Category: Civil rights

Frederick Douglass was an escaped slave, self taught author, abolitionist, human rights and women’s rights activist, and social reformer. He helped shape America through his determination and eloquence. His actions led to the Civil War, a pivotal point in time where slaves were freed. He was an advocate for teaching slaves how to read and write, and his story inspired millions to join the cause of abolition. was almost totally a self-educated man, his tireless efforts on behalf of the oppressed made Douglass a forceful leader and earned him the title in the 20th century of ‘Father of the Civil Rights Movement.’

Frederick Douglass expressed the truth about what the world didn’t see about slavery and he didn’t hold back about doing it either. The Narrative possesses the genuine force of eyewitness conviction that was often lost in similar accounts whose editors and transcribers could not resist the impulse to sentimentalize or fictionalize for the sake of stylization and emotional effect. In an overview about Frederick Douglass it’s stated that “Douglass always remained true to the facts of his experience, and those facts themselves provide a relentless condemnation of slavery and its supporters”(Lavenier). By doing so he was able to compose a narrative that soon after started a movement where Douglass was an activist to end slavery. It was also pointed out that the narrative was also “the first native American autobiography to create a black identity in style and form adequate to the pressures of historic black experience”(Lavenier). Douglass became the voice of black Americans. He was able to give himself and others like him an identity in society; an identity needed to be fought for.

Frederick Douglass’s creative artistic personality is the first work of the productive individual, and remains fundamentally his best work, since all his other works are partly the repeated expression of this primal creation. As well as how defined the odds of breaking away from slavery. He was “a fugitive slave who seeks to transform himself into the slave’s opposite, the free man; and the de facto free man regarding his former life as a slave from the safe distance of the memoirist”(Brewton). The source is informative and objective to how to Douglass came to be and how he as an anti slavery activist helped transformed society. In the Narrative, Douglass writes about his life story and tells the world what slavery is really like. He gave the world an eye opening look into just how cruel it was, which is one of the many reasons he is considered one the people who put an end to slavery in America. The complicity in Douglass’s design comes to see the subject of the Narrative as emboldened, strengthened, and spared the consequences of his radical insubordination that has ordained him for the higher cause of abolition, “The persona of the Narrative has a destiny, not merely to win his own freedom but to champion the cause of the oppressed through the literary recreation of his life.”(Brewton). Douglass’s goal after he escaped slavery and wrote his novel was to abolish slavery and he did that by telling the world first hand what slavery really was and he stood behind his story to put a stop to it.

Not only was Douglass an activist for civil rights, he was also a very big activist for women’s rights more specifically black women. In his narrative he witnessed the horrible treatment slave women experienced; from being beaten to raped. He wanted to make sure no women should ever have to be treated so poorly again. According to scholar Pamela Kester-Shelton, “Douglass kept the cause of women’s rights before the American people even as the cause was voluntarily eclipsed by its key proponents with the issue of slavery, both before and during the Civil War” (Kester-Shelton). Douglass wanted to fight for women’s rights to their bodies. He felt that no woman should be beaten down and held against her will for the pleasure of someone else. They are human too and should obtain human rights just as anyone else should,“‘When the true history of the antislavery cause shall be written, women will occupy a large space in its pages,’ Douglass wrote in his autobiography, ‘for the cause of the slave has been peculiarly woman’s cause’” (Kester-Shelton). Douglass even wrote in newspaper articles about his stance for women’s rights which would then lead him to teaming up with other women’s suffrage activists like William Lloyd Garrison. With a bigger team of activist the more successful they were in making women’s rights equal.

Douglass was a self educated man. At the time people like him had little to no education at all. When he wrote The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, nobody could believe it and everyone thought it was fake because people like him—a slave; could never write something to this extent because they weren’t educated. But Douglass was able to teach himself how to read and write on his own. He was so “prescient” and the strength of his writing and speaking was so great that we are “inclined to pass quickly over many of his conflicts” (Sekora). According to scholar James Matlack, Douglass has to prove that he was not a fake, “Once having fully identified himself, he lost the anonymity which was essential to fugitive slave” (Matlack), because his validation of being an escaped slave would open the threat of being recaptured. But Douglass fled to England for two years and when he returned back to the states he was a free man. Douglass’s lack of formal education was an asset in the abolition movement. Not only did he teach people, he inspired people.

Frederick Douglass had a way with his words. He has a very different point of view than other slaves, he sees things more for how they should be and the other slaves see things for how they are. This appeals to the readers because it is another side to the story of slavery that we haven’t really heard before. Frederick opens our eyes to how it really felt to be a slave. He was able to tell his story in a way where the reader was able to gain an understanding of what actually happened because of the way he could write. Fellow activist William Lloyd Garrison says “as a public speaker, [Douglass] excels in pathos, wit, comparison, imitation, strength of reasoning, and fluency of language” (Garrison). It’s allowed people to cope with him and trust what he was saying. He was gaining credibility to his work. By teaming up with people like Garrison it furthered his movement to end slavery and gain the rights all people should have. Garrison admired Frederick Douglass’s bravery and honesty and believed he would be the one to change America forever.

Frederick Douglass is famous for many things but the one thing he is well known for, was escaping slavery and going on to become an abolitionist for slavery, and orator and an anti-slavery writer he also consulted with President Abraham Lincoln and had held high positions in the US government. He was an icon for America. Not only did he stop slavery, he helped stop segregation and racism in America.

The great migration influenced the start of the civil rights movement because it started the move from southern plantations to northern urban areas. This migration led to urbanization and industrialization and led to African Americans pushing for civil rights. The Montgomery bus boycott of 1955 started on December 1st when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man, Parks was arrested and fined. During this time Martin Luther King Jr. was an important civil rights leader and strongly believed in the use of nonviolence. King would play an important part in the civil rights movement. The boycott itself lasted 381 days. Martin Luther King Jr. believed in non-violent direct action and that through this they could achieve the goals of the civil rights movement. This led to the formation of the SCLC. The Southern Leadership Conference was formed by black ministries, it took over leadership of the civil rights movement from the NAACP. SCLC was committed to direct action and the disruption of an oppressive relationship (Schneirov). Martin Luther King Jr. was now the national leader of the civil rights movement.

The non-violence direct action strategy was to abstain from violence as a matter of principle and came into play in Montgomery, Alabama in 1955 with the bus boycotts. The SCLC wanted all African Americans to have the opportunity to thrive in society (Schneirov). Martin Luther King Jr. believed he could make this happen through civil disobedience. The nonviolent movement within the civil rights movement led to many successes in the years of 1954 and 1963. From the Montgomery bus boycotts to the Freedom Riders, the idea of using peace to make a change led to some desegregation within communities. The infamous March on Washington led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, sex, color, religion, or national origin illegal and prohibited racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations. While there was violence towards the nonviolent protestors throughout the entirety of the civil rights movement, they remained nonviolent and continued to lead demonstrations, they did as Martin Luther King Jr. stated to match physical force with soul force. The nonviolent direct-action initiative proved to make a difference and played an impactful role in the civil rights movement. Many African Americans wanted to turn to violence during the movement, but the nonviolent campaign won over American hearts. The nonviolent direct action strategy grew during the civil rights movement and contributed to the goal of equality.

SNCC was involved with the Freedom Riders and Sit-Ins. The Freedom Riders were another nonviolent protest/movement that impacted the civil rights movement. The Freedom Riders were groups of white and African American civil rights activists. They took bus trips through southern states in 1961 to protest the segregation of bus terminals. The Freedom Riders attempted to use “whites only” lunch counters and restrooms at bus stations in Alabama, South Carolina, and other southern states. The 1961 Freedom Rides were organized by CORE, Congress of Racial Equality, but SNCC, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, also contributed. The original group of riders was made up of 13 people, seven African Americans, and six whites. The group disembarked on their journey from Washington D.C. on May 4th, 1961. The group wanted to reach New Orleans by May 17th to mark the seventh anniversary of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. The riders were confronted by police and white protestors at each stop, but the riders drew international attention to the civil rights movement with the help of the media. Though this was a nonviolent movement on May 12th in Rock Hill South Carolina, three Freedom Riders were attacked as they attempted to enter a whites-only waiting area It was around this time that SNCC got involved with the Freedom Rides, they rode in integrated buses with whites in the back and African Americans upfront. On May 14th of 1961 in Anniston, Alabama the Freedom Riders were greeted by an angry mob of around 200 white people that surrounded the bus, resulting in the driver passing the bus station. The mob followed the bus and when the bus tires blew, a bomb was thrown into the bus. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus, but they were beaten by members of the mob The second bus that was in Birmingham, Alabama was surrounded by a mob, and the Freedom Riders aboard that bus were also beaten by an angry white mob. Bull Connor knew that the Freedom Riders were coming, and he knew that they would be greeted with violence, yet he posted no police protection simply because it was Mother’s Day. US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy began working for state protection for the new group of freedom riders. On May 20th, the Freedom Rides continued with a police escort. However, the police abandoned the bus and Robert F. Kennedy sent in federal marshals. The Freedom Rides endured attacks from white mobs for months, but in the fall of 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals. The Freedom Rides remained a nonviolent movement even in the hardest of times and continued with their demonstrations which ultimately led to more desegregation in public transportation and thus proved to be a successful contribution to the civil rights movement. Sit-ins were another Form of nonviolent protest that proved to be successful during the civil rights movement. Sit-ins took place at lunch counters, theaters, and other public places. The Greensboro sit-in in 1960 to a chain of sit-ins that would lead to changes within the South. The Greensboro sit-in was led by four young African American men, Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, Franklin McCain, and Joseph McNeil, all four were students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College. The four staged the sit-in at Woolworth’s Lunch Counter when they were refused service at the segregated lunch counter. The group left the store when it closed but came back the very next day with a bigger group of students and their homework and refused to leave. Two months after the Greensboro sit-in SNCC was formed at a conference on April 15th, 1960.

The Kennedy administration is caught between pleasing the whites and the African Americans and trying to balance the two. The civil rights movement’s goal was to get JFK to portray civil rights as a moral issue, one that is right versus wrong. Birmingham had zero African Americans in many positions because segregation was legally required (Schneirov). By 1960 only ten percent of African Americans were registered to vote, this was voter disenfranchisement. King wanted to turn Birmingham into the new Gettysburg. He wanted it to be a marker in the Civil Rights Movement. The Birmingham demonstration focused on the downtown stores rather than the entire city or county (Schneirov). The SCLC led the entire movement, the SNCC was not involved. Birmingham exploded with unrest. There were bombings and blacks were violently fighting back so King intervened, he went and made a speech on live television. The Civil Rights Act was not passed until Lendon Johnson became president after the assassination of John. F Kennedy.

Carmichael defined Black Power as more of a militant strand of the civil rights movement. Black Power stood for proper political representation and sharing of power in society. Black power can also be described as many different things it was a slogan and umbrella term for things such as Black voting rights/exercising voting rights in the South, and there was a great amount of voter disenfranchisement within the South. There was a Southern authoritarianism, the South had become a one-party state. SNCC had prioritized voting and had decided to hold a mock election. 80,000 African Americans had voted in the Mock election. However, Carmichael talks about how Black Power in the beginning was more than voting and that the African American population could not relate to SNCC because they were a “closed society” and too much of a Clique. Black Power was not trusting or relying on white liberals too much as they respected power rather than morality. Black power was also the need for a new identity, Carmichael mentions how the African American community needs to re-evaluate who they are and how they have contributed to society and formed the society that they live in today. This goes along with the idea of separating and building up African American communities. Black Power was also black pride, not apologizing for who you are. Be proud of your culture and what it means to be an African American. It was the identification with third-world national liberation movements all over the world, sometimes that means violent revolution (Schneirov). Carmichael states the following: “all-black project is needed for the people to free themselves. This has to exist from the beginning.” (Carmichael, 2) the African American population needed to form a movement to free themselves from the oppressive relationship that they were in with the United States. African American activists were listening to Malcolm X and his ideals. Malcolm believed that Christianity was hypocritical, so he converted to Islam. Along with many other beliefs, Malcolm X thought that the United Nations should intervene and create a separate black state, the only way they could create racial justice (Anderson, 153). Malcolm X did not agree with King’s nonviolent beliefs, he stated; “We are non-violent with people who are non-violent with us, but we are not non-violent with anyone violent with us” (Anderson, 153) Malcolm X believed that non-violence would not solve their problems and sometimes being violent was necessary. However, Malcolm was more famous in death than he was in life. The Black Power movement continued even after his assassination. Malcolm’s legacy and ideals would go on to influence the formation and ideals of the Black Panther Party.

Works Cited

1. Anderson, Terry H. The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee. Oxford University Press, 1996.
2. Carmichael, Stokely. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Position: The Basis of Black Power, Blackboard, History 336, Indiana State University, Fall 2020
3. Schneirov Dr. Richard, Lecture number nine, September 15th, 2020
4. Schneirov Dr. Richard, Lecture number ten, September 19th, 2020
5. Schneirov Dr. Richard, lecture number eleven, September 22nd, 2020
6. Schneirov Dr. Richard, Lecture number twelve, September 24th, 2020

In 1788 we had laws to stop Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders from feeling equal, now we have laws to make them feel equal but there is still a lot of racism and inequality. When the laws for equality weren’t put in place a big thing that happened was the Stolen Generations. The Stolen Generations happened between 1920-1970 and due to various government policies Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families. These removals left a legacy of trauma and loss that still affects people to this day. A big reason we don’t have issues like these anymore is because of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration is a comprehension statement of inalienable human rights that all countries agreed on. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights encouraged people to stand up for their rights which encouraged the US Civil Rights movement and that brings us to our discussion point. Due to the US Civil Rights success, Australia noticed how successful it was and this influenced Australia to want change, resulting in rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, including respect to land rights and voting, but still, to this day some inequalities exist and need to be addressed and people are still trying to pursue reconciliation and achieve further change.

The US Civil Rights movement was a very long struggle by African Americans to end legalized racial discrimination, disenfranchisement, and racial segregation in the United States. For this movement to have worked it took people to stand up for their rights some examples of this would be Rosa Parks and how she refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus in Montgomery. This refusal started a city-wide bus boycott which brought awareness to equal rights. Another thing that happened was Martin Luther King Jr’s “I Have A Dream” speech and the March on Washington. The March on Washington was a massive protest in August 1963 that had 250,000 people attend. Martin Luther King Jr spoke his speech at this event which was another way to bring awareness to equal rights. There were many other events like this, and all of these got people on their side to make a change. This movement was the US Civil Rights movement, and this ended segregation due to the banned employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the United States.

The US Civil Rights movement had a big influence on Australia’s civil rights because Australia witnessed the success and progress of it. This then made Australia want the success and progress people in America were having. The US Civil Rights movement also influenced Australians to take action like they did in America to cause awareness. An example of this would be Charles Perkins and the Australia Freedom Rides. The Freedom Rides was a bus tour through New South Wales by activists protesting discrimination against Aboriginal people. This event caused awareness of the problems and got people to agree with what Charles Perkins and the other activists were saying. Due to the amount of support for equal rights, the 1967 referendum happened where Australians voted for changes to the Australian constitution. These two changes were “Section 51 (xxvi) The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have the power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth concerning: …The people of any race, other than the aboriginal people in any State, for whom it is necessary to make special laws.

Section 127 In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a State or other part of the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives should not be counted.” These changes changed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders as they now have equal rights, as well as being able to vote and have respect for land rights. But although these laws exist racism still exists to this day.

Although not much racism still exists it doesn’t mean it shouldn’t be talked about. You don’t see much racism as it either isn’t talked about or it is said directly to that person. A recent incident that happened was on the 17th of September 2019, when a 29-year-old woman was shot at her home in Geraldton. No exact points are saying this is racist, but it does make you question, why a Taser wasn’t used. This very question formed a protest outside the Geraldton police station. A video of the protestors was posted on Twitter and the comments show a lot of people stereotyping Aboriginals. Some of these comments include “They are not protesting. They are just having a get-together. The wine bags will be next. Then fighting each other. Followed by more arrests. At least Perth Riot Squad will have time to drive up a sensible speed.” This was said by @MJESTIC12. This comment as well as others show racism as well as stereotyping. This incident just shows how racism is still around to this day and it isn’t right, everyone deserves a fair and equal chance at life.

Civil rights activism has been successful in achieving change for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights in Australia. This whole thing started with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and it went in a domino movement. The movement started with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights got the US people thinking and made people take a stand such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. Due to these movements, the US Civil Rights movement happened which then influenced Australian people to stand up for equal rights. Australian people then stood up for equal rights such as Charles Perkins and the Australian Freedom Rides. Due to Australians standing up for equal rights, this led to the 1967 referendum and then the changes in the constitution. We have had a massive change in equal rights, but we still aren’t perfect, and the Geraldton shooting is a perfect example of imperfection. This imperfection can be changed, and we don’t need any laws to do that, think about what you say before you say it, be kind, and treat people how you would want to be treated, it is that simple. Everyone deserves an equal chance at life and it’s not that much to ask for.

Bibliography:

1. https://australianstogether.org.au/discover/the-wound/indigenous-disadvantage-in-australia/
2. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/70-years-of-impact-insights-on-the-universal-declaration-of-human-rights/
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement
4. https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/a-look-into-australia-s-own-civil-rights-movement-16653
5. https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/articles/apology-australias-indigenous-peoples
6. https://australianstogether.org.au/discover/australian-history/civil-rights-movement/
7. https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australia
8. https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/racism-in-aboriginal-australia
9. https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/racial-discrimination-in-australia
10. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/sep/18/indigenous-woman-dies-after-being-shot-by-police-in-western-australia
11. https://www.news.com.au/national/western-australia/police-officer-takes-immediate-leave-after-shooting-aboriginal-woman-dead-in-western-australia/news-story/048772520ddee164b3cdbd2b11fa2088
12. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/feb/20/geraldton-shooting-police-officer-arrested-over-death-of-indigenous-woman
13. https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/racism-australia-1788-today
14. https://www.biography.com/activist/rosa-parks
15. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Perkins_(Aboriginal_activist)#The_Freedom_Ride
16. https://twitter.com/LauraMeachim/status/1174160801348800512?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1174160801348800512&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Faustralia-news%2F2019%2Fsep%2F18%2Findigenous-woman-dies-after-being-shot-by-police-in-western-australia
17. https://australianstogether.org.au/discover/australian-history/1967-referendum/

Freedom is a basic human right which means all of us deserving but it is not a sheer right. Simply put, it has to be limited in order to protect the legitimate purpose behind it. Then, what is the principle of the purpose? It is regarding others: the human right of us. To illustrate, you cannot spread the harmful information which leading to society being unstable. In 2003, the age of SARS in Hong Kong, there was a piece of fake news that the Hong Kong government would list Hong Kong as an epidemic area by referencing the related law. Finally, a 14 years old teenager was arrested for spreading this fake new. Clearly, this kind of fake news might result in the panic of the general public. It is an example to introduce that freedom of speech can be restricted.

Also, in some situations, leading to the loss of life can be legitimate because the right to life is not absolute. For example, we can commit self-defense when we are facing the threat of life from others. Self-defense is the legitimate act to kill the root of the threat; otherwise, you would be murdered by the threat. Regarding the limitations on individual freedom and the state using the military force, there is three proportionality rule that is mentioned in the reading resource.

First, individual freedom is restricted as there is a weight we give in order to limit the misuse of individual freedom. For instance, the freedom of speech is restricted in society: you cannot say something which is religious or racial hatred as this is not a moral behavior that the general public do not accept it. And the reason why it is unacceptable is the fundamental value, which is respecting each other because of equality, restricts our behavior: what can we do or not.

Then, the use of the military force is restricted by the UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials. These principles provide a standard to international society and its members that there are some situations in which the state can resort to the military force and how the state uses the military force properly. According to these principles state that only in self-defense, saving other’s life, facing a dangerous person, then the officials can use the fatal attack in order to protect life. Moreover, every government should be monitored that the civilian damage has to be proportionate to the military advantage. If the collateral damage becomes disproportionate to the military advantage and hence illegal. Those who violate this rule will be treated as war criminals. To illustrate, renowned academics among over 3,700 supporting the petition by global academics against police brutality in Hong Kong shows that the Hong Kong Police Force might misuse its military advantage and therefore it becomes disproportionate to the collateral damage.

Also, in a state or region, the role of the government is to determine whether the interference with a human right represents a legitimate limitation on the right concerned. The three-stage process is the way for the obliged decision-maker to adopt: 1. It is a must to have a legitimate aim of interference. 2. The law must prescribe the interference clearly and in an accessible manner. 3. The interference must be proportionate to the identified legitimate aim. To demonstrate, the Roman government kept a secret file of a Romanian man. It seems that it is a violation and interference to his right to privacy. But, this kind of interference can be necessary and proportionate to the aim of national security. Then, we cannot say that this kind of interference is a violation of human rights when this kind of interference is under the legal safeguards and appropriate judicial supervision. Therefore, the government cannot violate human rights without a reasonable and acceptable explanation because of the rule of law: In a democratic society, the government needs to justify its interference and that justification must be in accordance with the rule of law. The rule of law can ensure the protection of human rights.

In addition, detention is a concerned issue that is there any violation when detention occurs. Some governments are misusing detentions as a means to tackle those who have different politic views or express their opinions. This will cause the appearance of the prisoners of conscience and political prisoners. Their detentions have come to be related to those regimes which generally disregard basic freedom. They are arrested because of expressing political opinions or claiming democratic rights. Their trials are often sorely lacking in the basic elements of a fair trial: the presumption of innocence, access to the lawyer of one’s choice, the opportunity to challenge the evidence before an independent judge. Take the prisoners of conscience in China as an example, Liu Xiaobo is the one of them that the Amnesty International recognized. Prisoners of conscience include dissidents in prison, human rights defenders, and believers who have been defined by the authorities as illegal religions. However, these prisoners of conscience may be sentenced by the authorities to ‘instigate, incite, or induce others to commit crimes’ due to their statements as ‘anti-government’, and therefore be sentenced to imprisonment for civil strife or treason. In 2008, Liu Xiaobo initiated and participated in the drafting of Charter 08, which mainly called for freedom of speech, human rights, and free elections. After the drafting of Charter 08, Liu Xiaobo was detained on December 8, 2008, for ‘suspected incitement to subvert state power’. On 23rd June 2009, Liu Xiaobo was arrested on suspicion of inciting subversion of state power with the approval of the Chinese procuratorate. He is sentenced to 11 years in prison and two years of deprivation of political rights. On 8th October 2010, Norwegian Nobel Commissioner announced that they decided to present Liu Xiaobo with the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize because of Struggling for basic human rights in China by the way of non-violence.

To conclude, the nature of human rights is to recognize the worth of an individual human being. The restrictions on freedom must be legitimate that interferences with individual liberty only be undertaken in accordance with properly constituted legal proceedings. However, some regimes do not offer a fair trial to some prisoners. Therefore, their human rights are not protected owing to the defective law. Theoretically, an individual’s freedom is not extinguished on arrest or conviction, the freedom is restricted to the extent that this is necessary such as the right to a safe environment. The essential aim of prison systems should have the functions of reformation and social rehabilitation rather than the functions of political suppression tools.

Abhijit Naskar once said, “Sentiments that glorify humanity know no racial distinction.” Racial profiling is a demeaning action that targets individuals for suspicion of crime, based on their skin tone, race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin. Racial profiling does not help reduce crime. This act tends to be ineffective and degrading, as well as a violation of civil rights. Another reason is that it causes people to lose trust in authority.

This act is ineffective and degrading as well as a violation of civil rights because it judges those of a different race or skin tone and places them under a category of criminals when it is completely unjustified. The article “Shopping while black and the risk of profiling” states “My class status as a white woman changed when my black infant son was with me. As a black friend put it at the time ‘the conclusion is that you slept with a black man,” (Rekha Basu.) This text demonstrates that just because you are seen with a person or color or if you are a person of color, your place in society is automatically downgraded. The article “Shopping while black and The Risk Of Profiling” also states “ There were the professional African-American men who spoke of being followed around stores. One of them was Tim-Tutt, the award winning Hanawalt Elementary School teacher of 27 years. He said he was ordered to empty out his pockets and unzip his jacket at a drug store when shopping late one night. Finding nothing the manager apologized.” (Rekha Basu.) This text demonstrates how some people are chose to humiliate and embarrass others just because of their race. They chose to assume that because of their skin tone that they are committing a crime or doing the wrong thing. The text “Starbucks Just the Latest Accused of Racial Profiling” states “ Another video surfaced monday of an African American man in the Los Angeles area attempting to show that he was denied use of a,locked bathroom while a white customer was allowed to use it.” (Snider and Meyer.) This text demonstrates that the establishment simply did not allow the man to use the restroom because of his race, whilst they let the caucasian man use the restroom with no difficulties.

This act also causes people to lose trust in authority because when authority targets specific races or minorities it makes them lose their credibility as well as destroys relationships between communities. The article “Racial profiling has destroyed public trust in police” states “ A study of the Los Angeles police department showed that minority communities that had been unfairly targeted in the past continue to experience greater mistrust and fear of police officers.” (Ranjana Natarajan.) This demonstrates that those who were a victim of racial profiling conducted by certain authority such as police officers, they lost trust in them. The article “Racial Profiling has Destroyed Public Trust in Police” also states “ Profiling determines public safety and strains police community trust. When law enforcement officers target residents based on race , religion, or national origin rather than behavior, crime fighting is less effective and community distrust grows” (Ranjana Natarajan.) This demonstrates that profiling certain racial groups strains the relationships between communities and authority. The article “Racial Profiling” states “It alienates communities from law enforcements, hinders community policing efforts, and causes law enforcement to lose credibility and trust among the people they are sworn to protect and serve.” (ACLU.)

Some may argue that Racial profiling is effective because it helps to reduce crime. However, studies show that most of the time victims that are targeted to be profiled are proven innocent and are wrongly convicted. The article “10 Black Washington U. Students Stopped by Clayton Police, Falsely Accused of Leaving IHOP Without Paying” its states “Several of the students produced receipts to show that they had payed. However, our students were still forcefully told that they were suspects amd ad to walk the three blocks back along Brentwood Boulevard, with now six police cars in tow to make sure they complied– a humiliating experience. When they arrived at the restaurant, te manager quickly confirmed that they were not suspects. The officers dismissed them without any apology.” (Doug Moore.) This text demonstrates how quickly those officers assumed that those young men were stealing based off their race, but clearly they were innocent. Therefore racial profiling is not as effective as some people may think.

As you can see Racial Profiling is clearly a recurring issue not only in the US but world wide. This act degrades and violates the rights of citizens as well as causes distrust among the relationships of authority and many residents. This clearly shows that racial profiling should not be used to help reduce crime , it only has a negative affect on people and causes more issues than solutions. In conclusion we as a people should work more as a people to not judge those based on their physical aspects but rather get to know them as a person first and use actual facts rather than what you assume.

“Malcolm was intelligent, logical and eloquent. He experienced racism and was aware of it. Prejudice, racism and discrimination hurt him. His reactions to his experience changed his outlook and his behaviour. These things changed his life. And his life changed us.” Historian Horace Coleman argued, in 1994, that Malcolm X was one of the most significant Black campaigners for Civil Rights in America between 1863 and 1968. Indeed, Malcolm X could b0e argued as the most significant Black Civil Rights campaigner in America between 1863 and 1968 to a high extent, through his widespread popularity, liberal rhetoric and magnetic charisma, which was demonstrated in his ability to increase the Nation Of Islam’s (NOI) -an African-American religious and political movement- membership from 1,200 to 50,000 during his time as leader, from the 1950s to the early 1960s. However, it could be argued that Malcolm X was not the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America between 1863 and 1968, through the influence of other campaigners for Black Civil Rights, such as Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington and Martin Luther King. In addition, Malcolm’s sometimes violent rhetoric could be argued as being more detrimental to Malcolm’s campaign, suggesting he was not the most significant Black Civil Rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968.

On the one hand, it could be said that Malcolm X was the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America between 1863 and 1968. For example, the scope of Malcolm’s influence throughout the USA could be argued as a reason why Malcolm X was the most significant campaigner during this period. Malcolm was a popular spokesman, who frequently appeared in the media. As John White put it; “A frequent guest on TV and radio shows, Malcolm, by 1964, was the second most requested speaker on college campuses- the first being Barry Goldwater.” This source suggests that Malcolm was popular, especially amongst the younger generation on the ‘college campuses’. In 1964, around 4,000,000 young Americans went to college – the majority of which were white. As a result, Malcolm can be said to be the most significant black campaigner for Civil Rights, as he was a great influence on many American college students during the early 1960s. The author of this source, John White, is a lecturer of American History at the University of Hull, meaning that the source’s value is high as it has been produced by an academic who specialises in the field of which the source is concerned. Historian John White has written extensively on the topic of the Civil Rights struggle, particularly in America. He has also dedicated a whole work to the study of Martin Luther King’s impact on the quest for civil rights, suggesting that he is well-informed on the topic – this means that this source is likely to be highly valid. In addition, his research into other such campaigners suggests that his conclusions will be objective, as he has considered a range of influences and factors which would impact on Malcolm’s status of being ‘the second most requested guest speaker’ on the radio of universities. White, writing in 1990, may have been influenced by the 1980 Miami Riots, which were instigated after a Black man was killed by four white police officers. However, Malcolm’s popularity was not limited solely to American scholars, as White’s argument leads one to conclude. The Hinton Johnson incident of 1957, for example, clearly demonstrates the influence Malcolm had over members of New York’s Black community before he had entered the public eye. In April 1957, Johnson, a member of the NOI, saw policemen beating a Black man in Harlem. When he tried to intervene, he was himself beaten and arrested. Hearing of the events, Malcolm went to the police station, and a small crowd appeared. By the time Malcolm had arranged an ambulance for Johnson, a crowd of 4,000 had gathered. After making bail arrangements for his fellow NOI member, Malcolm stepped outside and made a small hand gesture; after which the crowd silently dispersed. A policeman later said of Malcolm: “No man should have that much power.” Therefore, as a result of his immense popularity and influence, it could be said that Malcolm X was the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America.

Another way in which it could be argued that Malcolm X was the most significant Black Civil Rights campaigner is through his impact on others. For instance, despite their massive ideological differences, Martin Luther King said of Malcolm X; ‘He is very articulate … Maybe he does have some of the answer”. King and Malcolm were notorious ideological opponents; King described Malcolm’s anti-White rhetoric a form of Black Racism, and Malcolm labelled King “A chump”. However, despite their different approaches to fighting for Black Civil Rights, the two great activists viewed each other with respect for their methods – in a letter to Malcolm’s widow, after his assassination, King wrote: “While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem.” As a result of Martin Luther King’s great respect for Malcolm and his methods, it could be argued that Malcolm X was the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America. However, Malcolm’s influence didn’t just extend to other activists ; Malcolm befriended and inspired the young Cassius Clay to join the NOI – Clay would later become Muhammed Ali, one of the greatest boxers of the 20th Century. Under Malcolm’s influence, he changed his ‘slave name’ of Clay to Ali, just as Malcolm himself had rejected his surname of ‘Little’ in favour of an X, to show his real name had been lost. Ali also went on, in 1966, to reject the draft for the Viet Nam War citing his Muslim faith, subsequently leading to his arrest and conviction for evading the draft. His fame as a sporting champion and his emphasis on pacifism made Ali an icon for the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, bringing the struggle for Civil Rights further into the public consciousness. As a result, it could be argued that Malcolm X was the most significant black civil rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968, as even after his death, those he had mentored and inspired were continuing his legacy and pursuing his aims.

Another way in which it could be argued that Malcolm X was the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America is through newspaper reports of Malcolm, especially following his assassination by three members of the NOI in 1965. For instance, the headline ‘MALCOLM X MURDERED’ made it onto the front page of the New York Daily News on February 22nd 1965, as seen in Source One. The source also features a large image of the injured Malcolm being carried away from the scene. This suggests that Malcolm X was incredibly significant and of great interest to the American public, if news of his assassination made it to the front page of the USA’s media. In addition, the article noted that; “Two men were taken by force from a howling mob of Malcolm’s followers who were pummelling them on the street after the assassination.” , suggesting that the assassination of Malcolm X deeply hurt and angered many who were present at the shooting. However, it must be borne in mind that this source, despite being produced in the days following Malcolm’s assassination, is a newspaper article, and as a result it is possible that the report may have been sensationalised in order to sell more copies – the primary purpose of newspaper companies. As a result, the reliability and objectivity of this source could be questioned in that the newspaper may have exaggerated the influence of Malcolm X in order to sell more papers. As can be seen from this news article, and other media coverage of the Civil Rights campaigner’s death, the popularity that Malcolm had amassed both prior to and immediately following his death suggests that Malcolm X was the most significant black civil rights campaigner in America between 1863 and 1968.

Another way in which Malcolm X could be seen to be the most significant Black Civil Rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968 could be through the awareness of his campaign he generated through extensive media campaigns focussed on his cause. For instance, an example of this can be seen from Source Two. In this image, Malcolm X is delivering his ‘Ballot or the Bullet’ speech in 1964. It can be seen within this photograph that there is the presence of a large crowd listening to the speech, and TV cameras filming the proceedings. As this is a photograph taken as the events of the speech were unfolding, it could be said that this source provides a fairly accurate report of the event, and as its format is a photograph it is likely that the source is not subjective. The speech was made following the 1964 Civil Rights Bill, proposed by Kennedy and continued by Johnson, which made discrimination based on gender or race illegal. The bill had been rejected by Southern Democrats which could explain why Malcolm had such a great crowd, as shown in the source, as it urged African-Americans to prevent the US government from restricting Black civil rights . This also gives insight into public feeling at this time, and the growing dissent with the US government’s domestic policies following the attempted passing of the 1964 Bill. As a result, from this source, it can be inferred that Malcolm and his rhetoric were of great significance to the American public, particularly in the wake of the Southern Democrats’ rejection of the Civil Rights Bill in 1964. In addition, the presence of the Television cameras in the source also suggest that Malcolm’s message also held relevance to overseas audiences. As a result of Malcolm’s message being broadcast across the USA, and overseas, it could be said that between 1863 and 1968, Malcolm X was the most significant Black civil rights campaigner, as few Civil Rights campaigners achieved this. In addition, it could also be argued that Malcolm X was the most significant Black Civil Rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968 due to other extensive media coverage of his campaigns. Furthermore, in July 1959, a TV Serial titled ‘THE HATE THAT HATE PRODUCED’ (Source Three) documenting the campaigns of Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam aired on Channel 13. It was incredibly popular, and led to heightened public interest and awareness of the civil rights struggle. An excerpt from the script transcript can be found in the Appendix (Source Two). However, this source’s reliability is questionable as it paints Malcolm in a bad light – describing him as a “dope peddler” and having served time in prison from the outset, immediately negatively portraying Malcolm X to its majority-white viewers. This source has a high likelihood of being subjective due to its negative descriptions of Malcolm, and has been described as “blatantly one-sided” by Peniel E. Joseph (Waiting ‘Till The Midnight Hour, 2006). Therefore, this source is not useful for an objective account of Malcolm X’s influence as a Civil Rights activist. Despite a negative portrayal of Malcolm and the Nation of Islam, the TV serial did generate interest in Malcolm’s message, and a greater awareness of the Black Civil Rights struggle. In addition, Malcolm’s autobiography was published just after his assassination in 1965, and had sold six million copies by 1977 . Therefore, even after his death, Malcolm’s message was being heard and read by millions. As a result, it could be argued through these sources that Malcolm X was the most significant Black civil rights campaigner in America between 1863 and 1968 due the great

On the other hand, it could be said that Malcolm X was not the most significant Black civil rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968 through his militant rhetoric. It could be argued that instead of promoting black civil rights, Malcolm actually damaged the fight for equal rights. For example, Historian Riches argued that “when he was a disciple of Elijah Muhammed… his demand of segregation not only frightened and angered white conservatives, [it] had the same effect on white liberals.” Riches goes on to state that as a result of Malcolm’s “strong anti-Jewish attacks…the alliance of Jewish Americans and African Americans” was severely damaged. Historian Riches has written many academic books which are aimed specifically at undergraduates, which means that the source is written purely for educational purposes, rather than to put across his own opinion on Malcolm X. As a result of its purpose being to educate and inform, rather than to persuade, the source is more likely to be objective in its presentation of Malcolm X, meaning that the source is a valid one. He has written many books on the subject of the Civil Rights movement, suggesting that he has covered an extensive breadth of the field of the Civil Rights movement, meaning that his argument is likely to be well evidenced and thus supported. Writing in 1997, Riches would have been aware of US President Bill Clinton’s initiative to establish ‘racial harmony’ in the USA, and as a result Malcolm’s ideals of the segregation of White and Black people may not have been as popular at this period of time. Consequently, it could be argued that Malcolm was not the most significant civil rights campaigner within the context of 1863-1968, because his rhetoric could be seen to be exclusivist and militant, as argued by Riches. In addition, Martin Luther King said of his fellow civil rights advocate; “I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice… Urging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief.” Malcolm’s arguably extremist views, therefore, could suggest that he was not the most significant Civil Rights campaigner within the context of the years 1863-1968, but rather a campaigner with more peaceful means, such as Martin Luther King, or Booker T. Washington.

Another way in which it could be argued that Malcolm X was not the most significant Black campaigner for Civil Rights in America between 1863 and 1968 could be through the influence of Martin Luther King’s campaign, which could be seen as having a greater impact on the quest for Black Civil Rights in America. For instance, whilst he was a talented public orator, it could be said that Malcolm X’s rhetoric, whilst often militant, never included any feasible way to achieve Civil Rights in the USA. This attracted criticism from Martin Luther King, amongst others, who accused Malcolm X of “articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative”. Whilst Malcolm did deliver inspirational speeches such as his famed ‘Ballot or the Bullet’ speech in April 1964 , he did not organise mass demonstrations, rallies or marches like Martin Luther King. For instance, King helped organise the 1963 March on Washington, in which between 200,000 and 300,000 people participated , and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his non-violent, peaceful means – a stark contrast from Malcolm’s more aggressive rhetoric. Malcolm was spiteful of King’s efforts, describing the march as ‘The Farce on Washington’ . Therefore, when drawing parallels between Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, it could be said that King was the more significant activist between 1863 and 1968, as his campaigns were on a greater scale and reached a greater number of people than Malcolm X.

It could also be argued that whilst Malcolm X may have been a significant black civil rights campaigner during the 1960s, it could be said that his campaigner predecessors, such as Frederick Douglass (c.1818 – 1895) , were more important. For example, it could be argued that Douglass furthered opportunities for Black people in America politically, whilst Malcolm did not – Douglass was the first African American nominated for vice president of the US in 1872 . This was an incredible feat for an ex-slave, as during the 19th century, slaves had very little freedom, especially in the southern states of the US where the repressive Jim Crow Laws limited the basic human rights of African- Americans. An 1850 publication advised slave-owners to “ensure that the slave is uneducated, helpless, and dependent by depriving them of access to education” . By teaching himself to read and write Douglass was not only breaking the law, but paving the way for others to do the same. Frederick Douglass defied the repressive American slavery laws, becoming an icon for the thousands of slaves across America. As a result, it could be said that Douglass, not Malcolm X, was the most significant Black civil rights campaigner between 1863 and 1968. In addition, Douglass’ warmer reception when travelling abroad could also suggest that Douglass was a more significant campaigner than Malcolm X. Both campaigners travelled further afield from the US – Douglass visited Ireland and England in 1845 to preach the evils of slavery, yet in contrast Malcolm X’s trip to Europe was cut short in 1964 after he was refused entry to France . This is significant as Malcolm’s inability to enter France would have severely damaged his ability to increase his influence overseas, in contrast to Frederick Douglass. As a result of Douglass’ arguably more warm reception from further afield, it could be said that Douglass was the more significant of the two campaigners, as Malcolm X was viewed with hostility by many, both black and white, who disagreed with his pro-segregation and black supremacist rhetoric.

Another way in which it could be argued that Malcolm X was not the most significant campaigner for Black civil rights in America is by looking at the contribution of Booker T. Washington towards the fight for the freedom and rights of Black people in America. Born in 1856 into slavery, Washington set up the first educational institute for African Americans in the USA, known as the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama, in 1881. During the 17th and 18th centuries, slaves in America had restricted access to educational opportunities, with many being refused the right to learn to read and write. Many slave owners, and white people, believed that as second-class citizens, slaves had no need to be educated, and did not even possess the academic capacity for an education. As a result, Washington’s introduction of the Tuskegee Institute, which aimed to teach African Americans about agriculture and farming, was an incredibly controversial move, which resulted in many whites objecting to the campaigns of Washington. Washington’s momentous act of helping to improve the education and opportunities available to the African Americans in the United States of America suggests that Booker T. Washington was the most significant Black civil rights campaigner within the years 1863-1968 as he provided opportunities to the Black community which they had been previously denied, meaning they could hope for a better and more fair future in which they could improve their social position. As a result of the opportunities Booker T. Washington provided for the Black community in the USA, it could be said that he was more significant a campaigner than Malcolm X, who (it could be argued) did not create any opportunities for educational improvement during his campaign of the 1950s and 1960s.

The 28th President of the US Woodrow Wilson epitomizes the issues African Americans had to face in their pursuit of equal rights. The first southern president since the Civil War, he grew up in Georgia and this may be an explanation behind his ideology that led to his active efforts to institutionalize segregation.

Wilson was very much an apologist for slavery and a lot of his academic writings before and after his presidency were blatantly sympathetic towards slavery. In Wilson’s view, slavery was part of the civilizing process and also claimed that Reconstruction was ‘a host of dusky children untimely put out of school’. These quotes from Wilson himself really emphasize his belief in segregation and put into context the horrors of his presidency. A precursor of his presidency would be his position of president at Princeton in 1902, of which, at his inauguration, he only invited one black person which was Booker T Washington. After that, it appeared that Wilson’s antipathy to black people seemed clear, with him aiming to make sure no black people made it onto the Princeton campus during his eight years in charge. This was shown by his efforts by the end of his presidency at Princeton to remove any public record that African Americans had ever attended Princeton.

Surprisingly, when Wilson received the presidency in 1913, there was hope among black citizens that he would advance civil rights and were willing to deviate from their republican roots because of the strong discontent with the republican and progressive candidates like Taft and Roosevelt. Instead of aggressive policy against segregation, Wilson actively did the opposite, and a lot of his administration was dedicated to increase racial inequality in America. As president, he hindered the economic progression of African Americans and oversaw multiple counts of segregation in federal agencies, which are still felt to this day. During his presidency, Wilson helped popularize the Confederate Klansmen, who unsurprisingly became the heroes of DW Griffith’s 1915 film ‘Birth of a Nation’. As well as actively promoting the work of the KKK and bringing around a new wave of radical racial terrorism, he agreed to screen the film at the White House and in its title card, had quotes from his own book. In 1915 at Red Stone Mountain in Georgia, the KKK was re-founded and its revival can be attributed to Wilson’s promoting of his own racial ideology.

Wilson’s actions as president were very much a continuation of his depraved ideology as his administration began the process of worsening and hindering the black workforce while also campaigning as a progressive, bringing the end of big businesses and improving workers’ rights. A large part of Wilson’s presidency was his southern cabinet’s influence on policy and legislature, many of whom were white supremacists. It was stated by historian Eric S. Yellin that when they arrived, they were really in shock at the number of black people working in the federal government. At the turn of the century, a lot of black people made up the federal government and various members of Wilsons’s cabinet were outraged at the amount of black people who were part of the federal service and talks about segregating the workforce were imminently had. Wilson allowed his cabinet to segregate the federal government and, unlike Presidents who actively felt pressure from civil rights activists to aggressively go after segregation, Wilson did the opposite and ignored protests from prominent civil rights figures like W.E.B DuBois. The extent of Wilson’s willingness to segregate should not be understated as his cabinet aimed and succeeded in segregating things like the Treasury, Post office and the Navy, which led to separate offices and rest areas. The result of this was it was made harder for black people to receive promotions and a lot of black supervisors were dismissed.

The increased implementation of a Jim Crow system in federal government was not the only thing hindering the advancement of African American rights during Wilson’s presidency because his response to the increased violence and lynching’s nationwide because of the great migration in 1917-18 further emphasized his active blockading of equal rights. The best example of this was his response to the East St Louis riots in 1917, in which Wilson spoke out against the rioters claiming they were betrayers of America’s great democracy but did nothing further in terms of action.

Overall, Wilson’s presidency cannot be characterized by the blissful ignorance that plagued most presidents on the issue of civil rights. Instead, his presidency can be characterized by the active attempts to purge the progress made by those before him in the advancement of African American rights.

Firstly, President Johnson can be viewed as making a significant contribution to the achievement of Black civil rights, perhaps more than any other American President in the years 1861-1973, due to the legislation he passed during his presidency. Historian George Goethals supports the argument that Johnson made a significant contribution to the achievement of Black civil rights in the years 1861-1973. He argues ‘That LBJ is ranked second only to Abraham Lincoln on the C-SPAN dimension called “pursued equal justice for all.” Passing the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 demanded the kind of moral and legislative leadership genius that, at best, Lyndon Baines Johnson gave to the United States. This view can be supported as on 2nd July 1964 Johnson signed into law the 1964 Civil Rights Act which made racial discrimination in public areas illegal, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities and required employers to provide equal employment opportunities. As a result, a total of 214 southern cities had desegregated by the end of 1965. Therefore, this piece of legislation was extremely significant in the Black civil rights movement. The act had effectively ended legal racial segregation across the South and outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, or sex. Johnson had established himself as committed to the achievement of Black civil rights; his speech to Congress on 27th November 1963 illustrates this: “…I urge you again, as I did in 1957 and again in 1960, to enact a civil rights law so that we can move forward to eliminate from this Nation every trace of discrimination and oppression that is based upon race or color.” This source is useful when investigating Johnson’s contribution to the Black civil rights movement as it provides an insight into his own views and actions in government surrounding Black civil rights. This speech was significant as it led to the 1964 Civil Rights Act, therefore Johnson did gain support through his speech to Congress. The serious tone also shows that Johnson was committed to the passing of civil rights legislation. This suggests that the source is accurate as it shows a fair reflection of Johnson’s intentions, he achieved his plans of enacting civil rights law. However, this speech was made 5 days after Kennedy was shot and Johnson was sworn in as president. Therefore, it could be argued that Johnson needed to present himself as a powerful leader to Congress and demonstrate that he was honoring Kennedy’s legacy.

• The speech was after JFK was shot, inherited his work
• Audience = Congress needed to present himself as a powerful leader and show he was honoring JFK’s legacy
• Needed to reassure the nation following JKF’s death and gain popular support, appealed to civil rights movements/ African Americans
• Could be argued that without the death of JKF, Civil Rights Act may not have been passed under Johnson who addressed JKF’s death in his speech and urged legislation to be passed to honor JFK’s memory

Moreover, Goethals can be viewed as a reliable source as his recent research has focused on presidential leadership and heroes. He is also a university professor so it’s clear his research is for academic use and the purpose of ‘Presidential Leadership and African Americans: An “American Dilemma” from Slavery to the White House’ is to provide a deeper educational insight into political involvement in Black civil rights. Despite this, his work does focus more upon psychological perspectives, rather than historical. Goethals also wrote this academic book during the time that Obama was president and so this is likely to have positively influenced his views towards the civil rights movement. Obama’s presidency appeared to be a significant turning point in American history. However, historian Robert Caro argues ‘Yet victories would not, as it turned out, be the only hallmarks that would make the presidency of Lyndon Johnson vivid in history. “We Shall Overcome” were not the only words by which it will be remembered. “Hey! Hey! LBJ! How many kids did you kill today?” The choruses of the great civil rights hymns were not the only memorable choruses of the Lyndon Johnson years. Caro is referring here to the protests against American involvement in the Vietnam War which overshadowed the end of Johnson’s presidency. The war diverted government money from Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ programme which had aimed at making American society more equal. Therefore, Johnson’s contribution to Black civil rights only occurred at the beginning of his presidency, until he became distracted by the Vietnam War, and so it could be argued that his contribution wasn’t significant due to Black civil rights not being his main focus throughout his presidency. Caro can be viewed as a reliable source as he is known for his extensive research; his work focusing on Johnson has been split into five volumes so he clearly covers an extensive breadth of time and has detailed Johnson’s life thoroughly. However, Caro was alive during Johnson’s presidency and therefore the Vietnam War (1955-75) and so his opinion may be influenced because of this; causing subjectivity in the book. There was large opposition to the Vietnam War and Caro would have experienced this, thus explaining his negative opinion presented in the quote above. The purpose of ‘The Years of Lyndon Johnson Volume 4: The Passage of Power’ is to provide an insight into Johnson’s life and political career. In this volume the focus is the 1960 election, Johnson’s life as vice president, the assassination of Kennedy and the beginning of Johnson’s presidency. Therefore, there is little focus upon Johnson’s contribution to Black civil rights and so this is less useful when evaluating how significant Johnson’s contribution to the achievement of Black civil rights was. Caro also writes to interest the reader and so there may be exaggeration used to engage and entertain rather than solely inform.

Furthermore, through his ‘Great Society’ domestic policy, which aimed to make America a fairer place, Johnson ensured further legislation was passed to improve Black civil rights. For example, the Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965. As seen in Appendix 1 , this banned all ‘tests’ which prevented American citizens from voting and also gave the federal government the power to oversee voting registration across America. African Americans in the South faced many obstacles when voting, including poll taxes and literacy tests which were there to deny them the right to vote. They also risked harassment, intimidation, and violence when they tried to register to vote and as a result, few African Americans were registered voters and so had little political power. The Voting Rights Act 1965 had an immediate impact and by the end of 1965, a quarter of a million new Black voters had been registered, one-third by Federal examiners. By the end of 1966, only 4 out of 13 southern states had fewer than 50 percent of African Americans registered to vote. Voter registration also led to an increase in the number of Black people elected to governmental positions in the North. For example, Robert C. Henry became the first African American to be elected mayor of an American city. He became the Mayor of Springfield, Ohio, in 1996. Therefore, it’s clear that the passing of this legislation by Johnson was significant in the achievement of Black civil rights as he ensured greater voting equality and more political power for African Americans. Black citizens could no longer be denied the right to vote by local governments and there was greater representation for them in politics. Johnson was clearly committed to ensuring African Americans were able to vote, this can be corroborated by his speech at Howard University on 4th June 1965:

“Experience has clearly shown that the existing process of law cannot overcome systematic and ingenious discrimination. No law that we now have on the books can ensure the right to vote when local officials are determined to deny it. Wednesday, I will send to Congress a law designed to eliminate illegal barriers to the right to vote. This bill will strike down restrictions to voting in all elections – federal, state, and local – which have been used to deny Negroes the right to vote.” (See Appendix 2 for full speech)

• Informed, serious tone. Appears committed to passing civil rights legislation.
• Howard University= Nations most prominent historically Black uni. students involved in civil rights movements, and protests. Produced African American lawyers, involved in landmark Brown v Board case. So, may be exaggerating his commitment to gain African American support.

Moreover, Johnson oversaw the passing of legislation that improved Black civil rights and academic equality. For example, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Higher Education Act were passed in 1965 and increased government funding for education. Money was targeted to aid the most disadvantaged states, schools and students; the Elementary and Secondary Education Act offered new grants to districts serving low-income students, grants for textbooks and library books, funding for special education centres, and scholarships for low-income college students. Consequently, the Acts helped schools with a high proportion of Black students and individual Black students at college or university so they had more equal opportunities to succeed academically. There was a fourfold increase in the number of Black students attending college and university during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Johnson had clearly demonstrated he was committed to ensuring equal access to quality education and the Act established high standards and accountability. This has been some of the most far-reaching government legislation affecting education, the government has upheld the Elementary and Secondary Education Act since its enactment, and was therefore significant in the achievement of Black civil rights during 1861-1973.

Finally, Johnson passed further civil rights legislation to continue to outlaw discrimination and improve Black civil rights. For example, a Civil Rights Act was passed in 1968: the Fair Housing Act, which outlawed discrimination of any form in the sale, rental, financing, or advertising of housing. Overall, it prohibited discrimination in 80 per cent of America’s housing market. This was significant as the American census of 1960 reported that 46 percent of America’s black population were living in ‘unsound’ accommodation, that 73 percent lived in urban areas where the amount of suitable housing available was decreasing, and that 25 percent lived in inner-city areas in America’s ten largest cities. The Moynihan Report of 1965 had highlighted the need for civil rights legislation which targeted housing discrimination, it drew attention to the poor living conditions of many Black families. As a result, this legislation allowed an attempt to avoid social steering, a form of housing discrimination that involves housing authorities, real estate companies, and local governments steering certain groups of people, often minorities, into certain areas of a city, and therefore segregation and discrimination. It also allowed greater housing opportunities for Black people as they wouldn’t be restricted to certain areas due to this discriminative social steering. However, the significance of the Fair Housing Act, and therefore Johnson’s contribution to the achievement of Black civil rights in the years 1861-1973, can be questioned as the Act gave the government no powers to enforce the law and the maximum fine for racial discrimination in the housing market was only $1000. Consequently, the Act was far less effective as a piece of civil rights legislation as it was not a successful deterrent to racism in the housing market.

On the other hand, it can be argued that President Johnson didn’t contribute more to the achievement of Black civil rights than any other American President in the years 1861-1973 as President Lincoln was far more significant due to his abolition of slavery. For example, Lincoln declared the freedom of all American slaves in his Emancipation Proclamation of 1st January 1863. Following the North’s victory in the civil war in 1865, slavery was finally abolished across America. This was achieved by passing the Thirteenth Amendment to the American Constitution, which made slavery illegal. This was significant as slavery had previously existed across the South, meaning Black people had no freedom or rights. Abolishing slavery was a huge step in the achievement of Black civil rights and seemed to establish it as a major political issue. However, how significant Lincoln was in the achievement of Black civil rights in the years 1861-1973 can be questioned as following the abolition of slavery, the ‘Jim Crow’ laws were introduced. Between 1890 and 1910, southern states introduced legal segregation, denying Black Americans access to the same facilities used by white Americans. Education, healthcare, transport, and public facilities were all segregated. Therefore, although slavery had ended, Black people continued to face racism and oppression so it could be argued that Lincoln’s contribution to Black civil rights during his presidency wasn’t hugely significant.

Additionally, it could be argued that President Truman contributed more to the achievement of Black civil rights than any other American President in the years 1861-1973 as he became the first American President to publicly challenge segregation and pledge his support for civil rights. For example, in 1946, Truman established The President’s Committee on Civil Rights and commissioned them to produce a report examining racism in America. The report, To Secure These Rights, highlighted the problems African Americans faced and proposed changes to address the racial inequalities in American society. The report highlighted many problems: police brutality, lynching, voting rights, discrimination in the armed forces and healthcare, and inequality in employment and education. Segregation remained an enormous problem for African Americans. As a result, Truman signed Executive Order 9980 which guaranteed fair employment practices in the civil service, and in June 1948, signed Executive Order 9981 which ensured ‘equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin’. He also committed the government to build houses in deprived urban areas to aid African Americans economically and used his power to appoint African Americans to important government roles. Ralph Bunche was appointed American Ambassador to the United Nations and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in 1950. Therefore, it’s clear that Truman was committed to desegregation and addressing the racial inequalities which had been highlighted in To Secure These Rights, a ground-breaking government report. However, how significant Truman was in the achievement of Black civil rights could be challenged as not all areas of the report were addressed and so his achievements were limited. The Committee on Government Contract Compliance couldn’t force defence companies to adopt fair employment practices and the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was under-funded and lacked support from senior civil servants so African Americans continued to face racism and unequal opportunities in employment.

Another president who contributed to the achievement of Black civil rights in the years 1861-1973 was Teddy Roosevelt due to his involvement as a Black man in American politics. For example, in 1901, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House to dine together. Washington was a significant figure in the Black Civil Rights movement, gaining recognition through his Atlanta Address of 1895. He called for the employment and education of African Americans, encouraging them to attain economic security to ensure progress rather than focusing on fighting for civil rights. He believed that African Americans should accept segregation and discrimination but that through acquiring wealth and education, they’d eventually be accepted by the white community and would gain civil rights. Roosevelt supported Washington and both Roosevelt and his successor, President William Howard Taft, used Washington as an adviser on racial matters. As a result, President Roosevelt had openly displayed his support for the civil rights movement and treated an African American man as an equal, which was significant at this time. Washington was the first African American to be invited to the White House and this was, therefore, a significant event in the civil rights movement. Moreover, by dining together, Roosevelt was inferring that the two men were equal during a time of racial segregation. Roosevelt also showed his awareness of the racial inequalities present in America and suggested that he wanted to address these problems, especially as he looked for advice from a Black man who had experienced such prejudice. However, how significant President Roosevelt was in the achievement of Black civil rights in the years 1861-1973 can be questioned as Washington was criticized by civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois and others in the black community. Du Bois opposed the Atlanta Address, instead referring to it as the ‘Atlanta Compromise’ because it suggested African Americans should accept discrimination and racial segregation. In 1909, Du Bois set up the NAACP which fought for legal equality, instead. There was therefore a split in the Black community and Washington’s approach to the movement didn’t seem to advance it towards the achievement of Black civil rights. No legislation was passed to address the racial inequalities present in America and the Jim Crow laws remained firmly in place under Roosevelt.

Finally, it could be argued that President Eisenhower contributed more to the achievement of Black civil rights than any other American President in the years 1861-1973 due to the legislation he passed for the voting rights of African Americans. For example, he passed the Civil Rights Act 1957 which proposed the establishment of a Commission on Civil Rights- a committee designed to monitor the voting rights of African Americans. The Civil Rights Act 1960 was also passed, extending the powers of the Commission by requiring local authorities to keep records of voter registration so Black voter registration could be monitored more accurately. Therefore, Eisenhower contributed to the achievement of Black civil rights by attempting to improve voting equality. Improving voting rights was significant as it allowed African Americans greater equality and involvement in the democratic process and American politics. However, how significant Eisenhower’s contribution to the achievement of Black civil rights was can be questioned as the terms of both Civil Rights Acts were weakened due to the opposition they faced in Congress and so had little impact. Under the Civil Rights Act 1957, individuals found guilty of preventing black Americans from registering as voters would face a fine of only $1000 or a maximum sentence of six months imprisonment. This didn’t act as a deterrent due to the small penalties and so discrimination remained. Overall, Eisenhower’s Civil Rights Acts had little success. By 1960, they had only increased the proportion of Black voters by 3 percent.

Introduction

“Through My Eyes” is a powerful memoir written by Ruby Bridges, an iconic figure in the civil rights movement. The book provides a firsthand account of Ruby’s experience as the first African American child to attend an all-white school in New Orleans during the height of racial segregation. Throughout the memoir, various themes emerge, but two prominent themes are perseverance and resilience. This essay will explore how Ruby Bridges portrays these themes in her memoir and the significance they hold in the broader context of the civil rights movement.

Body

Perseverance

1. Defying the Odds: Ruby’s entry into the all-white school was met with vehement opposition from the white community. Despite facing hatred, threats, and discrimination, Ruby remained determined to receive an education and forge a path for herself and future generations.
2. The Power of Education: Ruby’s perseverance highlights the transformative power of education. She understood that education was not just about academic knowledge but also about breaking the chains of discrimination and creating a better future for herself and others.
3. Symbol of Hope: Ruby’s unwavering determination served as a beacon of hope for the African American community and inspired others to fight for equal rights and opportunities.

Resilience

1. Emotional and Psychological Strength: Ruby’s young age made her particularly vulnerable to the hostility and prejudice she encountered. Despite the intense emotional and psychological strain, she exhibited remarkable resilience in facing adversity and maintaining her sense of self-worth.
2. Family Support: Ruby’s family played a crucial role in supporting her throughout her journey. Their unwavering love and encouragement helped her develop the resilience needed to confront and overcome the challenges she faced.
3. Impact on Future Activism: Ruby’s resilience became a catalyst for change and inspired others to stand up against injustice. Her ability to maintain her dignity and strength in the face of extreme adversity became a powerful symbol of resistance during the civil rights movement.

Conclusion

“Through My Eyes” by Ruby Bridges is a compelling memoir that showcases the themes of perseverance and resilience. Ruby’s unwavering determination to receive an education and her remarkable resilience in the face of adversity serve as a testament to her strength and the indomitable spirit of individuals fighting for equality. Her story resonates with readers, reminding us of the challenges faced by marginalized communities and the importance of standing up against injustice. Through her personal experiences, Ruby Bridges demonstrates that perseverance and resilience are essential qualities for effecting positive change and creating a more inclusive society.

Overall, “Through My Eyes” serves as a powerful reminder of the struggles endured by Ruby Bridges and countless others during the civil rights movement. By highlighting the themes of perseverance and resilience, the memoir inspires readers to reflect on their own capacity for resilience and the role they can play in challenging and dismantling systems of oppression. Ruby Bridges’ story is a testament to the human spirit’s ability to triumph over adversity, making “Through My Eyes” an essential read for those seeking inspiration and a deeper understanding of the fight for equality.

I chose to reflect on the film 42 (2013) which we watched in class. This film presents the obvious racial turmoil going on in the United States post-civil war but pre-integration in the South. The main issue in diversity is Equal Rights which are defined as “rights inherent to all human beings, whatever nationality, sex, race, ethnicity, religion, language, or any other status” (Passmore, 2015). The secondary issue is Social Justice which is defined as being “the view that everyone deserves equal social rights and opportunity no matter race, sex, religion, socioeconomic status, or other discriminatory factors” (Passmore, 2015). This is depicted through the life of Jackie Robinson, the first African American professional baseball player who paved the way for other races to join Major League Baseball. He endured an obscene amount of racial backlash for joining the Brooklyn Dodgers from coaches, players, fans, and even his teammates shown very graphic and very raw in 42. His teammates also faced negative backlash for befriending him, they were not allowed to stay at certain hotels, and fans called them names, and even sent them hate mail. Family and friends of the Dodgers did not approve of them playing ball with a black man resulting in some players being traded. Because of the spotlight Robinson was in, the unfair treatment he was receiving was in the spotlight also. It was very public how hateful opposing fans, players, and coaches were even though African Americans were supposed to be equal at that time. The manager of the Phillies was a good example, he was harassing and humiliating Robinson when he was up to bat and later had to make a public apology to Jackie and never managed a team again after that.

I cannot necessarily relate to Jackie Robinson, but I can form vague connections. My grandpa was kind of like some of the men from the south in the movie, an old racist redneck. Though he was not as bad, especially publicly or to someone’s face, it still upset me to visit him and hear how he would talk about the handful of African Americans in my school or who worked for him. I grew up in a small predominantly white school, I think we had less than ten African Americans in my high school collectively and three were siblings. Our baseball team had one black guy and our football team had two. I never thought anything about it until I came to college where every sports team is very diverse, if anything white people are the minority. I have never had a negative perception of other races, but I have become more aware of how little diversity I grew up with. Since watching the movie I have a much better understanding of how hard it was to integrate sports teams. In school we always learned about integrating schools or public facilities, but never sports teams. It is so interesting to see how Jackie impacted everyone and everything; from younger white boys wanting to be him to creating a new face of baseball in just one year.

I think every sports team is still experiencing the impact Jackie Robinson made. He made it so that people who would have never had the chance to play at the next level, able to step into that realm and be successful. The Major League, as of 2018 had 750 active African American baseball players (8.4 %), which is the highest since 2012 (Howard, 2018). Today, on April 15 every year MLB players wear the number 42 in honor of Jackie Robinson. Additionally, several programs have been initiated to increase diversity in youth baseball. Investment from the MLB has grown inner-city youth baseball programs which is the future of the MLB (Howard, 2018). This is largely credited to the movement and progress Jackie Robinson sparked. There is however more progress to be made. Out of the 449 pitchers in the league, only 14 are African American (Lelinwalla, 2016). Lelinwalla suggests that this is because parents do not push their children to pitch and team owners push black players into more athletic positions like outfielders and do not invest in converting them to pitchers (Lelinwalla, 2016). The number of players and pitchers is more than that in the era of Robinson, but too much time has passed since with too few pitchers to mirror the progress that has been made.

Unfortunately, there are still people today who choose to discriminate against people of different races, sexes, religions, and socioeconomic backgrounds. People associated with equal rights and social justice issues still have to overcome social prejudices in everyday life. This includes gender wage gaps and unequal housing opportunities for people of color. To solve this, we should implement training that makes people aware of any implicit biases they may have. We sometimes make preconceived judgments, as humans do, but it is not right to act upon those. Becoming more aware would help employers, bank lenders, teachers, police officers, and real estate agents make fair decisions when hiring, teaching, lending, punishing, or selling a house in certain neighborhoods.