Category: Civil Rights Movement

Introduction

Racial discrimination was very common in the ancient days since the whites segregated African Americans in every aspect of life. The blacks were not comfortable with the segregation that denied them their civil rights. Therefore, several African-American activists formed the civil rights movement to terminate the discrimination.

In the book, The Deacons for Defense: Armed resistance and civil rights movement, published by the University of North Carolina Press (Hill 2004, 23), it is mentioned that the civil rights activists protested without using violence by disobeying the government authority. However, the nonviolent protests had limited success, and the African Americans decided to go for armed self-defense.

The book describes the tension and struggles that existed between the African Americans and the members of the white citizens’ council, Ku Klux Klan. This paper will give a stringent analysis of the book to assess the author’s success in giving a convincing interpretation of the contribution of the armed defense team in obtaining civil rights for African Americans.

Discussion of the major topics in Lance Hill’s book

In the “Introduction,” Hill gives a controversial scenario that prepares the readers that indeed, there was a problem between the whites and the African Americans. The racism issue did not only lie in the adults but also did implant in the children’s minds. The Bogalusa Junior High school had integrated the white and black students. However, the white students felt more powerful than the blacks did, and they harassed them from time to time.

The whites could hit, spit on the blacks and even step on them intentionally, and the blacks could remain silent. However, as the situation continued, Royan Burris, a black civil rights leader, felt intimidated, and he ordered all the black students to seek revenge for every ill action.

He ordered the black students to hit back if a white student dared to hit them. Similarly, if a white student spat on a black student, the black would be obliged to spit back (Hill 2004, 1). After heeding to Burris advice, the school turned into a war zone as frequent fights erupted between the white and the black students.

Paul Farmer, the president of the white citizens’ council, could not take it anymore. Together with the local Ku Klux Klan, Farmer stood in the middle of the street waiting for the school’s door to open. With a corked gun, Farmer wanted to destroy the black students of Bogalusa Junior High school.

However, African Americans could not allow the ill incident to happen. Led by Royan Burris, the unyielding team of black men was on the other side of the street to protect the black children just in case a riot erupted. Essentially, the unyielding black men comprised of the members of the Deacons for Defense and Justice Movement. Earlier on, the Klansmen and the Deacons had engaged in shooting skirmishes, and the Deacons had emerged as the winners.

Luckily enough, the police arrived in time to defuse the tensed moment. The police ordered the Deacons to be the first ones to leave, but they refused. Instead, the Deacons said that they were not willing to leave in peace; and that infuriated Farmer who initiated the war. As soon as Farmer pulled his pistol, the Deacons responded by drawing their weapons, and within no time, the place turned into a war zone.

Essentially, the Deacons had faced death several times in their life; therefore, the Klansmen could not draw them back. Finally, the Klansmen flinched with the array of weapons that the Deacons were armed with, and they reluctantly surrendered. Ever since that day, Burris noted that the armed defense solved the African Americans’ problems (Hill 2004, 2).

Having drawn the attention of the readers, Lance Hill takes the readers through a series of actions that lead to the birth of the Deacons of Self Defense movement. Indeed, the white supremacist violence was on the rise as the Ku Klux Klan beat and imprisoned the nonviolent civil right activists.

In chapter one, two, and three, Hill displays the disagreements that brought tension between the nonviolent movements and the Deacons who used arms to obtain their civil rights. Indeed, the civil rights movement strictly adhered to the religion that opposed armed self-defense.

However, the whites had taken advantage of the nonviolent blacks to molest them. In the subtitle, “Onto Bogalusa,” Hill asserts that it was difficult for the blacks to obtain jobs, as the jobs were reserved for the whites. The blacks survived only if they won the sympathy of the whites (Hill 2004, 11). The few blacks who were lucky to obtain jobs in the pine plantation farms lived in fear, as they were not sure of when the next riot would erupt.

In the subtitle, “The Bogalusa Chapter,” Hill described the kind of life that the African American lived in Bogalusa. The blacks had no right to vote. At one time, the nonviolent protestors, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), planned a campaign to air their views, but the Bogalusa Community council requested for postponement of the campaign to avert CORE’s plans.

CORE leaders were urged to give the Bogalusa community council about six months to resolve the dispute. The white leaders took advantage of the black leaders to negotiate and postpone issues, but the postponement would never get any viable solution to the issues. Therefore, blacks continued to live in agony (Hill 2004, 89). The whites could beat up the blacks without any reason whenever they had a chance, and nobody cared.

Indeed, African Americans could not win without violence. In the subtitle, “The Spring Campaign,” it is evident that the blacks noticed that the nonviolent movements were fruitless. Fredrick Kirkpatrick and other activists agreed to combine efforts with the Deacons to fight for the civil rights of the African Americans. Earnest Thomas was one of the activists who had experienced segregation since his childhood.

Therefore, Thomas was swayed easily to become a founder of the Deacons for Defense and Justice Movement. The armed Deacons fought for the civil rights of African Americans.

Within no time, the movement became famous. The gun battle became the order of the day as the deacons fought with the state police and the deputized firefighters. The Deacons purposed to train black teenagers to become fighters, and they even organized fight matches for the students (Hill 2004, 119).

Finally, Hill explained how the Deacons for Defense team were able to obtain victory from their armed self-defense in the subtitle, “Victory.”

The blacks were able to demand their rights for equal educational opportunities and rights for equal employment. African Americans were able to have equal access to public facilities. From Hill’s point of view, the armed self-defense movement played a great role in ensuring that the African Americans obtained their civil rights.

Historical evidence to support the interpretation of the book

In the entire book, Lance Hill insists that indeed, unarmed self-defense would not bear any fruits in the struggle for African rights. To defend his interpretation, Hill uses various primary and secondary sources. Hill uses eyewitness accounts, interviews, FBI records, newspaper reports, publications, biographies, and journal articles support his interpretation.

The most interesting primary source that Hill uses is the eyewitness account of an individual who visited Martin Luther King’s home. Essentially, Martin Luther King, Jr. was one of the individuals who urged people to adopt the non-violent protest against the discrimination of African Americans. However, the eyewitness was surprised to find an arsenal of weapons in the king’s homestead (Hill 2004, 2).

The king had requested for gun permits for his guards for his protection. This was an ironical situation for the king who opposed armed self-defense. In other words, Hill supported the fact that even the individuals who advocate for peace and unarmed self-defense were doing it for publicity; yet, they essentially needed armed self-defense for their safety.

The most significant secondary sources that Hill used to support his argument were the journal articles. The articles indicated that the self-defense groups were there even before the emergence of the Deacons for Defense Movement. However, the secret groups could not fight the Ku Klux Klan. The journals indicated that Martin Luther King Jr. had a nonviolent civil right organization that welcomed individuals who wanted to fight for their rights without violence.

However, the majority of the African American men refused to join such organizations that were not fruitful (Hill 2004, 4). Essentially, nonviolent protests encouraged the master-slave relationship. African Americans would thus live in oppression and fear. The journals stated that the Deacons were unique, and their armed self-defense strategies were successful in fighting for the civil rights of the African Americans.

Lance Hill’s conclusions

The armed self-defense during the civil rights campaigns was different from the one during the black power movement. Essentially, the civil rights campaign advocated for nonviolent protests of civil resistance and civil disobedience, where, the activists were not armed.

The nonviolent protests of the African Americans created conflicts between the government and the activists, but they did not achieve much in their struggle to fight racial discrimination. The only achievement during the civil rights campaign was the passage of the civil rights act of 1964. Although the act banned racial and religious discrimination, prejudice still prevailed.

The blacks received lower wages than the whites did, and there were other unspoken cases of racial discrimination. The activists felt that they needed a strong movement that would hasten the process of giving the blacks equal opportunities like those of the whites. Therefore, the black power movement came up to combat the weaknesses of the civil rights movement.

The movement employed force as the activists could use violence to obtain what they wanted. According to Lance Hill, the black power movement enabled blacks to be proud of their race. It enhanced their self-esteem, and the blacks easily joined political parties to aspire to the ideas of the whites. The militant activities of the black power movement contributed greatly to the decline of the civil rights movement (Hill 2004, 256).

The black power movement gave birth to positive developments. The developments leading to an increased demand for black power, which marked a new phase in the struggle for freedom for African Americans. Generally, Hill asserts that the armed self-defense of the Deacons for Defense Movement and the Black Power Movement contributed greatly towards the attainment of the freedom for the African Americans.

Reference

Hill, Lance. Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance in the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

Whenever the Civil Rights Movement is mentioned, only a handful of names come to mind. It is now apparent that the Civil Rights Movement was a concerted effort orchestrated by a group of individuals. The only difference is that some of these gained “celebrity” status while the others slipped into oblivion. Besides Dr King and Malcolm X, other various individuals made substantial contributions to the modern Civil Rights Movement.

These people have come to be known as the silent voices of the Modern Civil Rights Movement. Among this group, I find the life and work of Ella Josephine Baker to be worthy of recognition. This is the why she gets my nomination for recognition in the “Museum of Silent Voices of the Modern Civil Rights Movement”.

Ella Baker was a native of Norfolk, Virginia. From an early age, Baker was exposed to the injustices faced by African Americans. As a young girl, her grandmother used to tell Baker stories about slavery and slave revolts. Baker served in many capacities during the years she was active in public service. However, her tenure as the head of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee is what should warrant Baker a place in the Museum.

When studying at Shaw University, Baker began working with organizations of social activism. After completing her education, Baker’s first active Civil Rights Movement contribution was with the NAACP.

She entered the organization as a secretary but she eventually managed to be the highest ranked woman in the organization. She was an outspoken contributor who advocated for the inclusion of women and young people in the NAACP. She also managed to form a network of southerners who later became major contributors to the Civil Rights Movement.

Her splendid organizational skills were again manifested when she helped organize the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Her argument was that the conference would build on the momentum created by the accomplishments of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. During that 1957conference, the leaders pushed for voter registration. Her activities at the time covered Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi.

When she was working with the SCLC, she convinced the organization to invite university students from the south to a leadership conference at Shaw University. This is when the organization formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). As the “godmother” of SNCC, Baker was able to make significant contributions to the Civil Rights Movement.

For instance, it was during this time when she coordinated the famous “freedom rides” of 1961. It was also during her work with SNCC that she was able to mentor future voices of the Civil Rights Movement. Some of these personalities include Diane Nash, Julian Bond, Bob Moses, Curtis Muhammad, and Stokely Carmichael.

Ella Baker deserves her place as one of the heroes of the modern Civil Rights Movement. Her philosophy of participatory democracy was a defining factor in the Civil Rights era. She advocated that groups, not individuals were important to the movement. This philosophy was the main drive for most of the radical groups that were formed in the 1960s.

Another of her significant contributions was the formation of a party that served as an alternative to the all-white Democratic Party in Mississippi. Prior to her death in 1986, Baker had made immense organizational-contribution to the Civil Rights Movement. Her place as a great voice of the Civil Rights Movement is solid.

Many American cities encountered numerous challenges and obstacles after the Civil Rights Movement. Some of these challenges included “poverty, lack of proper houses, and inappropriate surroundings” (Gioielli 432). Many people in different urban regions died due to poor living conditions. Lead poisoning also became a major challenge after the Civil Rights Movement. This situation encouraged more people to form new political coalitions.

The people wanted the government to address their pathetic living conditions. Many people in different American cities were unable to achieve their potentials. Such coalitions managed to deal with the problem of lead paint. These political coalitions also reshaped the country’s health policy. Many doctors and physicians “began to take care of every citizen affected by lead poison in St. Louis” (Gioielli 430). Such coalitions also forced the American government to address the challenges affecting different cities.

The people focused on “specific challenges in order to make such coalitions successful” (Whitaker 209). The people also identified the major issues affecting different cities after the Civil Rights Movement. New policies and laws emerged in order to promote the rights of many American citizens.

However, such coalitions encountered new challenges and limitations. For instance, a new disparity “emerged between the minorities and the majorities in these cities” (Whitaker 209). Several minority groups were unable to work together. Some Mexican Americans and Latinos “also identified themselves as superior against the African Americans” (Whitaker 208).

This development created a new wave of animosity. Such political coalitions were therefore unable to achieve most of their goals. Although such “coalition politics managed to produce some goals during the time, the agreeable fact is that a new form of enmity emerged thus affecting different racial groups” (Whitaker 209).

Works Cited

Gioielli, Robert. “Get the Lead Out: Environmental Politics in 1970s St. Louis.” Journal of Urban History 36.4 (2010): 429-446. Print.

Whitaker, Matthew. “Black and Chicano Leadership and the Struggle for Access and Opportunity.” Race Work: The Rise of Civil Rights in the Urban West. Ed. Matthew Whitaker. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. 199-221. Print.

Generally, civil rights are those rights that are meant to be enjoyed by every individual citizen. The civil rights movement was a popular lobby group created to advocate for equality in the United States for both blacks and whites. In American history, the civil rights movement assumes a very special place.

An important agenda for the movement was to ensure that the rights of every individual, including minorities and women, were secured by the law. To a large extent, the civil rights movement completely transformed the lives of blacks in the United States.

How the Civil Rights Movement Began

Historically, the need to enforce people’s civil rights started as soon as slavery became a threat. This followed the arrival of the first slaves from the African continent. In 1808, the importation of slaves from Africa was abolished. Under President Lincoln’s directive, those who were already enslaved had to be set free in 1863. In the year 1954, discrimination at different levels in a society based on race was considered to be against the law.

The formation of the civil rights movement received a major boost in 1955 when Rose Parks was arrested for refusing to surrender a seat for a white passenger. Blacks reacted to this incident by staging a boycott against the Montgomery buses. The revolution continued, and in 1957, a rights group was created under the leadership of Martin Luther King. Unfortunately, this led to the arrest of Martin Luther King. He was later sent to jail.

In 1963, things took a different turn as a demonstration involving thousands of individuals took place in Washington. The Civil Rights Act came into action in 1964 and strongly condemned discrimination based on race, origin, or color. For many people, the Act became one of the most valued legislations of the United States. The Civil Movements Act finally became law after it received support from a number of legislators. It brought about a huge change in a society where discrimination based on race, was the order of the day.

Without a doubt, the achievements of the present-day society are all as a result of the activities of the civil rights movement. Beyond the 1960s, the civil rights movement started addressing new issues and building new coalitions. Today, for example, President Barrack Obama and Eric Holder are two African – American citizens who are in their respective offices, all thanks to the civil rights movement. Among other achievements, the Civil Rights Act brought racial discrimination in public places to an end.

Other Affects the Movement had on American Politics and Culture

The civil rights law is largely responsible for the work one to ensure equality in employment, education, politics, and other areas such as in the armed forces. The impact of the civil rights movement on the politics and culture of the American people was not fully felt until after the 1960s.

A notable example is the presidential election of 2008 that saw Barrack Obama elected the president of the United States. Undoubtedly, the activities of the civil rights movement in the early days greatly changed American politics, institutions, and culture. Efforts made by the civil rights movement to change workplaces, communities, and politics one step at a time created an avenue for Barrack Obama to become the president of the United States.

The civil rights movement also affected immigration in the United States. Afraid of the increased pressure from the civil rights movement, lawmakers in the United States to come up with legislation aimed at reducing the number of immigrants.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that much was realized by the civil rights movement, the war against discrimination in the United States and other places across the world is far from being over. Even with an African – American president in office, the attitude of most American citizens regarding minorities has not changed much.

Between mid 1950s and late 1960s, civil rights movements in America were at its peak. The civil rights movement was sparked by various factors that undermined and oppressed the black population. As a matter of fact, blacks were treated like half citizens, and they had no right to complain.

For instance, the South had devoted their energy in stabilizing and perfecting the Jim Crow ideology that required blacks to be segregated and separated from the white people.

As a result, there was the lack of decent education, poor jobs and rampant poverty among the blacks. In response, the black citizen resorted to fighting for his rights; thus, the rise of the civil rights movement. During this era, there were key events that eventually led to a breakthrough in the fight for civil rights. Some of these events are described briefly in the following paragraphs.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was a spokesman for African Americans in the struggle for equal rights during the era. However, King received stern opposition from whites such as Governor George who was the symbol for opposition to racial interlink. King asserted that civil rights movement was more of a human rights movement than just a movement for black rights.

According to King and other Black leaders, as long as Blacks were denied their full rights America could not be free. Under his leadership, key events such as the Brown vs. Board of Education case, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the 1960s Sit-Ins gained momentum.

Overwhelmed by the poor quality of their school, students at Moton High School resorted to taking the matter to court (Robinson, 2005). The main cause of poor education facilities in the African American schools was the segregation laws. In 1954, the Supreme Court declared its verdict that segregation of White and Black Schools was unconstitutional (Robinson, 2005).

As a result, segregation was phased out of schools and Black children had the right to attend white schools and receive a quality education. This key event enabled all citizens to explore education to the highest level regardless of race or color.

Another key event is the Montgomery Bus Boycott that took place between 1956 and 1957. According to the segregation rules in public transport vehicles, Blacks were supposed to leave their seats for white travelers (The Henry Ford, 2002). In 1955, however, a lady called Rosa Parks refused to leave her seat for a white traveler and was fined by the court of law for misconduct.

“Thereafter, fifty Black leaders organized a “Montgomery Bus Boycott” to demand a more humane transport system” (The Henry Ford, 2002). 381 days later, a federal court ordered the buses to drop the rules and allow for equal rights of travel. Martin Luther King participated in this boycott that resulted in equality among all Montgomery users.

“In another scenario (1960), four college students organized a sit-in in a lunch counter to protest Woolworth’s idea of excluding Blacks” (Cozzens, 1998). The students had bought some goods in other areas of the store, kept the receipts and during the lunch hour they asked to be served. The students were not served; hence, they produced their receipts and demanded to know why they make decisions against them.

Since then, Sit-Ins became rampant in several states and the message was effectively delivered. This trend led to the creation of student committees that eventually led to the freedom rides in 1961(Cozzens, 1998). In conclusion, these key events helped to reinforce the African American struggle for equal right rights, and finally, the light was found.

References

Cozzens, L. (1998). Sit-Ins. Web.

Robinson, S. (2005). Brown vs. Board of Education. Web.

The Henry Ford. (2002). The Story Behind the Bus. Web.

Life and Times

Civil rights activist Medgar Wiley Evers was born on July 2 in 1925 in Decatur, Mississippi and died on June 12 in 1963. His effort in the rights movement to defend the rights of people is always overshadowed when the concentration is focussed on Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. He was a son of James Evers and Jessie Wright. James Evers was a sawmill worker and a peasant farmer. His mother, on the other hand, was a very devoted Christian and a homemaker. Medgar was the third born in a family of four that also included Charles, Elizabeth and Ruth. He is said to have had an independent mind from his childhood. In spite of the tough times for black children of his era, his parents made sure that Medgar attended school without interruptions. This was very different because at that time it was very difficult to find black children going to school on full-time basis (Brown 17). Most of them would interrupt their learning to take up odd jobs such as harvesting crops. His urge to become a human rights activist was developed following an experience he saw when he was young. A family friend was lynched for seemingly disrespecting a white woman.

Medgar was recruited in the army at a teenage age of seventeen years in nineteen forty-two (Williams 12). This gave him an opportunity to fight in the Second World War and got the experience of working in a foreign country. Jessie, his mother, was very strict and this contributed to Medgar growing up as much disciplined man. This necessitated his service in the military. Following his encounters while in the military, he chose to live to fight racism back in his homeland. He grew up through tough times as Decatur was one of the segregated towns and the most important economic activity was farming (Brown 37). Medgar met and married Myrlie Evers in 1952 after graduating with a Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration from Alcom Agricultural and Mechanical College. After graduating Medgar worked as a salesperson but went on to get three children with his wife. Though working as an insurance salesperson at Magnolia Mutual Insurance Company did not earn him good salary, he derived satisfaction in working for a business owned by a black.

His role in activists’ movements

Medgar had always stated that other than so many goals that he wanted to pursue, his main aim was to be important in establishing a place where blacks and whites would be equal. Magnolia Mutual Insurance Company was one of the businesses that were owned, run, funded and serving Africans in Mississippi (Williams 39). Working for this company enabled him to travel a lot around Mississippi. He therefore, got firsthand experience of the levels of poverty that people went through. This was in addition to his life that was a testimony of poverty in itself. Moreover, his stint in the armed forces gave him a chance to understand how Blacks were mistreated in America yet they would get recognition elsewhere. Medgar wanted to join the University of Mississippi to study Law but his application was declined on racial grounds and he was very disappointed.

The issues raised above contributed to him joining the National Association for the advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) as a volunteer in the association’s Mississippi chapter. He played a big role in the movements activities in the nineteen fifties and sixties. His outstanding character was his love for fighting for the rights of people to gain equality. As a volunteer, Medgar began by selling the membership to the association while selling the insurance products for his employers (Williams 41). The consequences of joining NAACP at that time were dangerous and this scared most blacks away from joining as members. However, this was not the case with Medgar. Following the rejection of his application to study at the University of Mississippi, NAACP hired him as a field secretary to Jackson that was to the Deep South in recognition of his effort and contribution to the movement’s activities.

Implications of his death

His duties as a field sectary included recruiting new members that happened to be his toughest role of all the tasks he used to carry out. In addition, he was tasked with the responsibility of investigating and making public any mistreatment directed at African-Americans. This included gathering information, classifying and reporting all forms of abuses in Mississippi. Medgar’s biggest assignment came in 1954 when he was supposed to lead the movement in challenging the Supreme Court to enforce a law declaring segregated schools unconstitutional. This case made Medgar angrier than ever because the government authorities in the south refused to enforce the law that had been a landmark ruling in the land of the United States. He chose to engage the authorities directly and sometimes forcefully (Brown 77). Some of his actions never went down well with a part of the leadership of the movement because they were more conservative and did not prefer confrontation with authorities. Some of his activities that were very sensitive included investigating the murder of Emmett Till, a boy who was killed for allegedly disrespecting a white woman by whistling to her.

Medgar finally succeeded in enrolling at the University of Mississippi as the first black student when he worked as an advisor to Meredith James. At one time, he campaigned for boycotting of white merchants who racially discriminated blacks. One of his speeches, separate but equal, was addressed to both blacks and whites. It carried valuable lessons of anti-racism for both groups. Medgar played a pivotal role in the formation and organization of the Jackson Movement in the sixties. His leadership style was aggressive as this movement struggled to end segregation in the populated part of Jackson in the City of Mississippi. The movement that was led by Jackson targeted parks, schools, libraries and recreational areas including movie halls and theatres (Williams 55). Most victims of racial discrimination were African-Americans. The movement employed very different methods to pass its message. They took to sit-ins, mass meetings, economic boycotts, and demonstrations that were peaceful in most cases.

Though some African-Americans including those within the NAACP and Jackson movement saw Medgar’s activities as being antagonistic, he did a lot towards the ending of racism in the U.S. First his actions unified the black community in Mississippi beginning with Jackson residents. He used his charisma to resolve disputes among smaller movements that rivalled each other especially youth groups. He strived to bring on board moderate people who felt that the best solution would be applying diplomacy to raise their grievances and he finally succeeded (Brown 89). He was assassinated on the night of December 12 in nineteen sixty-three after arriving home. His death however, changed the shape of civil rights movements in the U.S. as they became more aggressive. His efforts are enjoyed today which can be seen from the fact that Barrack Obama became the first African-American president in 2008.

Works Cited

Brown, Jennie. MMedgar Evers. Los Angeles: Melrose Square Pub. Co, 1994. Print.

Williams, Michael V. MMedgar Evers: Mississippi Martyr. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2011. Print.

Introduction

This paper covers two parts. Part one of the paper is a summary of chapter ten of the book “Studying At University, how to be a successful student” by David Mcllroy. The chapter title is “Applying for a job” where Mcllroy advises the university students on how to apply or seek for a job.

He also advises about how they should select a course to study in the university. Part two of the essay is Research summary on ‘The Civil Rights movement in the USA that took place from 1955 thru 1968’.

The Civil Rights Movement in the USA

This was a movement that took place in the United States of America between 1955 and 1968. The movement was instituted when the southern states of America were dominated by racial discrimination against African Americans and denial of voting powers. The movement’s main aim was to end the racial segregation and fight for the voting power of the black people in America.

However, the aim was enlarged to include the fight racial dignity, freedom from oppression, and political and economic self sufficiency which were the major concerns of the African-American people. This was escalated by the emergence of the black power movement that took place between 1966 and 1975.

Their concerns and demands were fought using major campaigns of civil resistance where the issues were addressed. There was rampant oppression of the white people by the Native Americans during the period of (and before), the movement. The situation in America was worse and needed to be addressed with immediate effect.

It is apparent, therefore, that the movement came up due to the need to fight the racial discrimination that was being directed to the Americans of African origin. According to Renée (2006), these people had been denied various rights they were entitled to as Americans.

According to Renée (2006), the government had deliberately failed to provide adequate public services like schools and hospitals in the areas perceived to be occupied by the African-American. He states that even those that were lucky to have these services did not get the right quality.

He says that although the blacks’ population in the United States was small compared to the Americans, they eventually won the battle and were given all the rights as other Americans.

Exploitation was another cause that led to the emergence of civil rights movement. According to Newman (2004), the people of African origin were being exploited economically. He argues that although slavery had been outlawed long time ago, the subsequent governments failed to address the plight of these people.

In places of work, he acknowledges that Africans and other colored people were paid very little compared to the whites for the same kind of job. This created a lot of tension among these people.

However, with the influence of one of their prominent leaders, Malcom X and W. E.B. Du Bois, they decided to demonstrate so that the government of the day could address their needs effectively and as soon as possible. He says that other notable leaders in this movement were Martin Luther King, Jr, and Rosa Parks who was regarded as the mother of civil rights movement.

It was also reported that there was a lot of violence that was directed towards the black people in different parts of the United States of America. This is according to Renée (2006) who points out that the local police were blamed for being used as agents of the government in suppressing any revolts that may have been anticipated to happen.

He argues that the local people, in collaboration with the police, organized attacks against the blacks. This was meant to instill fear in the black people so that they do not continue making demands for equal rights. He, however, says that under the leadership of the black leaders, the blacks and other colored people were able to fight for their rights. He says that today all people in the United States of America are equal before the law.

The other cause of this civil rights movement was the need to demand for equal voting right as the other citizens of the United States of America. This is highlighted by Edmund (2010) who argues that the Democrats passed laws prohibiting all the black people from voting when they came to power.

This angered the affected people and therefore they organized themselves and called all the black people to come out in large numbers and participate in the movements to demand for their rights to vote.

One of the key highlights of this movement took place on 1^st December 1955. The day was dominated by nonviolent protests and civil disobedience which was lead by Rosa Parks. Following this act, Newman (2004) argues that she was subsequently arrested and charged with breaking the local ordinance an act that angered her fellow counterpart in the whole of United States.

As a response to her arrest, the African –Americans decided not to use the public transport until the government addressed all their concerns. According to Newman, this boycott took more than a year after the government intervened and decided to do away with such laws.

After the civil rights movement took place, the government of the day and the subsequent one yielded to the pressure and the black people gained their full rights as Americans. Several acts like Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 among others were passed to address the concerns of the blacks in America.

Conclusion

Part 1. David Mcllroy has endeavored to venture in a field where very little has been written about. Therefore, any person who is about to attend an interview should find this book very resourceful since it gives a detailed explanation of the do’s and the don’ts during an interview.

Part 2. The Civil Rights Movement in the USA took place in the United States of America between 1955 and 1968, a period that was characterized by racial discrimination and denial of voting power to the blacks. The movement’s main aim was to end the racial segregation and fight for the voting power of the black people in America

Reference list

Edmund, L., 2010. America in the 1950s. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. McIlroy, D., 2003. Studying @ university: How to be a successful student. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Newman, M., 2004. The civil rights movement. Trowbridge: The Cromwell Press.

Renée, C., 2006. The Civil Rights movement in American memory. Georgia: University Of Georgia Press.

Without doubt, Paul Hendrickson, Bernice McNair Barnett and Danielle L. McGuire assert that Black women made noteworthy contributions to the Civil Rights Movement. As Barnett (163) notes, Black women were at the forefront of formulating tactics and strategies, initiating protests and securing resources such as communication networks, money and personnel that necessitated the success of collective action.

These included distinctive women such as Aurelia Browder, Jo Ann Gibson and Viola White among others. Such women formulated strategies and tactics such as declining to ride buses to work to boycott against the segregation laws, “I had stopped riding because I wanted better treatment” (Hendrickson 290).

They also refused to give seats to White passengers in buses, “I am not going to move out of my seat…I got the privilege to sit here like anybody” (Hendrickson 294) as a way of initiating protests. In addition, Black women with fair skin also used the sneering strategy; reminding the Whites who thought and treated them as Whites that they were not different from Blacks, “was a member of the darker race” (Hendrickson 293).

Conspicuously, Black women such as Mrs. Gilmore formed clubs that sought money to finance the movement (Barnett 168). In addition, they sought after the personnel that the movement required. For instance, the Albany Movement had a woman leader who organized young people to attend demonstrations and meetings (Barnett 168).

However, despite their paramount contributions, sometimes more than men “and it was women more than men” (Hendrickson 289), Black women remained invisible in reference to their recognition as leaders in the movement, except for a few such as Rosa Parks. Evidently, Black women were not under any male leaders’ directives, including the most influential male, Martin Luther King, a clear indication that they deserved recognition on their own.

The Black women took their own initiatives. This is because they “shared a common desire for freedom from oppression” (Barnet 163) that made them have the courage to start their initiatives without relying on men directives. They were angered by the unjust segregation laws that made them victims of racialism, and unjust treatment by officers and in the public (McGuire 59). Hence, they took their own initiatives because they “wanted better treatment” (290) which they would get if they cooperated with the Black people in the movement.

The key factors that left the Black women unrecognized or led to recognition of just a few of them as leaders are class, race and gender biases (Barnet 163). In terms of gender bias, focus on Civil Rights Movement research was on the elite Black male professionals such as Martin Luther King and ministers, not the women.

In addition, women were negatively stereotyped as poor, illegitimate and female-headed, thus making them unworthy of recognition as leaders. In reference to race, Feminist scholarship’s focus was on White women activism. In terms of class, there was a middle-class orientation ignoring and excluding the working-class and poor Black women experiences in the civil movement. This yielded the perception that Black women were politically passive, organizers or followers, not leaders.

In reference to the discussion above, it is crucial to talk about Black women’s contribution to the movement. While focusing on individuals would explore key women leaders in the movement, other women, the invisible, would be left out. Hence, it warrants that Black women be explored using an all- inclusive framework.

This demand exploring the sex-specific ways that Black women contributed to the movement because they collectively have a “history of their own” (Barnet 165), a reflection of their own role, concerns and values as women and Afro-Americans.

Works Cited

Barnett, Bernice McNair. “Invisible Southern Black Women Leaders in the Civil Rights Movement: The Triple Constraints of Gender, Race, and Class”. Gender and Society, 7.2 (1993):162-182. Print.

Hendrickson, Paul, “1944-The Ladies Before Rosa: Let Us Now Praise Unfamous Women”. Rhetoric & Public Affairs 8. 2 (2005): 287-298. Print.

McGuire, Danielle L. “At the Dark End of the Street”. Black Women, Rape, and Resistance- A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010. 40-67. Print.

Introduction

More than a century has passed after the Emancipation Proclamation. However, African Americans were facing great challenges of the unequal treating in Southern states. They faced many struggles including oppressions, race-inspired violence, and segregation along with Puerto Ricans and American Indians. Jim Crow’s laws put those people aside from all possible public and educational establishments. Entire communities were barred from schools, theaters, bathrooms and working positions. This defining period boosted young civil right activists to arrange massive protests without violent actions. Their only goal was to make government and society understand they called for equality and rights as anybody else in the country. Some of those young activists grew to prominence during that period. They include such defining names in American history as Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Rosa Parks and many others. They took a risk to meet that crucial problem face to face.

Johnson’s Respond to the Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights movements came as an inspiration for many young Americans. Many people were born in the atmosphere of those events. At the same time, they brought some other social topics of inequality to discuss. The problem of gay and lesbian rights appeared to be rather challenging and disruptive to the society. That is why some of those activists dropped out creating a better cohort for themselves. They include hippies and other social layers that were not eager to change things while others were trying to shape the society and change the lifestyle that was adopted during the Cold War. A growing number of such movements turned out to be a headache for the government. Several efforts were made to handle the situation. It was a defining period for Johnson providing him an opportunity to complete the unfinished task after the assassination of Kennedy. Though being rather conservative in the Senate, Johnson decided to change his strategy as the candidate and opted for roots that were more liberal. It resulted in the implementation of the biggest reform since the New Deal. It appeared that “Johnson painfully accepted new limits to the great society” (Oakes et al.873).

Johnson had enough time before the election to ensure every citizen he did deserve that opportunity. The Civil Right Bill was probably the biggest legislative piece that was passed. JFK was unable to complete it following his promises. At the same time, the Civil Right Act was a guarantee that all discriminations and oppressions would be finally prohibited. The act banned any forms of gender or racial discriminations while racial minorities were allowed visiting public places along with educational and other facilities, at least on the paper. Johnson was the one to sign the Economic Opportunity Act in 1964. In addition, “Congress passed the Voting Act of 1965” (Oakes et al. 858).The idea was to get rid of poverty among American citizens of any race and ethnic group. The government launched additional educational and training programs. Head Start preschool social program was among them.

Conclusion

Though considered as a rather conservative political, Johnson opted for another root. He actually declared war on equality and poverty in the United States. The prior goal was to build a better society and remove any signs of tough challenges and troubles poor people had to face every day. This strategy made it possible for him to earn a good handicap in the face of Barry Goldwater, who was his main opponent. All those events resulted in a decisive victory for the future president of the United States.

Works Cited

Oakes, James, Michael McGerr, Jan Ellen Lewis and Jeanne Boydston. Of the People: A History of the United States. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2012. Print.

Introduction

Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and Lyndon Johnson played crucial roles in the Civil Rights movements in the USA. The African Americans and other minority groups in the US faced discrimination. For instance they were not allowed to vote.

They were denied freedom to mix and mingle with Native Americans in both public and social gatherings. To handle these challenges needed resolute leadership. Eisenhower’s presidency saw the introduction of the Civil Rights Act in 1957. Lyndon Johnson, on the other hand, equally grappled with this issue early enough.

Historical background

The social historians have managed to cogently present the politics that surrounded the civil rights movement. They particularly focused on retelling the predicament of the underclass and their strategies of progress over time.¹

Ezra has adequately managed to present the struggle through which the African Americans went through to gain civil liberties and recognition in the American society.He further avers that although civil rights movement has been greatly highlighted, it just marked a lower position of the road to freedom (Ezra 5).

Actually, the African Americans started their struggle for freedom many years. The struggle could be traced all the way to the Atlantic Slave trade. He has successfully illustrated what the slaves did to express their resistance to slave trade. For instance, he says that the slaves never wanted to abandon their heritage (Ezra 38). They married fellow slaves and went ahead and had families.

They have resisted through a myriad of ways such as feigning illness, spoiling the tools meant to be used for working and to some extent would even capture and murder their captors. It is against this backdrop that 1954 to 1968 came to be greatly associated with civil rights movement. It was a momentous era in the African Americans’ struggle for freedom as it led to substantial gains in the fight for equal rights.

The era was one characterized by heightened activism. Secondly, the era gained the support of non blacks. The whites also sympathised with the cause of the struggle. The movement also managed to gain the support of the aims of government, the executive, legislature, and even the judiciary (Ezra 6). The executive particularly did so through issuing of speeches of civil rights movement.

Fourthly, the civil rights movement managed to receive international attention and support. Finally, the media was not left behind. It played a pivotal role in projecting the civil rights movement as one was putting the American moral conscience to question.

Lyndon Johnson’s participation in the Civil Rights movement had started earlier, though covertly. His experience of teaching in a segregated school made him develop a deep conviction that segregation was morally wrong. He always thought of once transforming America into a great society, and when he thought of segregation, he felt that America was not pursuing that direction of greatness.

He had worked with the segregated minority groups since 1928. As an elementary school teacher in a segregated Mexican American only school, Johnson saw how the small community was wallowing in abject poverty and illiteracy. They also lived in squalid conditions. By this he felt that the situation could only be remedied through provision of education.

Eisenhower and Civil Rights Movement

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) approached the Civil Rights movement with measured caution (Jacoway 65). His support for the Civil Rights movement was measured so as he could not seem to antagonize his voting base. Eisenhower’s contribution towards civil rights movement has been mired with controversy. Many analysts felt that he stood on both sides of the fence.

All in all, his action or inaction had crucial contribution to the civil rights movement in the US. Many analysts have seen that Eisenhower tried all ways possible to avoid issues that had to do with race conflict. But this could not go on for long as he got spurred into action in the Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954.² The Supreme Court had ruled that segregation that occurred in the public schools was unconstitutional.

It is believed that this Supreme Court ruling did not go down well with Eisenhower (Jacoway 70). Consequently, he declined to sanction its endorsement. Most opponents of desegregation got their agitation bolstered by this silence from the highest office.

As such, most whites from the south formed councils whose sole purpose was to hinder or sabotage any compliance to the court’s ruling through various ways including violence and intimidation. Other groups resorted to political action to discourage compliance.

Though Eisenhower had not been publicly associated with the Civil Rights Movement, the Little Rock incident made him respond. Initially, his belief was that no one should force the other person to change beliefs and convictions through legislation.

He thought that such change could only be occasioned through their heart. In other words, he did not want to support legislation for Civil Rights but the event at Little Rock school formed a turning point on the whole view.

Eisenhower, though opposed to the ruling of the court, was duty bound by the constitution to respect it. So, when white mobs prevented some black students from joining Little Rock High school, Eisenhower had to dispatch the army to guard and make sure the black students were protected the whole year (Jacoway 44). Even Governor Faubus reluctantly agreed to let the African American students enrol in the school.

The troops stayed at the school for the whole year and in 1958 Central High School in Little Rock produced the first African American graduate. In this situation it can be seen that Eisenhower contributed towards the initial implementation of desegregation in the American public schools.

This he did but not without constant interruption. For example, we are told that in 1958 Governor Faubus, in a bid to sabotage desegregation, went ahead and closed all public schools. This was solely aimed at stopping the integration program that was already underway.

Another area in which Eisenhower contributed greatly towards civil Rights Movement was legislation. For instance, it is recorded that he was the one who first signed civil rights legislation. The law required that the federal government protects all voting rights of individuals regardless of colour, creed etc.³

The situation was particularly worse in the Southern states: African Americans had completely been disenfranchised – their voting rights had been denied despite the constitution having stated otherwise. The states managed to prevent them through roadblocks such as subjecting them to literacy tests and even poll taxes licence for letting them vote.

But it should not also be forgotten that the jury of the matter was that the jury was predominantly white hence there was no hope of a fair verdict. Eisenhower did not tire in signing legislation.

For example, in 1960, he further went ahead and signed his second Civil Rights law that was a further advancement over the previous one (Jacoway 86). In other cases, the president invoked executive authority to further champion civil rights as envisaged in the constitution.

In a nutshell, Eisenhower valued moderation as he went about the civil rights issue. For example, he urged both sides to go slow. He urged those who wanted the rights to be implemented to go slow as well as those who were opposed to desegregation. To him the both sides were exhibited extremist tendencies in their approach, something he seemed to abhor.

Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement

Johnson’s soft spot for civil rights movement is well documented. He started implementing his aspirations at the formative stage before he even became president.

He recognised the effect of racism even while serving as President John Kennedy’s Vice President (Kirk 101). He appreciated that the blacks had played a crucial role in World War II; hence the need for the state to treat them well otherwise he thought that could result in a bloody revolution.

After assuming the US Presidency, in 1963 after Kennedy’s assassination, Johnson set out his vision of transforming America into a “Great Society”. He felt that this could only be achieved through eradication of poverty and racial discrimination. During this tenure the Civil Rights Bill was passed into law.

Some southerners were not amused with Johnson’s interest in Civil Rights by seeing to it that the Bill was passed in its entirety without any form of dilution (Kirk 97). He devoted all his energy and resources to achieve this end. However, Johnson seemed to receive a backlash from the whites and even the blacks, who thought the Bill was not comprehensive enough.

To further ensure the right to decent living and education, Johnson felt that his Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965 was a solution towards helping the poor out of the squalid conditions in the ghettos.

True to his wishes, very poor states like Mississippi received uplifting federal funding that led to a large number of African Americans accessing higher education. The African American students quadrupled within a very short time.

Though Johnson feared opposition from Congress, he further pushed the voting Rights Act of 1965. The political face of the South changed dramatically as it became integrated.

Johnson succeeded in his legislative journey because of his persuasive nature and strong desire and determination to right all the wrongs that had bedevilled the minority in the country. The voting Rights Act actually helped the African Americans and other minority groups in the US to vote freely without any hindrance.

Furthermore, the Acts made the African Americans gain economic and political power (Kirk 77). Despite all the work that Johnson had done, there were riots in Watts, Los Angeles. These riots had been occasioned by some element of de-facto discrimination that continued to thrive. This type of discrimination was one that was not easy to legislate against. The Africans further rioted till 1966. Riots occurred in more than 38 cities in America.

All in all, Johnson can be said to have played a very important role in the civil rights movement. This could be seen in his success in putting a stop to de jure kind of discrimination. Now African Americans could vote freely and even get voted for during elections.

In the field of education his Education Acts acted as catalysts for disaggregation in schools and other educational institutions. Even in his other Acts, Johnson managed to greatly improve the economic stature of the Africans as even their unemployment rates reduced by over 34%.

Conclusion

The historians have successfully managed to analyze the civil rights movement. From their expose, they have managed to show or reveal how presidents Eisenhower and Johnson were faced with the dilemma to pursue civil rights while at the same time deeply worried about losing votes from opposing sides. All in all, they finally managed to promote civil rights.

Notes

1. See U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Report, Justice (1961).
2. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
3. See William L. Taylor, The Passion of My Times: An Advocate’s Fifty-Year
4. Journey in the Civil Rights Movement (Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004), p. xv.

Works Cited

Ezra, Michael. Civil Rights Movement: People and Perspectives. California: ABC-CLIO, 2009. Print.

Jacoway, Elizabeth. Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis that Shocked the Nation. New York: Free Press, 2007. Print.

Kirk, John. Beyond Little Rock: the Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007. Print.