Category: Civil Rights Movement

The Leadership Of Martin Luther King As The Factor Of Success In The Civil Rights Movement

The American civil rights movement describes the decades-long protest which aimed to highlight and overturn the systematic discrimination African Americans faced in the 1950s and 1960s. Deep inequalities in society impacted on every aspect of civilian life, from segregated education, transportation, eateries and interracial marriage was prohibited. Discrimination and the treatment of African Americans as second-class citizens inevitably impacted on the economic opportunities and employment available, which entrenched rates of poverty. Despite segregation in the armed forces, African American soldiers had played a full role in fighting for the liberation of Europe in WWII and in defeating the Axis powers. Asked to make sacrifices equal to those of white US soldiers, yet denied equal treatment, a movement seeking to erase pernicious inequalities gathered ground. Yet it can be argued that resistance and the drive for civil rights had been in evidence for far longer. Abolitionists an activists such as Frederick Douglas not only campaigned for the abolition of slavery in 1865 but campaigned for the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1871. As the struggle for equal rights in America has a long history and was the focus of many politicians, activists and organisations, whether the success of the civil rights movement can be credited to the leadership of Martin Luther King deserves closer analysis.

Historians are divided when it comes to crediting a leader or a set of specific circumstances which led to success of the civil rights movement, during a time of often bitter social divisions that were evident in 1950s and 1960s. There are historians that argue that it took the inspirational leadership of Dr Martin Luther King to galvanise discontent and channel it into a movement with the moral authority able to unite people of all colours. By spearheading and leading a mass protest movement, it is argued that Dr King must be credited with creating the conditions that led to the success of the civil rights movement.

The civil rights movement employed a variety of methods to organise and had numerous leaders. From the NAACP who took a constitutional approach, fighting for the legal end to segregation, to the black power movement of the 1960s which no longer saw non-violent protests as a viable method to promote radical change. However, the approach taken by Martin Luther King has long been identified as the most influential as a non-violent philosophy created a groundswell of support for the civil rights movement.

Within this source, Martin Luther King highlights his stance on violence within the civil rights movement and the problems that would be exacerbated by its use. He discusses the benefits of loving your enemies to the extent of allowing them to understand your view and further the development of their own. The source also includes Robert Penn Warren discussing the strong appeal of Martin Luther King to white Americans due to the non-violent approach he had pioneered throughout the civil rights movement. As such, one can begin to comprehend reasons for Martin Luther King’s mass support across races, and his strong influence on the ultimate success on the civil rights movement.

This source can be seen to illustrate that the leadership of Martin Luther King was the main reason for the success of the civil rights movements as his non-violent approach is widely noted as a turning point in the civil rights movement. King’s theologically-based belief in non-violence was powerfully argued and enacted throughout his own life. True progress, he argued, could only be made when the cycle of violence and hate was broken. This can be said to have set the agenda for the next ten years of civil rights protests.

King’s persistent encouragement of a non-violent approach can be seen to be the only realistic strategy open to African Americans if they wished to achieve civil rights. Any other approach would have resulted in a more violent backlash. King’s strategy elevated the civil rights cause to a spiritual and religious level. It can be said that as baptist minister, who skilfully utilised the leadership potential of a minister of religion subsequent to having the respect of his community, King turned the civil rights cause into a religious movement.

King can furthermore be seen as the main reason for the success of the civil rights movement because of his non-violent strategy. African Americans, in theory at least, already had civil and political rights – both of which being secured by the civil war amendments of 1865-70. By utilising peaceful protest, King and his supporters were able to shame America into recognising this fact. Through the use of the media and highlighting the direct link between the civil rights cause and the declaration of independence and the constitution – King was able to guarantee the high moral and political ground.

It was not only the contextual impact that King’s non-violent approach had but also its knock on effect. King’s methods inspired the lunch counter protests in 1960 – which in turn led to the formation of the SNCC. Alongside this, the non-violent agenda also galvanised white liberals to participate. The moral, non-violent stance was able to act as a link between a fragile coalition of interests.

Many historians believe that the civil rights movement began to reach its climax in the mid 1960s, and as this source is from 1964, it provides an insight into the movement as it gathered critical pace. 1964 also saw one of the one of the most important developments – the introduction of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson. Essentially, this act saw the end of segregation on the grounds of race, religion or national origin at all places of public accommodation, including courthouses, parks, restaurants, theaters, sports arenas and hotels – allowing for an end to blacks or other minorities being denied service based on the colour of their skin. As such, this was deemed the ‘second emancipation’ by Dr King. This source allows an historian to view him at the peak of his influence, and his position at such a critical point in the movement.

Despite decades of activism, civil rights leaders had to accept that segregationists would not relinquish their privileges and the social and economic power they held over African Americans. In the South, violence against people of colour was endemic and civil rights activists believed that if this was witnessed by citizens who lives outside the former Confederate states, there would be greater pressure for change.

Activists such as Bob Moses wanted their struggles and the violent oppression they faced to be documented by newspaper journalists and television stations. With the physical suppression and brutality clearly in evidence, it would underline the limitations of a passive and peaceful movement. One such example was the 1955 case of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy who was savagely beaten and murdered by white men who accused him of flirting or whistling at a white woman in Mississippi. The men were arrested but acquitted by a white jury. Emmett’s mother decided to allow the casket of her son to be open so everyone could witness how brutally her son had been disfigured. The wider public were shocked and appalled. It caused some to wonder if violence would inevitably promote other acts of violence.

Dr King remained resolute and refused to consider the use of violence as part of the campaign for equal rights. Many white people recognised that the unjust and unpunished violent acts African Americans faced in the South could trigger a backlash and even an armed uprising. By continually emphasising his Christian beliefs that violence is wrong, he was able to calm the fears of white communities and encourage them to support the civil rights movement’s push for peaceful reform. Dr King was a Baptist minister but also recognised that the Indian civil rights movement had enjoyed success by following the non violent teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.

This source can be seen to illustrate that the leadership of Martin Luther King was the main reason for the success of the civil rights movements as it

King used charisma as a tool for mobilizing black communities, but he always used it in the context of other forms of intellectual and political leadership reflecting his academic training and suited to a movement containing many strong leaders. King undoubtedly recognized that charisma was one of many leadership qualities at his disposal, but he also recognized that charisma was not a sufficient basis for leadership in a modern political movement enlisting numerous self-reliant leaders. Moreover, he rejected aspects of the charismatic model that conflicted with his sense of his own limitations.

Recent scholarship of King’s leadership has displayed a growing understanding of the interplay between King’s exceptional oratorical abilities and the expectations and understandings of his various audiences. The King myth emphasizes his supposedly charismatic qualities as an explanation for his unique role in the struggle.

Romanticized Leadership of Malcolm X: Leadership Qualities and Attributes

Introduction

There are various reasons as to why one may be regarded as a leader; the term leadership is faced with the ambiguity of definition (Pfeffer, 1977). In regards to the chosen theoretical perspective, it would be argued that the more effective leaders may be trained or selected or the situation configured to offer for an enhanced leader through the analysis of the style of leadership, characteristics and behaviour. Charismatic leadership produces escalated self-worth and self-esteem for the leader escalated collective efficacy of the entire group and self-efficacy both the identification with the entire group and the leader and the internalization of the values (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). This type of leadership depends on the whole situation that surround the leader, for instance, behaviour, identity, culture, followers identity as well as all the group entwined. This essay analyzes Malcolm X’s leadership and the reasons why his leadership is regarded as effective.

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was born in an America where the environment was dominated by white supremacy and racism. Seen in his biography, he was charged with larceny and sentenced to imprisonment for a decade. Though he dropped out of school, (Mason High School), he made efforts to bridge that gap while still in jail through involvement on class debates and reading. Leadership in his life was brought out in various stage. For instance, a class president while at school a leader in prison, a leader in the streets, a spokesman of the Nation of Islam and the last leadership stage being pan-Africanism. Besides his qualities and characteristic, Marable (2011), described him as a natural born leader in regards to his biography. First, Malcolm X’s incessant drive as well as the ability to order or command his followers by repeating the pet themes and speaking rapidly to overtop other (Marable, 2011). Given the social context during this time Malcolm X’s leadership was characterized with assertiveness harping and combativeness, which fitted the situation as well as the people he operated. His followers appreciated his strength, vigor and intelligence.

Romanticized leadership

The idea of a business leader as well as the ideals and value exercised in the leadership concept, seem to bring out a different connection to the ethical. There is hardly any neutral functionary, and the leader ought to compound the authority of office with charismatic and authority (Wray-Bliss 2015). The work of a leader is to enthrall, inspire and seduce his/her followers. Wray-Bliss (2015) highlights that leadership has a significantly romanticized and had a mythological status, which goes beyond the usual constraints of the scientific inquiry. Therefore, every leader ought to be endowed with qualities of a superhuman as that is the only way they would really be perceived as a leader, both respected and accepted. Leadership is a repository of anxieties, hopes, desires and aspirations, not least around the ethical. Beyond the mere policy or rule to follow, a leader offers the mission, vision, values and ethics for their followers or organization (Wray-Bliss, 2015).

Malcolm X was very inspirational hence able to capture the desires and seduce his followers. For instance, his aspect of movements was seen to acquire masses of followers, whereby he was capable of changing the thoughts and lives of people. From all walks of life, Malcolm x was able to motivate his people. Characterized by audacity and defiance, Malcolm X made the black Americans acquire their pride (Graaf, 2016). During his time, America was entangled in a crisis, and the black Americans faced racism, victimization and oppression from the ruling class. The black Americans or African Americans sought a leader who would give them hope which Malcolm X provided. Such a situation of the crisis was a significant influence in his mode of leadership.

The romanticized leadership conception proposes that every leader ought to have the capability of controlling and influencing their organization’s fate when they are in charge. According to Meindl, Ehrlich and Dukerich (1985), this form of assumption of the responsibility and control leadership engenders is double-edged first implying the giving of credit for the positive outcomes and second for laying the blame or accountability for the negative ones. Example of a positive outcome for Malcolm X was his achievement in helping the black Muslims acquire their civil rights. Additionally, he stood up and confronted racist authorities and became a model for the Black Panther Party (BPP), a national organization with groups from BPP in over 15 states and which showed success in 1967 (Graaf, 2016). Secondly he laid the blame on Elijah Muhammad for being corrupt and hypocritical.

Leadership qualities and attributes

Another reason why Malcolm X was a leader is his leadership qualities and attributes. Malcolm X was associated with both the characteristic of flexibility and open-mindedness (BIrd, 2013). In his most of his speeches, Malcolm X would embrace change which was evident in the transition of his leadership stages, at school, on the streets, in prison and lastly as the spokesman for the Nation of Islam alongside the International Pan African leadership. He avoided errors by the application of critical thinking alongside the revision of his perceptions accordingly. For example among his speeches, he asserted that regardless of his convictions, he made every effort to face the facts as well as accept the reality of life (Graaf, 2016). This as Malcolm X explained, was based on the reasoning that new experiences are unfolded by new knowledge. In the same speech, Malcolm X drew his point home by bringing out that throughout his life, he kept open-mindedness at the forefront as a base to his flexibility.

A second leadership quality demonstrated in Malcolm X’s biography was his courage and confidence. For instance, in his time in the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X confronted Elijah Muhammed, whereby he disagreed with him after the realization of his hypocritical and corrupt ways. The outcome was leaving the Nation of Islam and commencing his Muslim Mosque Inc (MMI) and The Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) (Graaf, 2016). Malcolm X would always and readily confront injustice and inequality with what he deemed to be true. Despite Muhammed threats of killing him and making the environment hostile for him, Malcolm X never backed away from his plans of advocating for justice and equality. When Malcolm X was assassinated he was in the middle of giving a speech located in a ballroom despite Muhammed’s threats.

Authentic leadership

To some extent Malcolm X practiced authentic leadership. Authentic leadership style is one that refuses to appreciate or acknowledge one’s imperfections and regardless of the confirmations to seeking the core self, or other one’ true this leadership privilege organizational/collective self over an individual self (Ford & Harding, 2011). Therefore, authentic leadership hampers subjectivity to the follower and the leader. In his early years, Malcolm X was a collective leader he refused to acknowledge what some people believed to be imperfections as a Black Muslim and strived to fight for the rights of all.

Charismatic leadership

Leaders may be named as charismatic for various reasons. One reason is that they lead the people or the organization away from a disaster or risk and by virtue of a visionary approach where the turnaround is implemented (Bryman, 1993). Malcolm X’s leadership depicted a visionary approach assisting black Americans in acquiring their freedom and independence alongside halting oppression of the black Americans by white supremacists. This was regardless of the concern that arose from his status as a Black Muslim. At times these leaders gain their reputation due to a distinctive tactics in their organization as well as gaining a personal following. Though most people contested against Malcolm X’s violent tactics and approaches when tackling racism, they barely denied his commitment or fight and stood for oppression and injustice of the blacks Americans.

Charismatic leaders tend to experience great loyalty from their followers. Such resolute devotion or commitment is owed to these leaders due to their mission and exceptional characteristics (Bryman et al, 1993). Weber and Bryman (1993) explained that a charismatic leader is one who men do not obey by virtue of a tradition or a statute, but their belief for him. The commitment of his followers come from their admiration of his qualities and persona. Malcolm X had loyal followers and supporters who loved his courage in confronting the immorality of corruption with the truth. Rather than collaborating with Elijah Muhammad, he took a different path and resigned from the Nation of Islam. People loved him for the ethics-based authenticity that allowed him to continue with his principles as well as policies of transforming both the collective self and also to acquire justice for all.

Creating impression

The visionary approach for charismatic leadership is highly controversial though, for the ultimate good of his followers. A charismatic leader should seek to act in unconventional ways, for instance through idealized visions with the intent of acquiring desired identity images such as trustworthiness and credibility and morally worthiness (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Impressive management involves a ubiquitous aspect of social behavior. By risking his/her life for the vision as well as course they owe the people. Malcolm X openly confronted the ruling class and made a speech in a way that many considered to threaten American society. The primary reason why his followers trusted and became loyal to him was his self-sacrificing qualities and the trait that he was not in any way motivated by financial rewards, but rather his vision about the Nation of Islam. They loved him because he showed commitment to the cause.

Conclusion

In conclusion, despite the ambiguity surrounding the concept of leadership, it was argued that it would be shaped through training, selecting or configured in the environment or situation. Nowhere in his biography was it documented that Malcolm X was trained to be a leader. Instead people chose him and his environment or other the situation, (black crisis ad American crisis) became a primary driver. Though leadership has been said to be highly romanticized, Malcolm X has shown an excellent example of a leader. According to his biography he had an incessant drive and ability to order or command people and spoke rapidly to overtop them. Additionally, he had the necessary qualities such as courage, flexibility and open-mindedness. He also had the courage and confidence to confront the oppressive and corrupt ruling class like Elijah Muhammed. Malcolm X practiced authentic and charismatic leadership.

References

1. BIrd, A. (2013). Mapping the content domain of global leadership competencies. In Global Leadership 2e (pp. 92-108).
2. Bryman, A. (1993). Charismatic leadership in business organizations: Some neglected issues. The Leadership Quarterly, 4(3-4), 289-304.
3. Ford, J., & Harding, N. (2011). The impossibility of the ‘true self’of authentic leadership. Leadership, 7(4), 463-479.
4. Gardner, W. L., & Avolio, B. J. (1998). The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of management review, 23(1), 32-58.
5. Graaf, A. (2016). Powerful Patterns of Persuasion: Reading the Activist Autobiography Social Movement Techniques and the African-American Literary Tradition in the Life Narratives of Black Nationalists Malcolm X, James Forman and Angela Davis, 1965-1975.
6. Marable, M. (2011). Malcolm X: A life of reinvention. Penguin.
7. Meindl, J. R., Ehrlich, S. B., & Dukerich, J. M. (1985). The romance of leadership. Administrative science quarterly, 78-102.
8. Pfeffer, J. (1977). The ambiguity of leadership. Academy of management review, 2(1), 104-112.
9. Weil, D. (2001). Postmodern Reflections on Market Civilization, Identity Politics. Taboo, 5(1).
10. Wray-Bliss, E. (2015). Leadership, ethical sovereignty and the politics of property. In The Routledge Companion to Ethics, Politics and Organizations (pp. 232-246).

An Integral Struggle within the Civil Rights Movement: Women’s Rights Movement

The Historical Context of the Women’s Rights Movement

The women’s rights movement was a movement that took place in the 1960s and was overlooked by many. This was because there were so many other things going on during this time. Vietnam, anti-war protests, and the civil rights movement are just a few of the many other things that occurred during this very chaotic and hectic time period. While the women’s rights movement was disregarded for the most part, it was still a very important step for The United States.

The women’s rights movement was originally focused on dismantling workplace inequality. This included things such as the denial of access to better jobs and salary inequity, which are known as anti-discrimination laws. Other branches of women’s rights sought to gain equality for women on both a political and personal level. While the women’s rights movement began in the 1960s, it still continues today. This is because men and women are still not entirely equal.

Many people wonder why the women’s rights movement is still occurring today. They assume that everything that needed to be done for this movement would have been done over 50 years ago when the movement started. With this said, it can be argued that both good and bad things came out of this very long-lasting movement.

Progress and Controversies: The Dual Sides of the Women’s Movement

There are many arguments about the women’s rights movement. The biggest probably was the controversy between what was positive and what was negative. While there were many positives, nothing came for free. In other words, these positive things were accompanied by negative things. Some of the many positives for women included that they could now have jobs outside of their homes, and they could finally vote and work alongside men. They were no longer required to stay home and tend to the house, cleaning, and caring for the children.

Women were finally seen as actual human beings rather than as an accessory to men and their families. They were allowed to have an education rather than being considered to not need one because they were only permitted to stay at home. They were also granted the freedom to own and run businesses without their husband’s consent. These were all great steps towards the goal for women, but were they really enough?

Persisting Inequalities: The Wage Gap and Gender Discrimination

While women are now able to work alongside men, they are still not treated the same as men are. There are still several discriminations against women. For starters, men are more likely to be hired than women, but setting this aside, even if a woman is hired over a man, she is treated very differently. Women are paid much less than men, which is a huge problem. This is one of the main reasons why, today, there are still thousands of men and women marching in order for women to have the rights that they deserve. It is proven that for the same exact job, a man is paid more than a woman.

A woman is only paid 79 cents, while a man is paid a full dollar. This is even less for women of color or races other than white. For example, black women are only paid 54 cents when a man is paid a full dollar. This difference in pay for men and women adds up over time. For example, if a white man made $1,000, a white woman would only earn $790. That means that they are getting paid over $200 less for the same exact job. A white man’s average annual income is about $90,761, and a white woman’s average annual income is only about $50,756. This is a major difference. This problem was supposed to be fixed by the Equal Rights Amendment, but it was never able to do its job.

The Equal Rights Amendment: The Unfulfilled Promise of Gender Equality

Some issues today that women are fighting to fix include topics such as abortion, abuse, and much more. There is a lot of controversy about whether or not women should be permitted to have abortions. This is because many see it as killing a person. With this said, many of the opinions that people have concerning abortions have to do with religious thoughts, which is yet another huge issue. This is because it is well known that religion is not supposed to be mixed with politics, hence the church and state law.

Alongside abortions, another huge issue has to do with abuse. This can be of any kind, physical, mental, sexual, etc. Women of today are working very hard to prevent so much abuse towards women. One of the biggest steps for this issue is that many women have stepped forward to confront their abusers. This is a step in the right direction, but it is still not nearly enough.

In 1972, the Equal Rights Amendment aimed to provide the legal equality of the sexes as well as prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex. It was passed through Congress very quickly and then sent to the states to vote. Many of the states jumped on the bandwagon and decided to have the Amendment ratified. This was because there was a lot of negative publicity that arose around the Amendment once it became known across the country. The long seven-year period that it took to get the Equal Rights Amendment ratified went by without the Amendment ever being passed.

I believe that if the Equal Rights Amendment was to be passed, then the country may be a more fair and equal place today. There may not be nearly as many issues surrounding the rights of women if the Amendment were to be passed. All of the issues that are still argued and protested today could have been avoided if different steps had been taken years ago. This is because ground rules would have been set through the Equal Rights Amendment, making it impossible for men and women to be treated drastically differently.

Men and women would have all of the same rights be treated equally, be paid equally, and have equal chances at obtaining jobs and other things. The Equal Rights Amendment of 1972 could have been a really helpful amendment for The United States. It is a shame that it was never able to be implemented and enforced. The country could be a much different place today if this Amendment was put into place.

References:

1. Fantz, A., Karimi, F., & McLaughlin, E. (2016). “Orlando nightclub shooting: 49 killed, shooter pledged ISIS allegiance” Source: CNN, www.cnn.com/2016/06/12/us/orlando-nightclub-shooting/index.html
2. OpenStax. (2016). “U.S. Constitution and Federalism.” Source: OpenStax, openstax.org/details/books/american-government-2e
3. Equal Pay Act of 1963. Source: U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, www.eeoc.gov/statutes/equal-pay-act-1963
4. “Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) | National Archives.” Source: National Archives, www.archives.gov/historical-docs/era
5. “Understanding the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA).” Source: National Women’s History Museum, www.womenshistory.org/resources/general/understanding-equal-rights-amendment-era

The Unyielding Path of the Civil Rights Movement: From Struggle to Equality

The Evolution of the Civil Rights Movement:

Many people debate whether America gives its citizens hope for the future, especially those who are minorities and those discriminated against. There are many civil rights that people are entitled to, but there has been much discrimination over the History of the United States. Much of this discrimination has been to minorities of ethnicity, religion, and those who are gay or disabled. Women have also had to endure much discrimination over the History of the country. However, America gives all of its citizens hope for the future, especially today, because we continue to strive for a better tomorrow.

LGBTQ+ Rights: A Century of Progress:

Gay rights have been a point of contention in the United States, which has grown significantly bigger over the past century. There are many things that fall under this umbrella, such as LGBTQ; L being lesbian meaning women who like other women. G being gay means men that like other men. B being bisexual, someone who likes both men and women. T being transexual or someone who goes from being one gender to another.

It seems hard to imagine, but it was less than 100 years ago, in 1924, that the first gay rights organization was founded, known as the Society for Human Rights. This had an underground name so that way people would not expect it to be a gay rights organization because, at the time, it would not have been accepted by the general public like it is today. However, it was not all good over that because, in 1952, the American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disorder.

It’s hard to imagine that still 30 years after they founded the first gay rights organization, homosexuals can still be called sociopathic. In fact, it got even worse a year later. In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order banning any gay people from working in the federal government. This must have been devastating, and it would be hard to imagine this happening today. However, there was a light at the end of the tunnel.

In 1975 there was a federal gay rights bill to address discrimination based on sexual orientation. While this was good, a dark day was still on its way. That day was February 28th, 1993. On that day, Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell was passed. This was disguised as a step forward, and in some ways, it allowed people who were gay to serve in the military. However, it also meant if you were openly gay, you would get kicked out. At the time, this may have seemed like a huge improvement. However, today, it’s almost unthinkable, and the worst thing was it didn’t get repealed until 2011, which meant it was still around only seven years ago.

The good news is in 2003, the largest court in Massachusetts said that banning same-sex marriage was unconstitutional. This was very divisive at the time, even among state officials, as Governor Mitt Romney said he had “3000 years of history on his side.” However, this did little to stop it from being legalized. May 18th, 2004, was the first day of legalized gay marriage anywhere in the United States, and a little over ten years later, on June 26th, 2015, the banning of gay marriage was deemed unconstitutional at a national level by the Supreme Court and is now legalized in all 50 states. The country has come a very long way in less than 100 years.

Historical Struggles and Triumphs of Racial and Gender Equality:

Another group of people that are discriminated against are those of a different race. This has been true for people of all races throughout History, but especially the blacks. This is apparent with slavery, not being able to vote, and other basic freedoms that were denied to black people. One such example was the Dred Scott decision of 1857 which said that all black people, free or slave, are “Subordinate and inferior beings.”

However, there was a bright day on the first day of the new year, January 1st, 1863, when President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation during the height of the Civil War, effectively giving the rebelling states three months to rejoin the union or their slaves would be freed and allowed to fight in the northern army. While this technically didn’t free any slaves right away because the South was not under President Lincoln’s control, it still made there a beacon of hope for the slaves in the South, especially if the North was to win the war as they eventually did.

Then around three years later, the 13th Amendment passed, and slavery was officially abolished from all of the United States. Within the next five years, the 14th and 15th Amendments were passed in 1868 and 1870, respectively. The 14th granted equal protection under the law, and the 15th gave blacks the right to vote, including former slaves. The 15th Amendment said, “The right of citizens in the United States to vote shall not be denied by the United States or by any state on race, color or previous condition of servitude.

There was what should have been a step forward in 1875 with the Civil Rights Act, which said white business owners had to have all facilities open to black people. However, the government really did not enforce it for 100 years, and black people still were not allowed in most places. It’s hard to believe that even with a federal law being passed, people did not enforce this law. Over time, groups began to form that fought for the right of black Americans, such as the NAACP in 1909. This group, The NAACP, continues to advocate for people of color to this day by representing and hiring lawyers to help represent blacks in cases for those who cannot afford them.

Halfway through the 20th century, civil rights Supreme Court cases started to come up. One of the more important ones was Brown vs. The Board of Education which was a battle to try to let a black girl attend an all-white school in an attempt at desegregation. This was big because, eventually, the girl was able to attend the all-white school. Another big event was when a black woman named Rosa Parks tried to sit in the white section of a bus in Alabama in 1955.

A year later, in 1956, there was a Supreme Court case that ruled in favor of Rosa Parks, saying that Alabama’s racial discrimination laws for buses were unconstitutional. This all led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which, while not enforced right away, was enforced more quickly and effectively than the first Civil Rights Act. This was a huge victory. President Lyndon B. Johnson said, “This Civil Rights Act is a challenge to all of us to go to work in our communities and our states.”

Another marginalized group over the years has been women. One example of this came in 1777 when a law was passed that nationwide women could not vote, and it would be 92 years later, in 1869, before the first women’s suffrage law was passed in the United States. This law was passed in Wyoming, and even that was not statewide as that would be passed in 1890 in the same state.

Over the course of the next 30 years, more and more states slowly began to give women the right the vote, and in 1920, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 19th Amendment that “The rights of citizens of the United States shall not be denied or abridged by any state on account of sex.” Many women celebrated this accomplishment, one of whom was Susan B. Anthony when she said, “No self-respecting woman should wish or work for the success of a party that ignores her.”

Women, however, were still not completely equal, as they did not get equal pay in a lot of instances. This was until Congress passed the equal pay act and was signed into effect by President John F. Kennedy. Over time the United States has continued to push forward for women’s rights.

Rights for the Disabled and Religious Minorities:

Another forgotten group that has been discriminated against and has had a hard time getting recognition is people with various disabilities. These people have been forgotten about over time and continue to be ignored to this day. However, there have been some slight pushes to move forward for people with disabilities.

The first big event in helping disabled people was when the Amer School for The Deaf was founded in 1817. This was a huge step forward that allowed people with hearing disabilities to function as productive members of society. Then another huge event happened in 1832 when very similarly, the Perkins School for The Blind admitted its first two students. Then in 1869, the first wheelchair patent was registered, which was huge, especially for former military veterans who lost their legs in combat. Then, in 1933, a disabled president who was in a wheelchair, FDR, was sworn into the presidency. However, it was kept hidden from the public, and he was very rarely photographed in the wheelchair, and FDR tried to keep it a secret from the public.

However, a lot of people still did know, so this was still a great step forward. In 1964, when the previously-mentioned Civil Rights Act was passed, it bypassed people with disabilities and did not do anything to help them progress or to help them be productive members of society. However, another huge step forward was in 1962 when Eunice Kennedy-Shriver organized a summer camp for children with disabilities and was a huge advocate for people with disabilities, leading to the first Special Olympics being hosted in Chicago in 1968. This gave people with disabilities the chance to compete in healthy sporting events in a supportive environment. The motto of Special Olympics was “Let me win, but if I can, let me be brave in the attempt.”

Then in 2004 Chicago continued to be a center for disability rights when they hosted the first disability pride parade. This was finally disabled people taking pride in who they were and not having to be ashamed. Disabled people have come from pretty much being forgotten to having numerous laws and help come their way in just the last 20 years.

One other group that gets discriminated against is those of minority religions. The big group of this is the post-9/11 Muslims. There have been many hate crimes committed against Muslims. However, one of the biggest issues with post-9/11 Muslims came when President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13769, or Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States. This was a ban on Muslims that has been fought about to this day and is currently going through the Supreme Court. Trump even described the order as “A total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States until our country’s representatives can figure out what’s going on.” Religious discrimination against Muslims is a long way from going away. However, the country continues to move forward every day.

Some people would argue and say that America does not give hope for the future, especially to minority groups such as people of different races, sexual orientations, religions, and those who are a woman or disabled. These people would say that these groups of people have to face discrimination on a daily basis and are not treated fairly.

People say that people who are of a different sexual orientation are treated unfairly. However, many people who are of these sexual orientations disagree and believe they are given hope for the future. This is because same-sex marriage has been legalized in the United States for years now and shows no signs of becoming illegal again. In fact, only one county in the United States still refuses to grant same-sex marriage.

In fact, 67% of Americans say they support gay marriage Madhani, Aamer. “Poll: Approval of Same-Sex Marriage in the U.S. Reaches New High.” And the majority are for it in 44 of the 50 states according to NBC News. The six states that oppose are all above 40% support, and only one of those states say they are against it than for it, and that is in Alabama, where still 41% are for it. Every single day more and more Americans are becoming accepting of gay marriage, and the percentage of people for it is rising.

Some people would also say that people of a different race are not given hope for the future. However, most poor black Americans are more optimistic than poor or even middle-class white Americans, according to the BBC. There have also been so many different organizations designed to help black people.

A lot of Americans believe women don’t have hope for the future either. However, America continues to pass laws for women, and women continue to be to gain more and more rights, including being allowed to join the military and several women in Congress. Women continue to move forward every single day.

Disabled people also have hope for the future because there are so many organizations to help them, even that are government funded, and there continue to be laws put into place that help them be productive and functional members of society. These programs range from helping them live normal lives, getting homes and jobs, and helping them financially.

Last but not least religious discrimination is irrefutable because up to 9/10 Muslims feel proud to be American, according to recent polls.
So, in the end, America does give all of its’ citizens hope for the future. Whether you are a minority or not, America gives you hope for the future by continuing to fight discrimination every single day.

References:

1. “Race Discrimination: U.S. Supreme Court Cases.” Findlaw. civilrights.findlaw.com/discrimination/race-discrimination-u-s-supreme-court-cases.html.
2. “History.” A&E Television Networks, LLC. https://www.history.com/.
3. “Khan Academy.” Khan Academy, Inc. https://www.khanacademy.org/.
4. “Detailed Timeline.” National Women’s History Project. www.nwhp.org/resources/womens-rights-movement/detailed-timeline/.
5. “History Timeline.” Youth Organizing! Disabled & Proud. http://www.yodisabledproud.org/organize/docs/PRIDE/5_High_School/Unit_3_High/3_1h-History_Timeline.pdf.
6. “LGBT Rights Milestones Fast Facts.” CNN. Cable News Network, April 1st, 2018. www.cnn.com/2015/06/19/us/lgbt-rights-milestones-fast-facts/index.html.
7. Suarez. “Looking Back at the Legalization of Gay Marriage in Mass.” The Boston Globe, June 26th, 2015. www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/06/26/looking-back-legalization-gay-marriage-mass/uhCeyrSeJtWty9tSUde1PI/story.html.

The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement and the Evolution of Marriage Equality

The Controversy Surrounding the LGBTQ Community and the Civil Rights Movement

There is a lot of controversy in the LGBTQ community. Some people support it. Some people don’t, just like interracial couples. The case of Loving vs. Virginia is a case that changed the Constitution for interracial couples. The case of Obergefell V. Hodges is another case that changed civil rights. There are so many things that have happened in the news with the LGBTQ community. A few years ago, it was the pulse shooting in the club. Then during that same time of the Pulse shooting, it was the “lives matter movement.” That started a whole other issue with this country.

Key Moments in LGBTQ History: Obergefell vs. Hodges and the Pulse Nightclub Tragedy

The LGBTQ community, over the past several years, has had a lot of controversies. In 2015 there was the case of Obergefell vs. Hodges, which had to do with same-sex marriage. The court basically ruled that love is love when it comes to marriage. This case helped raise the ban on same-sex marriage in the thirteen states that still had the ban.

In 2016, there was a shooting in Orlando, Florida, at the Pulse nightclub. Pulse was a Gay nightclub; one night, a shooting went in and shot and killed forty- nine people in the club. Making this the biggest terrorist attack since 9/11. The shooter pledged to be part of ISIS on the phone to dispatch. Having the Constitution is essential to the United States; we have the right to be treated equally no matter where we come from or who we are. The First Amendment gives us freedom of expression, being who we want to be, and freedom of speech to what we feel.

Loving vs. Virginia: An Emblematic Case of the Civil Rights Movement

Another iconic case was the case of Loving vs. Virginia. This case changed the Constitution when it came to marriage. In this case, Mildred and Richard Loving were sentenced to jail for being married. They had a set sentence of twenty- five years unless they pleaded guilty to the charge. Then it would be one year, and they could not return to the state of Virginia for twenty- five years. The movie “Loving Story,” explains how the whole case played out. In the end, they took their trial to the Supreme Court and got their kids involved. Since the Loving in the movie went back to Virginia before the twenty- five years were up, they got rearrested, and that’s how the case got to the Supreme Court (‘The Loving Story’). This case changed the Constitution for marriage when it came to interracial marriages. The civil rights movement has changed so much in the past centuries.

Religious Views, Marriage Equality, and Growing Support

The controversy between both same-sex marriage and marriage equality is nearly the same. It comes down to religious views on both sides. Some people, because of their religious views, don’t support same-sex marriage because God created men and women, and only men and women are supposed to get married, not ones of the same- sex. Marriage equality is how people view and what people believe. For example, some people were raised to marry ones of their own race and not another race.

Since 2015, there has been a reverse on the protected right of same-sex marriage. Ever since the case of Obergefell vs. Hodges, every state lifted the ban on same-sex marriage. Altogether, it comes down to what a person believes and how they grew up. Today, so many people have become more supportive of the LGBTQ community and have become more supportive of marriage equality. At the end of the day, love is love.

References:

1. Guides: A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: Obergefell v. Hodges Source: https://guides.loc.gov/civil-rights-primary-sources/obergefell-v-hodges
2. Fantz, A., Karimi, F., & McLaughlin, E. C. (2016). “Orlando shooting: 49 killed, shooter pledged ISIS allegiance.” CNN. Source: https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/12/us/orlando-shooting-what-happened/index.html
3. OpenStax. (2016). “The First Amendment.” U.S. History. Source: https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/14-1-the-first-amendment
4. “Loving v. Virginia.” Oyez. Source: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1966/395
5. “The Loving Story.” HBO. Source: https://www.hbo.com/documentaries/the-loving-story

The Intersection of the LGBTQ Civil Rights Movement: Championing Equality

The Evolution of Civil Rights and Marriage Equality

There is a lot of controversy in the LGBTQ community. Some people support it. Some people don’t, just like interracial couples. The case of Loving vs. Virginia is a case that changed the Constitution for interracial couples. The case of Obergefell V. Hodges is another case that changed civil rights. There are so many things that have happened in the news with the LGBTQ community. A few years ago, it was the pulse shooting in the club. Then during that same time of the Pulse shooting, it was the “lives matter movement.” That started a whole other issue with this country.

LGBTQ Struggles and Triumphs: From Obergefell vs. Hodges to Pulse Nightclub

The LGBTQ community, over the past several years, has had a lot of controversy. In 2015 there was the case of Obergefell vs. Hodges, which had to do with same-sex marriage. The court basically ruled that love is love when it comes to marriage. This case helped raise the ban on same-sex marriage in the thirteen states that still had the ban.

In 2016, there was a shooting in Orlando, Florida, at the Pulse nightclub. Pulse was a Gay nightclub; one night, a shooting went in and shot and killed forty- nine people in the club. Making this the biggest terrorist attack since 9/11. The shooter pledged to be part of ISIS on the phone to dispatch. Having the Constitution is essential to the United States; we have the right to be treated equally no matter where we come from or who we are. The First Amendment gives us freedom of expression, being who we want to be, and freedom of speech to what we feel.

Loving vs. Virginia: The Case that Redefined Interracial Marriage

Another iconic case was the case of Loving vs. Virginia. This case changed the Constitution when it came to marriage. In this case, Mildred and Richard Loving were sentenced to jail for being married. They had a set sentence of twenty- five years unless they pleaded guilty to the charge. Then it would be one year, and they could not return to the state of Virginia for twenty- five years (‘Loving v. Virginia’). The movie “Loving Story,” explains how the whole case played out.

In the end, they took their trial to the Supreme Court and got their kids involved. Since the Loving in the movie went back to Virginia before the twenty- five years were up, they got rearrested, and that’s how the case got to the Supreme Court (‘The Loving Story’). This case changed the Constitution for marriage when it came to interracial marriages. The civil rights movement has changed so much in the past centuries.

Religious Views, Marriage Equality, and Societal Change

The controversy between both same-sex marriage and marriage equality is nearly the same. It comes down to religious views on both sides. Some people, because of their religious views, don’t support same-sex marriage because God created men and women, and only men and women are supposed to get married, not ones of the same- sex.

Marriage equality is how people view and what people believe. For example, some people were raised to marry ones of their own race and not another race. Since 2015, there has been a reverse on the protected right of same-sex marriage. Ever since the case of Obergefell vs. Hodges, every state lifted the ban on same-sex marriage. Altogether, it comes down to what a person believes and how they grew up. Today, so many people have become more supportive of the LGBTQ community and have become more supportive of marriage equality. At the end of the day, love is love.

References:

1. “Guides: A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: Obergefell v. Hodges”
2. Fantz, A., Karimi, F., & McLaughlin, E. (2016). “Orlando nightclub shooting: 49 killed, shooter pledged ISIS allegiance” Source: CNN, www.cnn.com/2016/06/12/us/orlando-nightclub-shooting/index.html
3. OpenStax. (2016). “U.S. Constitution and Federalism.” Source: OpenStax, openstax.org/details/books/american-government-2e

Unveiling the Transformative Journey: The Civil Rights Movement’s Evolution

Origins of Racial Disparities in America

Since the beginning of America, there has been a separation of races. The white Americans imported Africans to use as free labor, and this is how most Blacks can trace their roots today. The American Civil War freed the slaves, but it was a long, tough road for them to gain equal rights. With multiple court cases resulting in Black Americans gaining their rights, the fight for equality was not over.

Early Legal Battles: Plessy vs. Ferguson and Brown vs. Board

Now I will discuss the Portion of this struggle from the Brown v. Board decision to the black power movement to realize how America came to be what it is today. To understand how the Brown v. Board decision came to be, we must go back to the Plessy vs. Ferguson case. This 1896 U.S. Supreme Court case upheld the constitutionality of segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine meaning that it is legal to keep races separated from each other as long as both races had equal services, including schools. However, keeping these schools separate was far from equal.

A Clarendon, South Carolina case proved there was unequal funding in schools, as the local school board spent $179 per white student and $43 per black student. Also, the black students did not have running water in the buildings or indoor toilets, unlike the white schools. But another case was Brown vs. Board which a black third grader had to walk across a dangerous set of railroad tracks to get to school instead of attending a nearby school restricted to whites. But the biggest argument in the case was that segregation was inherently unequal since it stigmatized one group as unfit to associate with another group. This was found to do lifelong damage to black children by undermining their self-esteem.

Initiation of the Civil Rights Movement

The 1954 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka allowed the integration of races in public schools even though in 1964, ten years after Brown, only one percent of southern black children attended public schools with whites. The Brown v. Board decision was a big start to the Civil rights movement, it gave black Americans a goal to equality. This led to organized, nonviolent civil disobedience as a way for black Americans to get their message heard by the rest of the United States population.

In 1955, Montgomery, Alabama, had a law where if a white rider did not have a seat, a black rider must stand in the back of the bus so that the white rider could sit. Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. She went peacefully, and her message was heard. This began a boycott of white-owned businesses in Montgomery and began a major leadership role of the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.

Government’s Role in Advancing Civil Rights

In 1957 Martin Luther King Jr became a major voice in the Civil Rights Movement when he created the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Also, in 1957, the Government intervened twice in the Civil Rights Movement. First, they created the Civil Rights Act, which within the Department of Justice, spawned the Civil Rights Division and Civil Rights Commission, which would investigate racial problems and recommend solutions. Second, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, to enforce the admittance of nine black students into the all-white Central High School. The Government was slowly beginning to enforce laws against racial injustices, but it was not enough. White southerners, with groups like the Ku Klux Klan, would often use violence against blacks as a form of intimidation.

Nonviolent Protests and the Growth of Civil Rights Organizations

Black Americans, knowing that the Government was only showing very limited support and the court cases were moving slowly, decided they must take action into their own hands. Knowing a nonviolent protest was the way to get your message heard. They did things like organize sit-ins, where beginning in 1960, they would sit in at an all-white Woolworths lunch counter. Soon, all across the South, black Americans were conducting these sit-ins. It was especially powerful for their message when whites would turn to violence, and they would remain peaceful. These direct action tactics helped bring back old civil rights organizations like the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and brought to life new ones like Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

Violence and the Turning Point of the Movement

Another direct action nonviolent tactic started in 1961 was the interracial freedom rides. This was when a Supreme Court decision to desegregate interstate bus terminals was passed. Freedom riders would ride between states in a peaceful demeanor to demonstrate that the law had changed and they were now allowed to do so. White Southerners were not happy with this decision and quickly turned to violence.

A bus with black passengers, as it passed through Alabama, was firebombed, resulting in all the passengers sustaining injuries. The Government soon intervened when President Kennedy sent Federal Marshals to the scene. The Governor of Alabama sent state troops, and they struck a deal to have the riders arrested in Jackson at the next stop. The U.S. Government, at the time, was dealing with the Cold War and didn’t want to jeopardize political relationships in the South.

This was the case in the Old Miss campus, where it took 400 injuries and two deaths before federal marshals were sent in to restore order. These acts of violence against peaceful blacks were beginning to attract public attention. This was the case in 1963, in Birmingham, Alabama, when Martin Luther King organized peaceful protests. The police used high-powered fire hoses and attack dogs against the nonviolent demonstrators.

They physically assaulted blacks and arrested children, all while being captured by television cameras. This was shown to a national audience, and Americans were shocked. This outrage sent a message to the Federal Government that they had to act now to promote civil rights. In 1963, Kennedy called for a federal civil rights law to prohibit segregation in public accommodations. After President Kennedy was assassinated in 1964, his predecessor President Johnson signed the bill into law.

The Government, taking a stronger stance on the issue than expected, added a job-discrimination title and included the creation of a new agency, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). This was a decisive victory toward ending segregation. Turning their sights toward the right to vote brought more heartache and violence against activists in 1965.

After organizing and conducting a fifty-mile march from Selma to Montgomery, with television cameras running, the mistreatment of the marchers gave Johnson even more support for strong reforms. That summer, the Voting Rights Act was passed, which was another hurdle overcome by the peaceful protesters. Unfortunately, the movement was about to lose momentum as the nonviolent protest turned to rage. Violent protests erupted in Watts, a community outside of Los Angeles, California, just five days after the Voting Rights Act was passed. This was accompanied by other riots in other cities.

Shift from Nonviolence to Militancy

Next came the formation of non-peaceful groups like the Black Panthers and the Nation of Islam, who brought a type of militaristic attitude and rejected interracialism in their ranks. They would protest in a threatening manner using the saying “Black Power,” meaning that they had to fight the white race and take them over. These groups fired whites in their ranks that were trying to help their cause. This ended with these groups losing support for their cause and also the fall of organizations such as CORE and SNCC in 1968. They had lost sympathy for their cause and eventually lost funding from whites.

Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement

With the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr on April 4, 1968, and the new violent civil rights groups that had recently developed, the movement had lost serious momentum. It has come a long way since, in a short time, Brown v. Board in 1954, and we, the American People, need to realize it will be a continuing struggle until we are all truly equal.

References:

1. Foner, Eric. “Give Me Liberty: An American History, Seagull Forth Edition.” 2014.
2. Patterson, James T. “The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies.” www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/civil-rights-movement/essays/civil-rights-movement-major-events-and-legacies