without Freud, the development of this science becomes more difficult. In addition, he stresses that even non-Freudians support the ideas of this scientist. Thus, Freud is one of the key figures for the development of many humanities.
Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind. Random House, 2010.
This book is a kind of guide to the world of Western civilization. The author has systematized information about the most important events and persons in Western history. This allows readers to get the most complete and structured information about any historical period or philosophical idea.
Turner, Stephen. Freud in Many Contexts. Society, vol. 57, 2020, pp. 599-605.
The author of this article examines Freuds activities from different angles, emphasizing its importance. He notes the depth of ideas related to human mental activity. The author also examines the cultural and historical aspects that influenced the work of Freud. Thanks to this, the reader receives a comprehensive description of the scientists activities.
White, Paul. Introduction: Science, Literature, and the Darwin Legacy. 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 11, 2010.
This source presents the legacy and thought of Darwin by discussing the origins of his work, his interests and aspirations, and his love for science. At the moment most of his works are complete and can be accessed by professionals and individuals who desire to have a substantial amount of knowledge in science.
The history and historical development of civilizations pose great challenges to mankind and relations between people and society. It all began with the idea that human beings, by their very nature, have rights. The man said the classical liberals, are born into a state of natural freedom, and his rights to life, liberty, and property may be limited by governments only when his exercise of these rights infringes on the rights of others (Spielvogel 2004). The greatest challenge facing Western Civilization today is gender inequalities and the low position of women in society.
Gender inequality is the most terrible process which has deep roots and goes back to primeval times. But what about the rights of women? Arent they human beings also? Historically, the woman was placed at a legal and social disadvantage and usually not educated to develop her true talents. But these did flower when circumstances permitted and were demonstrated in female authorship and whenever men and women had marriages that rose above household partnership to intellectual companionship and joint spiritual pursuits. The fact that alone among the animal kingdom, women are supported by men has distorted the way in which women have developed. Cott (1989) dissects the contention that women earn partnership with their husbands by the unpaid work they do, pointing out that no man divides his income with a paid housekeeper, even though she may free him to earn his living. Males have become more human than females have because they have interests in industry, commerce, science, manufacture, government, art, religion (Cott 1989).
The challenge is that modern society speaks about freedom and human rights, democracy, and liberty but supports the oppression of women at home and at work. Women have had to concentrate on their sexual role and on a role as nonproductive consumers. Fortunately, these tendencies are checked by heredity, Only recently, in 1898, has the rise of a group of working women who earn a wage begun to change this aspect of society, which has had centuries to pit the instinct of self-preservation (which in all species requires independent action) against the instinct of race preservation (which in all species develops sexual differentiation of certain organs and functions) (Evans 1980). Migrating birds or cattle cannot have a weaker sex, she points out (Evans 1980). The human races overemphasis on sex relationships is responsible for the rise of prostitution, which is merely another expression of the emphasis women must put on the economic value of their sexual functions. Evans examines in some detail the legal implications of the marriage contract and their injustice; addresses the limitations on womens activities, including their inability to vote; and outlines the ways in which equality of the sexes would benefit society (Cott 1989).
It is not easy to change this situation and century-old prejudices, but society and the world, in general, should reevaluate the position of women and level gender differences. Since the subjection of women contradicts the liberal philosophy of merit, the true equality of women in the home would mean that a child would for the first time in mans existence on earth, be trained in the way he should go, rather than being told to respect others by a mother not respected as an equal. The competition of women in occupations would double the mass of mental faculties available for the higher service of humanity (Cott 1989, p. 29). Human beings like other species are affected by their environment, but they are also uniquely affected by social conditions. The duty of states and communities is to restructure social institutions and involve men in housing and childbearing activities. As the aims of the movement shift, from stress on individualism, social cooperation, and negative rights to stress on collectivism (not just any collective action, but in the sense of using government power) and positive rights.
References
Cott, N. F. (1989). The Grounding of Modern Feminism. Yale University Press, 1989.
Evans, S. (1980) Personal Politics: The Roots of Womens Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement & the New Left. Vintage.
Spielvogel, J.J. (2004). Western Civilization: A Brief History, 3rd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing.
In the video, the tour guide said that civilization is the effort to provide a shield for human beings against the hazards of the natural world. However, people are often familiar with the definition that involves the development of a group whereby they have made intellectual achievements, technological advancements, interconnected living communities, and division of labor. The two descriptions sound different, but the basis is contrary to expectations similar.
The focus of civilizations was always development, which was triggered by various things, the terms for which was provided by the tour guide hazards of the natural world. It may include any hardship in the life of a human being, especially primal ancestors of homo sapiens who continuously suffered from bad weather and threats in the face of predators and disease. This fact makes a distinct resemblance of our common understanding to the definition introduced in the video.
Nevertheless, it lacks the area, which also refers to the level of civilization culture. Culture can be traced through art and literature in their broader definitions. Art in this sense includes sculptures, jewelry making, clothing production, paintings, and every other product with artistic value. Literature refers to oral and written traditions, local folklore, scriptures, and documents. These cultural indexes refer to the level of civilization because they require attendance for human communities basic needs and safety. The safer a community is, the more significant is the deviation in pursuit of artistic values and knowledge is possible.
In summary, technically, the two definitions are the same, but the one given in the video accounts for the smaller portion of what civilization is. Civilization requires the development and accumulation of artistic value and knowledge combined with the need for shelter and means of protection in the form of technological advancements and the formation of communities.