The Vietnam War caused unintended consequences for the civil rights movements of the 1960s as it awakened the African-Americans’ consciousness on the racism and despotism that they experienced in the United States. Apparently, when the White House, under the leadership of President Johnson, supported the war entirely did not anticipate the consequences that such decision would have towards the fight against racial discrimination and absolutism, which faced the black minorities across the country.
Before the Vietnam War, African-American soldiers had fought in different battles including the First and Second World Wars, but they fought in isolation. However, the Vietnam War required both White and African-American soldiers to fight side by side for any meaningful results, and thus this war marked the fist combat to have a racially integrated battalion.
Before the Vietnam War, African-American soldiers had not realized that, back home, they were facing the very ills they sought to eliminate abroad. For instance, when black soldiers returned home singing victory chants after subduing Hitler and his sadistic indoctrinations, they had to contend with squalid living conditions coupled with legal restrictions from accessing basic human rights.
The Vietnam War sought to eliminate enforced totalitarianism coupled with advancing socio-liberal democracy. This form of democracy would ensure that everyone, regardless of his or her race, sex, and beliefs among others, would be treated equally and fairly. The communist Northern Vietnam had not embraced democracy, and thus President Johnson pledged to abolish its agenda and unify it with the south.
Therefore, the African-American soldiers assumed that by fighting for democracy abroad they would enjoy its fruits back at home. Perhaps they believed in the words of Fredrick Douglas, “…for once let the Black man get up in his person the brass letters, U.S; let him get an eagle upon his button…bullets in his pocket, and there is no power on earth…which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship in the United States” (Guelzo 247).
Unfortunately, they were sadly mistaken as the minority black population across the United States continued to live under oppression even as the war raged. Ironically, President Johnson could not assure Americans of the very democracy he sought to instill in Vietnam.
The Black American community noted the irony of the United States fighting for democracy in Vietnam, yet it could not assure its minority groups of the same. Therefore, as President Johnson was busy with his democracy campaigns abroad, the Black community and civil liberty groups organized mass actions to push for emancipation. The 1963 Washington march was a landmark in the journey to achieving civil liberties in the United States.
The link between the Vietnam War and the renewed calls for emancipation in the United States is clear as the minorities capitalized on the irony of the war to vilify President Johnson and his foreign policies. This strategy apparently worked for the civil rights movements with the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964.
Later on in 1965, the Voting Rights Act also became a law, thus bestowing suffrage on the black minorities. These laws underscored the unparalleled milestones that the civil rights movements had accomplished during the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War.
The American military was riddled with racism and segregation before the Vietnam War. Allegedly, the black soldiers were not civilized or educated enough to fight alongside their white counterparts, and thus they had to function in isolation. However, the Vietnam War elicited widespread news coverage and analysts were quick to point at the deep-rooted racism in the US military by noting that only a negligible fraction of African-Americans had been listed in the army and actively participating in the war.
Therefore, in 1966, President Johnson pushed for Project 100,000, which revolutionized the military recruitment procedures to allow the hitherto neglected individuals under the guise of poor academic qualifications and low IQ. Therefore, between 1966 and 1969, out of the 246,000 servicemen recruited, 100,860 were black, which was an unequaled achievement for civil rights movement groups.
Therefore, the Vietnam War acted as a springboard on which civil rights movement groups renewed their call for social democracy and civil liberties in the United States.
The movie, The Butler, echoes the sentiments of the unintended gains of the Vietnam War towards emancipation across the United States. In the movie, Cecil and his family enjoy the civil liberties occasioned by the war. Even though he is black, Cecil fights for equal treatment as a worker at the White House and he prevails against all odds (The Butler). In addition, his son, Charlie, gets the opportunity to enlist as a serviceman under the Project 100,000, and thus he heads to Vietnam to participate in the war.
Unfortunately, Charlie dies in the war, but his father must have been very proud of such heroic death. The thought of bullets tearing through Charlie’s heart must have evoked pride in his father for such privileges like enlisting in the military and fighting alongside white soldiers were prominently missing as Cecil grew up.
Works Cited
Guelzo, Allen. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Print.
The Butler. Dir. Lee Daniels. San Francisco: Laura Ziskin Productions. 2013. Film.
For the longest time in the history of the American society, black people faced severe discrimination from the white community. They were denied of their basic rights and they faced segregation, marginalization, maltreatment as well as poor working conditions.
Other than these, slave trade which involved the dehumanizing sale of African Americans thrived and black men were also denied the right to vote. This provoked a fight for civil rights through the Civil Rights Movement which fought for the African Americans rights a ccording toFinlayson (11).
This essay delves deeply into the contributions of Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks to the Civil Rights Movement which played a great role in redeeming the black people from this discrimination.
However, on the ground this was not the case as the African Americans were segregated, marginalized, maltreated, and subjected to poor working conditions. They also lacked opportunities and access to public amenities according to Levy (7-10).
This saw the blacks come together in churches through song, literature, businesses, homes, families, poems and books all with the goal to fight against discrimination by the whites.
Among these were Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks who used literary works to voice out their displeasure on the discrimination against blacks as well as portray a humanitarian point of view on the plight of the African Americans in the 20th century (Marshall Cavendish Corporation 4).
Richard Wright was among the young Americans born in the period when segregation and discrimination was at its peak. During this period, blacks were not supposed to contradict a white person but take in the segregation happily, cheerfully and humbly (Rowley 5).
Wright’s father abandoned their family when he was young and went to a segregated high school and was deeply hurt by the poor conditions that African Americans were living in. He published his first short story in 1924 and during the great depression; he did a variety of jobs and joined the communist party.
He also wrote articles for the Daily Worker. He later moved to New York where he wrote a collection known as “Uncle Tom’s Children” which won him an award whose money he used to finish his famous book, “The Native Son” (Williams and Beard 358).
Wright’s writing was mainly influenced by the prejudice and suffering he saw the black people go through as well as his own personal life. He was very outspoken on the injustices of racism and discrimination.
His first book “Tom’s children” was soft and brought many to tears. To him however this was a failure in conveying his message as he wanted his audience to be shocked by the realities of racism which he was able to do in “The Native Son”.
The book “Native Son” brought about racism in a very harsh and unmasked manner especially in the last chapter, “the trial”. It is the story of a man who kills two women; a white woman by accident and his black girlfriend purposely out of frustration and anger.
He is caught and taken to trial but he is only convicted of one murder; that of the white girl which he committed accidentally. The murder of his black girlfriend is completely ignored and went unpunished showing the white community’s extent of their racism (Fraile 151).
In the “Native Son”, Wright relies on naturalism and symbolism to bring out his key themes which include injustice, racism, violence and oppression. The bigger one is the representative of America’s racial hatred.
The names of the characters also hint at the themes, for example, “Mr. Max” to represent Marxism and Clara “Mears” to mean a merely exploited black woman (Nelson 500).
Wright also brings light to how discrimination affects black men as providers in their families in his play “Man of all work”. The play also reflects his experience with his father who was not willing to work hard to provide for the needs of their family.
In this play, he uses symbolism and irony to show how black men are forced to do all sorts of work sometimes even having to pretend to be women to provide for their families. In another play called “Man ain’t God like that”, Wright explores western cultural imperialism.
It also explores the effects of merging Christianity with traditional African beliefs. Also in this play, he uses irony to hold the story and bring out its themes (Nelson 498-500).
The other significant writer into the fight for civil rights is Gwendolyn Brooks. Gwendolyn Brooks unlike Richard Wright was a poet cum reporter and thus used poetry in her contributions to the fight for civil rights.
Brooks had an eye for the discrimination of the blacks and their oppression by the white people. She saw a world filled with poverty, violence and loyalty. In the midst of this was humanity with a strong prideful persistence that was indifferent to oppression of that other group which surrounded and threatened it.
Her poetry therefore not only represented this bleak world but also her personality as a strong black woman. Her books include, “A Street in Bronzeville” which portrays the frustration of a World War 2 veteran with American racism and the “Maud Martha”.
Among her famous poems is “Annie Allen” a poem on the life of the black woman, “The Bean eaters” which talks about the civil rights movement and “In the Mecca”, a poem on the Black Nationalism.
Other literary works include “Man of the middle class”, “The Chicago defender” and “The loveliest lyncher is the Lord” which tries to understand and represent the ordinariness of white life (Wright 36).
In her poems, Brooks employs various styles to bring out her themes. In her poem “Annie Allen” for example, Brooks employs a realistic tone. Her tone evokes bitterness without invoking any tendencies towards violence or separatism.
The poem follows Annie through different stages that open her eyes to the various realities of life around her. Annie starts her quest in childhood where she desires to break from the norms of her mother in the notes of childhood and girlhood.
She is then exposed to the realities of marriage and love in the “Anniad” and finally chooses her identity in the womanhood. The poem strives to bring out the theme of equality and the demolishing of all forms of racial discrimination.
She uses stylistic devices such as a contrast milk- glass, fruit -bowl, jelly- jar, and old peach cans to show different worlds. Also, the juxtaposition between dreams and reality, rhyming couplets, similes such as like a candle and set against the weeds of disappointment among others (Saber 36).
In conclusion, both writers made significant contributions to the fight for civil rights. Through their literary works, they were able to bring out the intricacies and suffering that came with racial discrimination.
Their blunt depiction of the lives of the African Americans in the 20th century forced the white people to view their actions as they were. This awakened them from their ignorance and showed the world as a whole the plight of the African Americans.
Works Cited
Finlayson, Reggie. We shall overcome: The history of the American civil rights movement. USA: Twentieth Century Books, 2003. Print.
The Civil Rights Movement in its modern form was characteristic for the development of the American society during the period of the 1950s-1980s. The movement was started as the reaction of the African Americans to the social segregation and discrimination.
The protests against segregation and discrimination were actively supported by the public, and President Kennedy initiated the discussion of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to stop racial discrimination in the American society.
Although the positive role of the Civil Rights Movement for changing the role of the African Americans in the American society is visible, this topic is also essential to be discussed because the movement for the African Americans’ rights provoked the associated movements against the social and gender inequality.
Thus, many effects of the Civil Rights Movement are observed in the modern American society which develops resolving the challenging questions of racism and inequality. That is why, this research aims to answer an important question: What modern effects of the Civil Rights Movement related to the issues of racism, discrimination, and inequality can be noticed in the present-day American society?
To explain the effects of the Civil Rights Movement from the sociological perspectives, it is necessary to refer to the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist theories.
Many modern researchers focus on the functionalist perspective and agree that the Civil Rights Movement influenced the society positively, and these effects can be observed today because the society is transformed, the problems of racism and inequality are discussed openly; referring to the conflict perspective, it is possible to note that discrimination is illegal, and the principle of the social justice and gender equality are followed.
Following the functionalist perspective, it is essential to state that the society develops as the whole composed of connected parts which should interact according to the idea of social balance.
From this perspective, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s-1960s caused the development of many other social movements oriented to protecting women, sexual minorities, and workers’ rights, and these movements contributed to maintaining the necessary social equilibrium.
According to Isaac and Christiansen, ascendant social movements and modern protests can contribute to advancing the results of the Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century because the principles of the social justice are re-thought and followed according to the tendencies of the new transformed society (Isaac & Christiansen, 2002, p. 724-725).
Referring to the principle of social interconnectedness, the authors conducted the quantitative research on the connection between the Civil Rights Movement and changes in the labor militancy, and they concluded that the Civil Rights Movement’s methods can also be successfully followed today (Isaac & Christiansen, 2002).
As a result, the Civil Rights Movement can be discussed as the functional element because it influenced the radical transformation of the American society leading to the social stability and to actual changes in the social positions of the African Americans.
It is important to note that today the issues of racial discrimination are observed rarely because the social vision of the problem changed as a result of the Civil Rights Movement, and these consequences are the manifest functions, according to the functionalist theory. The concept of racial discrimination is contrasting to the ideas of social openness, tolerance, and flexibility.
These ideas play an essential role in the modern American society, and they serve to support the notions of equality and justice. Thus, the manifest functions are in the improvement of the social status of the African Americans, their education and career opportunities and in the improvement of the women’s status, their employment opportunities, and changes in roles division.
The changed opinions of the modern Americans on the issues of gender, race, and ethnicity can be discussed as latent functions.
These ideas are reflected in the work of Michael Ezra, the professor of American multicultural studies, who state that the Civil Rights Movement is the radical shift in the development of the American society, and the functional consequences of this reform for the social visions can be observed during a long period of time (Ezra, 2009, p. 118-119).
In spite of the fact that Ezra pays much attention to the role of the Civil Rights Movement for the development of the idea of equality in relation to the African Americans, it is possible to agree with the author regarding the discussion of the movement’s positive effects on the current situation in the contemporary American society.
One of the main positive effects of the Civil Rights Movement related to the progress of the modern American society is the concentration of the public’s attention on the issues of gender inequality. According to the conflict perspective, the competition of the different groups is the fundament for the social development.
In his work, Caulfield states that the Civil Rights Movement contributed to drawing the public’s attention to the problem of the African Americans in general and African American women in particular (Caulfield, 2011, p. 25). Thus, the movement contributed to empowering women and to developing the idea of gender equality.
From this point, women organized the movement for their rights to oppose the principles of the patriarchal society because of their conflicting interests and associated gender inequality.
That is why, following the conflict perspective and Caulfield’s conclusions, it is possible to state that the positive effect of the women’s empowerment observed in the American society today is the consequence of the significant social conflict known as the Civil Rights Movement.
The American society in its new transformed variant demonstrates the example of how the Civil Rights Movement can lead to the prolonged positive effects, but these effects are the results of many protests, demonstrations, and manifestations which are symbols of the social conflict.
The conflict perspective can be applied to discussing the work by Olzak and Ryo. According to the authors, the effectiveness of the Civil Rights Movement depends on the goal diversity and on the variety of the used techniques and methods and on the range of expected outcomes (Olzak & Ryo, 2007, p. 1580).
Goal and tactical diversity led to the significant positive outcomes of the movement, and these outcomes can be observed even today, but this diversity supports the idea that the interests of diverse groups were met during the Civil Rights Movement.
In this case, the social power belongs to the white Americans and males, when women, African Americans, and sexual minorities are the representatives of the lower classes which oppose to the current state.
However, the conflict resulted in the positive effects for such categories of the population as African Americans, women, and sexual minorities because their role in the American society was changed. Interactionism is focused on the role of people’s interactions for the social development.
Referring to the micro-sociological level, it is possible to note that the effects of the Civil Rights Movement are in the provision of the opportunity to live in the transformed society where the principles of the social justice and equality work while determining the people’s interactions in groups and communities because racial or gender discrimination and segregation can influence people individually.
Although Andrews discusses the issue of the social movement with references to the period of the 1960s-1970s, in his work, the author also supports the idea of significance of the Civil Rights Movement for the further progress of the society in relation to changing the principles of the people’s interactions (Andrews, 2001, p. 72).
In this case, it is also essential to state that the actual results of the Civil Rights Movement can be observed more clearly today because it is possible to conclude now whether African Americans and white Americans interact according to the ideals of equality and justice, and whether women and men have equal rights.
Although there is the range of quantitative and qualitative studies on the effects of the Civil Rights Movement on the American society, the authors of these studies choose to concentrate on the short-term or immediate effects of the movement on changes in the social position of the African Americans or women.
Moreover, referring to the existing literature on the topic, it is possible to note that it is rather difficult to answer this question in detail or with the focus on the numerical evidence, while following the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives.
The authors are inclined to refer to the statistics and studies’ factual findings, but the answer to the research question is still based on the results provided in the qualitative researches. From this point, it is possible to answer whether the effects of the Civil Rights Movement on the modern American society are positive or negative.
The researches reviewed in this paper provide the general answer to this question. The authors of the reviewed works are inclined to argue that the Civil Rights Movement influenced the American society positively, and these positive effects can be observed even today while referring to the analysis of the modern position of the women, African Americans, and sexual minorities in the American society.
Racial discrimination and issues of inequality are discussed in the modern society openly, and many efforts are made to resolve these issues which were hushed up before the Civil Rights Movement’s development.
Thus, following the functionalist perspective, it is possible to state that the Civil Rights Movement’s effects on the modern American society are functional or mainly positive because the cases of racism are observed in the American community more rarely, the issue of segregation is not discussed today, and the public is active to double the efforts in relation to resolving the issues of racial and gender discrimination.
Furthermore, today, the public is active to promote the ideals of the social justice and equality, and women and African Americans have the opportunity to take the same positions as the white people or males. These changes can be explained with references to the conflict theory.
From these perspectives, the implications of the research are in stating the direct connection between the positive results of the Civil Rights Movement and current situation in the modern American society.
Nevertheless, the direction for the future research should be associated with finding the numerical data and evidence to support the idea that the observed positive transformation of the American society into more tolerant and democratic one is the result of the Civil Rights Movement.
References
Andrews, K. (2001). Social movements and policy implementation. American Sociological Review, 66(1), 71-95.
Caulfield, B. (2011). Civil rights revisited: The growing African American pro-life movement. The Human Life Review, 37(2), 25-29.
Ezra, M. (2009). Civil Rights Movement: People and perspectives. USA: ABC-CLIO.
Isaac, L., & Christiansen, L. (2002). How the Civil Rights Movement revitalized labor militancy. American Sociological Review, 67(6), 722-746.
Olzak, S., & Ryo, E. (2007). Organizational diversity, vitality and outcomes in the Civil Rights Movement. Social Forces, 85(4), 1561-1591.
This case study is centered around the “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) in Washington D.C. in August 1963. In stating “we can never be satisfied” until justice is served, King (1963) alluded to the rampant history of prejudice and racism, and by ‘we’ he meant the black population of the U.S., fighting for its civil rights. This fight is also known as the civil rights movement in the United States, whose historic and contemporary relevance will be analyzed in this study.
Changing the Nation
The civil rights movement was a key event in American history. It unraveled from 1955 to 1968, following racial segregation and discrimination (Bostelen, 2021). The prior state of the U.S. observed an official policy of segregation in the South, with acts of violence against African Americans protected by law enforcement agencies (Bostelen, 2021). Systemic racism in the South was undeniably a reality, but the push for civil rights has changed this dynamic – and the nation with it. This ‘push’ was a nationwide mass campaign to obtain equal social, legal, and economic rights for African Americans in the U.S. (Govind Sarswat, 2018). Its legislative accomplishments, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, have resulted in a major transformation of the life of the American nation (Bostelen, 2021). The movement has fundamentally changed race relations in the U.S. as black activists insisted on full integration and assimilation, dreaming of a nation where race was not a barrier.
This protest gave rise to numerous other victories, each of which transformed American society into what it is today. It has begun with achieving the desegregation of buses at Montgomery by boycotting the city’s public transportation (Govind Sarswat, 2018). Ending school segregation, first in lone states and then nationwide, partial desegregation of formerly all-white restaurants by sit-ins and other struggles led up to the historic moment of MLK’s speech that called for the new era. Govind Sarswat (2018) argues that the 1980s commenced a process of “cultural renaissance” in the U.S., where the cultural heritage and artistic collaboration transcended racial lines (p. 6). The civil rights movement has changed many aspects of the nation, such as housing, the economy, and jobs (Jenkins-Robinson, 2017). It achieved granting the civil and political rights denied to blacks: access and use of public spaces, voting rights, fair employment, and housing opportunities (Jenkins-Robinson, 2017). The movement changed the outlook, the power structure, and the very core of the nation.
Effect on Minority Groups
The minority groups across the continent were impacted significantly by the Civil Rights Acts. From the time that first African slaves were brought to the U.S. by colonizers, they were treated as subhuman (Govind Sarswat, 2018). In his speech, King (1963) refers to the historic lack of progress since then, painting the picture of a life in poverty, segregation, and discrimination. Upon depicting the horrors of such life, King (1963) calls for granting “the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” to all. Indeed, the civil rights movement led to several legislative victories, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Bostelen, 2021). The most widely discussed aspect of this act is its prohibition of segregation and discrimination across the board: for instance, in public facilities, federally funded government agencies, and schools (Hahn et al., 2018). The Act also encouraged and enforced the desegregation of schools and laid the groundwork for equal voter registration rights (Hahn et al., 2018). Overall, legislative changes put forth many advances in minority groups’ rights.
The civil rights laws strive to provide minority groups with indiscriminate access to many societal resources. The various areas include a healthy and safe environment, housing, food, education, employment, financial institutions, justice, transportation, healthcare, and others (Hahn et al., 2018). Upon implementing the non-discrimination legislation, minorities’ civic participation, social capital, self-respect, and sense of control would grow (Hahn et al., 2018). Ultimately, for the minority groups, the effects would include reducing traditional prejudices and the correspondent burden, creating a cohesive egalitarian community and improving intergenerational well-being (Hahn et al., 2018). Hence, a higher degree of inclusion and emphasis on minorities’ rights and well-being brought by the Civil Rights Acts aided in creating not just safe spaces but a safer society for these groups.
Contemporary Applicability to Racial and Ethnic Conflicts
New social movements like Black Lives Matter analyze historic tactics to address racial conflicts. The civil rights movement arguably succeeded due to its diverse repertoire, and the use of nonviolent protest ways like “boycotts, sit-ins, mass street demonstrations, freedom rides and picketing” fundamentally aided it in accomplishing its goals (Bostelen, 2021; Govind Sarswat, 2018, p. 4). King (1963) stressed that protesters “must forever conduct [their] struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline” and “not allow [their] creative protest to degenerate into physical violence.” In today’s context of the rise of racism in mass incarceration, police killings of unarmed black civilians, and white resentment towards the African American population, social order is threatened (Mazumder, 2018). Jones-Eversley et al. (2017) argue that such nonviolent tactics are still effective for encouraging the target public (white Americans) to increase their support for the protesting group (African Americans). Specifically, presenting an African American identity beyond race and stereotypical signals provides plausible ways to change attitudes and reduce prejudice against the protesting group (Jones-Eversley et al., 2017). The message of peace may thus work for both 1960s and 2020s.
However, modern activists may face the issue of operating in American society. The U.S. governance is ‘color-blind’ yet perpetuates the implicitly racialized policies (Mazumder, 2018). One such example is discussed by Kearl (2018) in critically evaluating the Created Equal project, which brought MLK’s ideology to the absurd degree of condemning any movement outside of anti-abortion politics. While such an example is extreme, perhaps, the modern context requires a change in the way activists address political and legislative-executive decisions. Therefore, while it is feasible to apply some of the same tactics as the civil rights activists used in the 1960s for addressing contemporary racial and ethnic conflicts, the activists should be aware of the different contexts of operation.
Contemporary Relevance of Ideas
The civil rights movement has greatly transformed the nation and perpetrated great social and political changes. It triggered the turbulent cycle of the 1960s and 1970s protests, followed by the 1980s and 1990s, strengthening communication; it has since shaped many social movements (Bostelen, 2021). As outlined before, the major sentiment of the civil rights movement was to see all people equal and end segregation. The hope for equality has persisted through the years, inspiring organizations like feminists fighting for women’s rights. The movement that is often brought up in the context of civil rights ideas is Black Lives Matter.
Comparing the ideals of the 1960s and the current ones yields a major difference. As Jenkins-Robinson (2017) argues, the civil rights movement addressed many areas of social and political change but did not directly confront the racist degradation that black people have been suffering at the hands of the police. Meanwhile, the Black Lives Matter movement seeks to highlight police mistreatment of black people and create police reform (Jenkins-Robinson, 2017). Nonetheless, both movements share the dream that all American society will strive for racial equality. “I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character” (King, 1963). While the focus of some of the addressed areas has shifted, these ideas of equality are still as relevant as in the 1960s – only different aspects are now brought into focus.
Impact on Diversity
The Civil Rights Movement has left a substantial mark on American society. While it has opened the U.S. to acknowledging and embracing cultural diversity, the current state of diversity is still arguably flawed. The civil rights movement opposed ethnically discriminatory immigration policies and called for multiculturalism, which eventually altered the racial composition of immigrants in the U.S. population (Smooha, 2018). Such an impact on diversity is truly significant; however, there may be more issues beyond the surface acknowledgment. Smooha (2018) states that liberal multiculturalism in Western democracies consists mainly of the authorization of subcultures, non-discrimination, and inclusion policies. However, it fails to uphold minorities’ cultural autonomy and power-sharing, partly alluded to in the Black Lives Matter movement (Jenkins-Robinson, 2017; Smooha, 2018). Essentially, a person is accepted despite their ethnic descent only if they conform to the mainstream culture of the white population and do not attempt to ‘overpower’ it. Smooha (2018) further argues that the U.S., as a liberal democracy, still objects to societal diversity and denies its objection. Therefore, while the civil rights movement has helped significantly bring diversity to America, this diversity may only hold a symbolic place.
Govind Sarswat. (2018). Civil Rights Movement: A Nonviolent Revolution that Blurred the Color Line in the U.S.A. Upstream Research International Journal, 6(1), 1–8.
Kearl, M. K. (2018). WWMLKD?: Coopting the Rhetorical Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. And the Civil Rights Movement. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 8(3), 184-199.
King, M. L. Jr. (1963).I have a Dream [Speech]. Lillian Goldman Law Library.
Numerous “evidences show that the events of the Civil Rights Movement were partly influenced and guided by the theoretical arguments of different social theorists such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim” (Andres 1997:811).This civil uprising took place in the United States throughout the 1960s. Many African Americans wanted the issues of racial discrimination and segregation to be addressed (Jones 2002). They also wanted their citizenship rights to be recognized and safeguarded in accordance with the law (Hall 2003). This essay uses the theoretical arguments presented by Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx to analyze the Civil Rights Movement. The theories will also be used to predict the future of racism in the United States.
Lessons Learned from Marx and Durkheim
Karl Marx’s social theory has been observed to cut across different fields. From an economic perspective, Marx argues that modern capitalism is something characterized by division of labor. This kind of “division plays a significant role towards reshaping the nature and state of the contemporary society” (Andres 1997:807). Marx presents “profound arguments on the crude material conditions” (Marx 1978:29). From a social perspective, Karl Marx argues that humankind has established a society characterized by different classes. The “upper class is characterized by abundance and plenty while the lower class is associated with poverty and hardship” (Marx 1978:59). He treats labor as a powerful means of production (Marx 1978). These two classes will eventually find themselves in conflict because of poor distribution natural resources.
The theory goes further to explain “how political and social institutions have emerged as products of the bourgeoisie” (Marx 1978:67). Any form of social movement or reform is therefore described as an ineffective approach towards freedom. This knowledge leads to the idea of class struggles whereby new elements of class consciousness emerge.
Durkheim’s social theory presents powerful ideas that can be used to understand the challenges experienced in modern societies. According to the theorist, division of labor has played a critical role towards disintegrating the modern society (Durkheim 1984). He identifies “the concept of individualism as something that promotes personal identity” (Nee 2010:36). Division of labor has the potential to affect the welfare of different individuals. Durkheim goes further to explain how division of labor can be used by individuals to focus on their best goals and outcomes.
It is agreeable that “the class conflicts experienced in different societies are caused by the manner in which transition takes place” (Nee 2010:39). The presence of moral and social norms is something important towards promoting a better personality. Durkheim embraces “the concept of functionalism to explain how societies operate in accordance with their respective parts” (Durkheim 1984:27). Consequently, social integration arises from the existing mutual dependencies that form a complex system.
The above analysis shows how these two theorists focused on the issue of modern capitalism. The theories explain how “division of labor revolutionized the market society” (Andres 1997:1814). The “market relations will always have significant implications on the society’s ability to achieve its goals and reproduce itself” (Durkheim 1984:49). The emergence of different upheavals has always revived the nature of relations in the society. That being the case, the ideas of these theories can be used to analyze different political, social, historical, and economic events that have been experienced in the world within the past years (Jones 2002).
Applying the Theories to a Social Setting: The Civil Rights Movement
Social theory can be used to analyze different events and happenings in the contemporary society. Marx’s “social theory presents powerful ideas regarding the undeniable link between Capitalism and the Civil Rights Movement experienced in the United States” (Marx 1978:39). Racism remained a contentious issue in the historical development of the country. This historical event resulted in a situation whereby the Whites used racism to rule and divide different minority groups. Many African Americans were forced to work as slaves. They worked hard in order to support the welfare of the ruling class.
From a Marxist perspective, the minorities decided to unite in order to deal with the problem that had affected them for centuries. It should be observed that the mistreatment and enslavement of many African Americans was a classical example of class relations (Marx 1978). A capitalistic system emerged whereby these slaves were oppressed. The American capitalists used the tool of racism to justify slavery and oppression. They also divided the community in order to rule it effectively. The African Americans eventually joined hands in order to fight and achieve their liberties (Andres 1997). Such class struggles exist even today in the country. More African Americans continue to fight for emancipation and inclusion in the wider society. This argument explains how racism remains a critical force towards inequality (Marx 1978).
Despite the differences observed in Durkheim’s theory, the reader observes that the issue of labor has played a significant role towards redefining the positions of many people in the society. According to Durkheim, the origin of conflict is something that depends on the nature of social transition. The concept of functionalism also explains how the absence of coordination within a society produces chaos. The theory by Durkheim explains how “the society progressed from mechanical to organic solidarity” (Durkheim 1984:52).
Slavery and forced labor in the united states led to new conflicts. Weak bonds between different individuals emerged in the country. The “government was expected to ensure every division of labor was done in accordance with the existing social functions” (Hall 2003:1249). The level of segregation experienced in the country led to new interferences and constraints. These constraints forced the African America race to fight in order to establish a better position within the dynamics of the society (Hall 2003).
According to Marxism, capitalism is a social system whereby the greatest majority is exploited by a small number of citizens. The rich have for years been focusing on different tools to rule and divide the majority. Marx’s theory therefore explains how racism and prejudice is associated with capitalism (Nee 2010). Racism was therefore used by the different whites to oppress the African American community (Hall 2003).
Oppression has for centuries been used to explain why inequality exists in different societies. A small number of people enriched themselves using free labor from the majority. This argument explains why “the nature of racism experienced in the United States was used to justify the enslavement of many African Americans” (Hall 2003:1252). The “society treated such African Americans as individuals who underserved freedom” (Jones 2002:17).
The arguments and ideas presented by Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx offer powerful insights towards understanding how the Civil Rights Movement unfolded for very many years (Jones 2002). The events of the civil rights movement were therefore inspired by the issues surrounding the concept of division of labor. New struggles emerged thus forcing the African Americans to focus on the best social goals. As well, the presence of educated individuals among the African Americans made it easier for the race to achieve its social goals. The responses of these African Americans were diverse in accordance with the division of labor experienced in the country.
Conclusion
The Civil Rights Movement in the United States can be succinctly explained using the arguments presented by Karl Marx and Durkheim. According to Marx’s theory, the conflict existing among different races in America is similar to the class struggles associated with capitalism. This kind of conflict remains a powerful source of inequality. It is agreeable that the Civil Rights Movement might have led to new laws in an attempt to empower different African Americans (Nee 2010). However, this kind of conflict will continue to exist in the future. Marx’s theory therefore explains how this kind of inequality will continue to exist unless the social progression of every race is met.
As well, Durkheim’s theory explains “how the segregation experienced in the country forced many African Americans to function in division of labor” (Durkheim 1984:98). Their “responses were diverse thus resulting in organic solidarity” (Jones 2002:17). The collective nature of race will therefore promote new actions that can result in emancipation. The government should therefore embrace powerful strategies in an attempt to address the issues affecting every race. This approach will promote the idea of functionalism and ensure different parts of the society are in harmony with each other.
References
Andres, Kenneth. 1997. “The Impacts of Social Movement on the Political Process: The Civil Rights Movement and Black Electoral Politics in Mississippi.” American Sociological Review 62(1):800-819.
Durkheim, Emile. 1984. The Division of Labor in Society. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Hall, Jacquelyn. 2003. “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past.” The Journal of American History 1(1):1233-1263.
Jones, Bernie. 2002. “Critical Race Theory: New Strategies for Civil Rights in the New Millennium.” Harvard Blackletter Law Journal 18(1):1-90.
Marx, Karl. 1978. The Marx-Engels Reader. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.
Nee, Victor. 2010. “New Institutionalism, Economic, and Sociological.” CSES 1(1):1-71.
These are protests that came to prominence in the course of 1950s, which raised concern against the incessant discrimination and racial segregation experienced by the American Africans and other marginalized groups in the southern America.
Continued oppression against people of different color, race, politics, or even religion had inspired many young American Africans to join action in the struggle for equality (Chong 23). Some of the prominent figures in the Movement include Martin Luther King Jr, Malcolm X, W.E.B. Du Bois and Rosa Parks among others.
Although the civil rights mass protest was officially formalized in the 1950s and 1960s, the fight for equality in various institutions of the U.S. had started long time ago. Community leaders in various segmentations of the society had showed resistance to the white supremacy and domination against the African Americans which had been abounded in some states. ‘Everyday’s Use’ written at the peak of the transformational movement, is a perfect expression and reflection of the issue of the aspects surrounding the civil rights movement.
Set at the height of the social issue, the story is a real representation of the key aspects of the day. Here, the writer applies writing to highlight some of the main issues surrounding the Black Power Movement. Walker’s purpose on the story is achieved through the creative formation of characters who symbolize the plight of blacks and women as observed during those times.
The movement was initially facilitated by the progressive efforts of the descendants of African slaves who had always tried to resist the institution of slavery upon them. Regular protests and campaigns of resistance were some of the common characteristics associated with this movement. Civil disobedience and activities of nonviolent demonstrations and protests were also common. Sometimes, these would bear crisis scenarios between government authorities and the activists resulting to confrontations.
Although it took many years for the issues highlighted in the movement to be addressed, the protests had significant impact to the modern world. Many changes were realized owing to the pressure of the movement. For instance, the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act were introduced in the years 1964 and 1965, respectively thus granting all American citizens basic civil privileges, regardless of their race and ethnicity.
Alice Walker is a renowned female activist who was born and raised at a time when the Civil Right Movements in South U.S. was taking shape. At the height of the transitional movement, Alice, then a college student at Spelman, was lucky to meet and rub shoulders with some of the prominent players in the movement, such as Martin Luther King Jr. This inspired her to become one of the strongest female activists in the American history.
Her contribution in the struggle for human rights and equality has continued to raise strong impact to the world. According to Tuten, Alice is a woman with many records in life and her largest contribution in life can be perceived through her countless struggles against discrimination and oppression (126). ‘Everyday’s Use’ is just one of her many writings about race and gender which raised much alert in the civil rights movement.
Racism, feminism and the many issues frequently raised by young American Africans who’d tend to lose respect to the culture that gave birth to them are some of the issue that Alice explores in ‘Everyday’s Use.’
As it would be observed, the story in this essay is Walker’s response to the social discourse of the 1950s and 1960s, when the civil rights movement took place. The writer has vividly expressed some of the issues that continue to plague modern American communities, as expressed through the lives of the characters in the story (Whitsitt 448).
Economic, social, and political issues are illustrated in the story, through the family of the narrator, who is referred by the title of ‘Mama’ or Mrs. Johnson. The story strongly illustrates the big contrast between the narrator and Maggy, one of her two daughters who still share the same conservative life with her, and ‘Wangero’ or Dee, the educated daughter who scorns the culture that gave birth to her.
As observed from this story, the writer has based the two sisters on aspects constituting her own character. Whereby Maggy represents her difficult childhood, Dee remains to be a vivid reflection of her latter life which is characterized by education and success; the two aspects that would enable her to take part in the civil rights movement.
The two different positions represent the culture and the progress of the American Africans in mid-to late-twentieth-century times. The story is set in a time when the lives of American Africans were undergoing a radical transition.
These groups of people were able to gain freedom of civil rights at last, through the glory of civil rights movement, after many years of oppression and discrimination from the whites (Gianturco and Tuttle 18). The final outcome reached on the story, is a representation of the results which succeeded the movement as American Africans started gaining recognition in various segments of the American society.
This freedom would see the emergence of a new generation that has contradicting views about crucial aspects of life. As a matter of fact, the writer has used the story to defend the legacy of her family and culture and to pay homage to the initial inhabitants of the South, where she grew up.
Works Cited
Chong, Dennis. Collective action and the civil rights movement, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. Print.
Gianturco, Paola, and T. Tuttle. In her hands: craftswomen changing the world, New York: PowerHouse Books, 2004. Print.
Several major events took place in the United States and around the world during the 1960’s. The United States witnessed counter culture and social revolution that ended with abolishment of retrogressive laws that had established social taboos in the country (Beito & Royster, 2009).
In this paper I will discuss how my own life could have been different had it not been for the civil rights movements that happened in the 1960s. Secondly, I will show how the same event influenced my choice of career path, and finally, I will describe how the world could have been different had it not been for the civil rights movement.
How life could have been different had not been for the civil rights movement
The civil rights movement (commonly referred to as African American civil rights movements) describes the social movements that took place in the United States to end discrimination against black people and restore their right to vote (Farber, 1994). The majority of the campaigns begun in 1955 and were characterized by civil disobedience.
During the 1960s notable achievements were made including the passage of a Civil rights Act in 1964 that outlawed any form of discrimination towards people of a different “race, color or national origin in employment practices and public accommodations”; in 1965, the voting rights of African Americans were restored following the passage of the Voting Rights Act 1965; in the same year, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 was enacted (Harrison & Dye, 2008, p. 34).
The act allowed immigrants from other regions of the world, other than the traditional Europe to enter the United States (Goluboff, 2007). In 1968, “the Fair Housing Act 1968 was enacted” to ensure that everyone had an equal opportunity to buy or rent a house in the US (Harrison & Dye, 2008).
The achievements that were made following the civil rights movements inspired young people across the country and saw African Americans re-entering politics in the Southern States (Goluboff, 2007).
My life could have been significantly different had it not been for these legislative achievements that followed the civil rights movement. The civil rights Act of 1964 basically banned segregation in the US. It gave all the Americans the right to be served equally in facilities that were open to the public including equal access to education (Harrison & Dye, 2008).
I honestly believe that the peace and cultural diversity that we currently enjoyed in the US is as a result of the legislative changes that followed the civil rights movement. Had it not been for this changes I could now be living in a segregated society that is full of mistrust, violence and other social ills.
Notably, the civil rights movements did not only ensure equal rights for African Americans but also other minority groups such as Latinos and Asian Americans. In addition, the movements opened the eyes of the majority of the Americans thereby effectively transforming their attitudes. Had it not been for the civil rights movement I could now be part of a conservative society that basically trusts the government on everything. America could not be enjoying the role model status that it is currently accorded internationally.
Through the schooling process I have acquired many friends from different racial backgrounds. The segregation that was predominant prior to the civil rights movement denied Americans the opportunity to freely mix with people from other races. This implies that had the situation remained the same then I could not be having the freedom to associate with people from other races. It’s sad to think that I or some of my friends could have been denied a chance to pursue our dream careers.
Prior to the civil rights movements, Americans were not active people and frequently followed the government’s opinion (Farber, 1994). It’s important to note that following the civil rights movements many American citizens opened their eyes, changed their attitudes and begun to press for effective leadership. Everyone realized the need to pursue the American dream. Since then, Americans have played leading roles in determining the extent to which the government can indulge in international affairs.
Not so long after the civil rights movements, Americans were already urging their government to withdraw troops from Vietnam. Others pieces of lSegislations that were enacted following the civil rights movements such as the Voting Rights Act 1965 and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 have greatly influenced the American society (Beito & Royster, 2009).
African Americans have been politically active since the enactment of the voting rights Act 1965. Had it not been for the civil movements, I could now be part of a divided society where politics is an exclusive reserve for one race. I could never have lived to see a black president leading our country.
The Immigration Act allowed immigrant from all over the world to come to America. This has led to a culturally rich and diverse society that is comparable to none. Therefore without the 1960s civil rights movements I could not be enjoying the benefits of cultural diversity such as foods and festivities.
How the civil rights movements influenced my career path
The events that were happening prior to the civil rights movement showed how human beings can subject fellow human beings to discrimination. Learning about such happenings gave me the desire to take a career path that can enable me to advocate for the rights of others, particularly those who are disadvantaged in the society.
I realized that many of our citizens are involved in epic struggles and really need support from the society in order to make it through (Beito & Royster, 2009). Therefore by selecting a course that offered me a chance to effectively contribute to the society through advocacy, I feel that it will be possible for me to live a fulfilling life that takes into account the needs of others.
The harsh struggles that characterize the American history, including the liberation wars and the civil rights movement have validated my desire to take a course in social sciences and understand how the society functions and how I can be able to assist through advocacy.
How the world would be had it not been for the civil rights movements
The racial conflicts that were taking place in America prior to the civil rights movements were also being witnessed in many parts of the world. Several governments around the world were not keen to protect the rights of their minority citizens.
For instance, majority of European nations had colonies in Africa where their representatives were subjecting Africans to exploitation and brutality. Other countries such as New Zealand and Australia had no formal laws to protect the rights of the indigenous minority citizens.
It’s important to note that the United States had portrayed itself as the leader of the free world and yet many of its citizens were being subjected to severe racial discrimination. Back then, Europe was the only important continent to the US as far good foreign relations were concerned.
Many communist states publicly lamented the hypocrisy portrayed by the United States. Thus the events that followed the civil rights movements validated the country’s portrayal as a model democracy that observed the rights of its citizens. The civil rights movement gave America the chance to appeal to many countries in the world without severing ties with its traditional allies in Europe.
Since then, the US has been able to play a role in the democratization of many countries around the world (Harrison & Dye, 2008). It has also been on the forefront in urging other countries to enact appropriate legislations that are needed to protect the rights of minority groups.
The effects of the civil rights movements played a role in the development of good relationships between the US and other regions whose descendants were initially being racially abused in the US. These regions include South America, Africa and Asia. The good relations have in turn created a platform for globalization.
Therefore without the laws that followed the civil rights movement globalization activities such as international trade could not have been developed to the current level. In addition, the US could not have gotten the voice to call for change in other countries, and thus most countries could still have been in chaotic states.
Conclusion
This paper sought to describe how the scenario could have been without the civil rights movement. It has established that the freedom and diversity currently enjoyed by Americans today could have been a pipe dream. The paper has also shown how the civil rights influenced my career path by inspiring the desire to advocate for other people’s rights. The effects of the civil rights movements also played a role in globalization.
References
Beito, D., & Royster, L. (2009). Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard’s Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power. Illinois: University of Illinois press.
Farber, D. (1994). The Age of Great Dreams: America in the 1960s. New York: Hill and Wang.
Goluboff, R. (2007). The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Harrison, B., & Dye, T. (2008). Power and Soceity: An introduction to social Sciences. Florida: Thomson Wadsworth.
The civil rights represents the basic rights that are enjoyed by the people in any given country. These include the right to property ownership, the opportunity for citizens to vote, the rights to freedom of speech and expression among others. These rights protected by governments are in place in order to ensure that no citizen is discriminated against.
In the United States history, citizens particularly the Black Americans were discriminated against for many decades. Black Americans and other minority groups faced many challenges including being discriminated on the basis of their race, culture, and religion. They also faced segregation and violence from other major races in the United States[1].
In order to fight against these vices, many leaders, activists and the discriminated races organized themselves in groups that came to be referred to as the Civil Rights Movement.
The World War 2 served to change the way in which Black Americans looked at issues of discrimination and segregation. These led to many changes on the part of the American government. One notable change aimed at restoring the rights of those discriminated and segregated took place in 1947 when President Harry S. Truman set up the committee on Civil Rights[2].
The committee’s mandate was to look into ways of ending the segregation and discrimination by changing the existing laws or proposing the implementation of other laws to protect the rights of the American citizens. However, many people felt that the only way to air their grievances was to act and so they did not let the government implement the proposed changes. Many of the civil rights movements were organized in the Southern States of the United States in 1954-1968[3].
With the surfacing of the Black Power Movement at around 1966, the activities of the Civil Rights Movement expanded to involve the struggle to restore human dignity, economic and political independence among the discriminated people and the struggle against oppression from the majority whites.
The civil rights activists and groups such as SCLC, SNCC, CORE and NAACP were involved in nonviolent remonstrations and civil insubordinations such as boycotts, sit-ins and marches. Other activities involved fighting against discrimination using various strategies such as lawsuits, reforms in education systems and other lobbying exertions. These protests were opposed by many Local, Federal and State governments.
The ultimate achievements during this period included the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964[4]. The provisions of this act provided for the abolition of the discrimination on the basis of race, religion, color and nationality. Earlier on, the groups had managed to win the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka lawsuit of 1954 in which the Supreme Court declared that there was to be no discrimination between the Blacks and Whites in terms of provision of educational facilities.
Additionally, the movement managed to push for the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which also enabled people to migrate freely into the United States except the natives of European countries. Moreover, in 1968, the government passed the Fair Housing Act that provided for the freedom of renting, purchasing and sale of housing facilities[5].
This research paper seeks to highlight the historical events that took place in 1954-1968 in the United States which were instigated by the Civil Rights Movement in the hope of securing the civil and basic political and economic rights of the Black Americans and other minority groups.
The Major Events in the History of Civil Rights Movement in 1954-1968
The Case of Linda Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, 1954
This case was instigated by the students’ unrest that occurred during spring 1951 against the Jim Crow laws that provided for segregation between black and white schools. The Monton High School in Prince Edward County was overpopulated and the conditions in the school were not conducive, therefore the students decided to mass act with the help of the NAACP[6].
This incidence was part of five other cases that are regarded to as the Brown v. Board of Education. In 1954, the US Supreme Court made a ruling to the effect that it was unconstitutional to practice segregation along racial lines. In addition, the Supreme Court also declared two boards of education as being also unconstitutional.
These were the 1899 education board and the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson provision. This ruling saw an increase in the number of blacks seeking education. Further, the activities of the Black Press in highlighting the stories of professional Blacks with jobs and those leading modest lives helped to encourage more blacks into participating in the educational programmes[7].
Changes in Tactics from Litigation Strategies to Mass Action
The early strategies of Civil Rights Movement involved calling for reforms in the education systems, litigations and rallying for legislative changes. It was not until they won the Linda Brown’s case against the Board of Education of Topeka that the Movement decided to adopt a more radical way of calling for change.
This change of tactic saw the emergence of boycotts, marches, sit-ins and freedom rides among other strategies[8]. These were conducted by churches and other community organizations that recruited volunteers who were willing to take part in the mass actions.
This proved to be a more productive means of calling for change as compared to the earlier tactics of filing lawsuits. The first boycott to be staged occurred at a gas station in Mississippi that refused to offer resting areas for Blacks. This was followed by a year-long bus boycott in Montgomery initiated by the Montgomery Improvement Association under the leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King.
This boycott succeeded in wining a Federal Court’s ruling that directed the Montgomery buses to reconcile its bus services[9].
In 1957, Dr. Luther and other church leaders such as Rev. John Duffy and Rev. T. J. Jemison joined forces to form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) that was involved in provision of training and financial support to Civil Rights activists. SCLC was however non-violent in its course to fight racism and segregation. Further, SCLC was involved in programs that taught literacy among the Blacks in order to enable them to participate in the Voting process[10].
The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
The boycott was brought about by the action of Rosa Park who refused to offer her sit to a white passenger in 1955. She was arrested and charged for violating the provisions of the local bus regulations. She was following the decisions that had been agreed upon during the NAACP meeting in Tennessee in which she was the NAACP secretary.
Her arrest pushed the leadership of NAACP with the support of the larger Montgomery Black Americans to organize a bus boycott that lasted well over one year. The boycott came to an end upon the Federal Court’s ruling of 1956 which forced the Montgomery buses to desegregate their services[11].
Reuniting Little Rock (1957)
The reunion was prompted by the case of nine Black American students who had been chosen to attend the Little Rock Central High School. They were however denied entry into the school due to the presence of the National Guard who had been called upon by the Kansas Governor to prevent the entry of the nine into the school. Earlier on, the federal court had ordered all schools to desegregate their services and accommodate blacks in white schools through the famous Brown decision.
However, the Governor could not agree with the court’s ruling and it had to take President Eisenhower’s intervention that introduced the 101st Airborne Division in order to force the National Guard out and provide protection to the nine students and many more. The move by the Little Rock schools to desegregate inspired other schools in the Southern States to follow the order given by the federal court[12].
The Sit-ins of 1960s
It started off as simple sit-in at Woolworth’s organized by four students from the North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College who were protesting against the policies at Woolworth’s that segregated against Black Americans. It further inspired similar sit-ins in many places across the southern region of the United States.
The sit-ins later expanded to include demonstrations in parks, beaches, theaters, and museums among other public places. Later the students who started the sit-ins organized themselves in a group known as the Students Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) which was later involved in other activities such as freedom rides.
After the 1960 sit-ins, many events occurred all of which were meant to send a clear message that the people needed change urgently. These were the freedom rides of 1961, the voter registrations of 1962, the integration of Mississippi universities of 1965 and the Birmingham campaign of 1963-1964 among others[13].
The Assassinations and the Poor people’s March (1968)
This assassination involved the murder of the King of Memphis in 1968 after he had delivered an inspiring speech over the death of two black workers at their workplace. The assassination was followed by numerous protests across major cities in the United States which led to a lot of economic damages. The leadership of the movement against racism was taken over by the Coretta Scott King who together with the King of Memphis’ children led protests against racism and discrimination[14].
Conclusion
The paper has given an in-depth account of the history of civil rights movement which was meant to fight against discrimination and segregation in order to ensure that the people got their basic civil, economic and political rights that they had been denied for many decades.
The movements’ activities became radical as of 1954 after the end of World War 2 due to changes in the way black people were treated and the way they looked at themselves. These radical changes in the approaches of the civil rights movements led to major events that took place as of 1954-1968. These events have been highlighted in the research paper in a chronological manner.
Works Cited
African American History. Civil rights movement. New York: Weigl Publishers Inc., 2009. Print.
Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.
Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Garrow, David J. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: William Morrow, 1986.
Footnotes
African American History. Civil rights movement. New York: Weigl Publishers Inc., 2009. Print.
African American History. Civil rights movement. New York: Weigl Publishers Inc., 2009. Print.
Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.
Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
African American History. Civil rights movement. New York: Weigl Publishers Inc., 2009. Print.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Garrow, David J. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: William Morrow, 1986.
Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
The Civil Rights Act is a milestone element of American civil rights legislation that seeks to prohibit discrimination based on a number of aspects such as gender, religion, nationality, ethnicity, and race.
Although the Civil Rights Act has undergone several amendments, the Civil Right Act amendment of 1964 was the main amendment that addressed the above types of discrimination (Lawson 22). Moreover, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 removed discrimination in learning institutions, at work and other facilities termed as “public accommodations.”
These institutions are entities, whether public or private, that are for public use in the US. President Kennedy proposed these changes in response to some experiences of racial based violence in the southern region (Bowron 20). According to the Act, all public accommodations must be accessible to every person regardless of his or her color, race, national origin or religion.
Improving on the Civil Rights Act of 1875, the 1964 amendment introduced clauses seeking to prohibit discrimination in all state facilities. It also gave the Attorney General the power to support court cases against state agents that support or perpetrate segregation in schools.
However, the proposal did not accommodate some provisions considered important by civil rights activists. For instance, it did not consider giving the department of Justice the authority to start court cases on job discrimination or desegregation, stopping discrimination in private sectors, and public protection against law enforcement cruelty.
The Civil Right Act of 1968 aimed at introducing housing rights as a follow-up to the Civil Rights Act 1964. It discriminated any act that tends to discriminate individuals based on color, race, creed, ethnicity or origin when providing housing opportunities (Branch 73). The Act allowed the federal government to make it an offense to intimidate, injure, force, threaten using force, or restrict someone based on nationality, color, ethnicity, or race.
Moreover Civil Right Act of 1968 (Title VIII) is known the “Fair Housing Act” and was intended to enhance the Civil Right Act of 1866,which had banned different forms of discrimination in housing, federal crime was not included in the proposal. The Fair Housing Act banned any discrimination regarding finance, leasing, and sale of housing based on nationality, religious grounds, and race (Conroy 621).
Moreover, although it did not have much impact during its early years, the Civil Rights Act of 1968 had a significant influence on succeeding legislation processes. For example, it supported the American with Disabilities Act of 1990, which removed discrimination against people with disabilities. This issue had not been addressed in America before the enactment of the Civil Rights of 1964 (“Lyndon Johnson Signs Civil Rights Act of 1964”).
Voting Rights Act
Voting Rights Act of 1965 is an important element of federal legislation that banned any form of discrimination during voter registration and voting. President Johnson signed the Act into law in response to various civil right movements.
To improve voter protection, the Congress made five changes in the original proposal. In order to impose the voting rights assured by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 had criminalized discrimination against racial minorities. This Act is one of the most valuable elements of civil rights legislations in the country (“African-Americans Vote in South Carolina”).
The Voting Rights Act allowed the federal government to oversee elections. Supporting the statement in the Fifteenth Amendment, the Voting Rights Act forbids all states or agents from enforcing any voting requirement, process, practice, or standards that may cause rejection or violation of voting rights based on minority status or race. Along with this general ban, the proposal explicitly bars literacy tests and other tools that were traditionally used to discriminate minorities during voting (Branch 91).
The Voting Rights Act is made up of two main provisions- special provisions and general provisions. While General provisions address national issues, the special provisions address particular local government or states. These two provisions are intended to provide protection of voting rights based on language and racial minorities. The special provisions support “persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage” (Conroy 664).
Section 5 of the Act addresses special provisions by prohibiting authorities from enforcing any law that may influence voting process without initially passing through the “preclearance” process. Preclearance process permits changes after confirmation from the judge panel or the Attorney General (Lawson 36). The changes in voting process are only allowed if they do not have any influence on race or language status.
The Congress has made some changes in 2006, 1992, 1982, 1975, and 1970 on the Voting Rights Act. In all these changes (except 1992), the Congress improved the preclearance standards. For instance, the coverage formula was improved in 1970 and 1975. In addition, section 2 was updated in 1982 and bans any discriminative voting law (Conroy 664).
These are laws that have a discriminatory effect or purpose, which was banned regardless of whether they were passed or sustained for a discriminatory purpose. Moreover, the latest amendment of 2006 has updated various protections that offered the Department of Justice the ability to approve any voting changes, monitoring during Election Day and allowing language assistance.
Noteworthy, the voting Rights Act has allowed a free and equal voting process. The voting rights have been protected because the Act provides the minority groups with various privileges to vote during all elections.
Works Cited
“African-Americans Vote in South Carolina.” Prime News., BBC, New York, 23 Mar. 1965. Television.
“Lyndon Johnson Signs Civil Rights Act of 1964.” Prime News., BBC., New York, 27 Mar. 1964. Television.
Bowron, Aaron. “Celebrating the Progress of Michigan’s Civil Rights Laws.” Michigan Bar Journal 2.3 (2012): 20-21. Print.
Branch, Taylor. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963–65, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008. Print.
Conroy, Terrye. “The Voting Rights Act of 1965: A Selected Annotated Bibliography.” Law Library Journal 98.4 (2006): 663-690. Print.
Lawson, Steven F. Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944–1969. New York: Columbis University Press, 2006. Print
Martin Luther King (Dr. King) is perhaps the most renowned personality of the civil rights movement in America. King was practically the leader of the civil rights movement. His popularity started after he led other activists in boycotting the services of the Montgomery Bus Service in the year 1955 after an incident of open discrimination of a black woman in the bus.
He therefore became an activist due to incidences and laws of segregation of black people. Places where such incidences occurred include public schools, restaurants and hotels. His fame was particularly because he advocated for non-violent strikes and protests as opposed to other activists like Malcolm X. Martin Luther King Jr. was the embodiment of the campaign for civil rights and he gave the movement massive international cover.
After leading the boycott and protests against the Montgomery Bus Service, King was arrested and fined a thousand dollars. King’s house was also firebombed and his followers were intimidated. However, by December 1956, the bus service had lifted segregation policies. In 1957, Martin Luther King Jr. was active in the Southern Leadership Conference, an organization created with an objective of organizing peaceful demonstrations against racial discrimination.
He also travelled across the U.S. making speeches and campaigning for support of the civil rights movement. He urged blacks to use their economic power to keep the movement strong by using business owners who supported the movement and boycotting those who supported segregation. His support for J. F. Kennedy helped Kennedy beat Richard Nixon by a narrow margin in the 1960 election.
Kennedy shared the same ideas as King. After becoming President of the U.S., he proposed the civil rights bill. To get Congress’ support for the bill, Dr. King, together with other activists, organized the famous March on Washington. The march was held in 1963, August 28th and it culminated to the ‘I have a dream’ speech. Dr. King delivered the speech in front of about half a million people and it was listened to all over the world.
The speech therefore publicized the civil rights movement in the U.S. and all over the world. Congress accepted Kennedy’s bill and it led to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Many Americans view this as a tribute to Kennedy, who was assassinated for his involvement in the civil rights movement.
Because of the great work that Dr. King did, he was the 1964 winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. He remains the youngest Nobel Laureate in the history of the Prize, having received it at thirty-five years of age. After campaigning for the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Dr. King moved on to defend the voting rights of his fellow black Americans.
His efforts led to the 1965 Voting Rights Act. He then went on to defend the poor, both white and black, in America. He took a radical approach to issues like the Vietnam War, using the word “revolution” as he made some of his speeches. Dr. King also became active in issues relating to trade unions.
Martin Luther King Jr. made several enemies due to his activism. Some of these enemies bugged his rooms and released recordings to the press accusing him of sexual improprieties. James Ray, a white racist, assassinated King in Tennessee when he was thirty-nine years of age. His death, in April 4, 1968, led to worldwide mourning and protests by blacks throughout America. To date, the United States celebrates his birthday in January as a national holiday.