Holy War is a kind of conflict fought mainly for religious purposes and beliefs. This kind of war is mainly motivated by religious doctrines, precepts, and texts. The holy war also includes fighting against religious persons, institutions, or even objects especially when the wars main motive is religious aspects. Examples of wars fought over religious purposes and beliefs in the past include The Crusades where Jews, Muslims, and Christians battled over Holy Land (Jerusalem).
Other examples include conflicts between Israeli and Palestinian, Catholic sex abuse humiliation, 9-11 attacks, and Heavens Gate (Selengut 128). Today, there are still extreme groups of people who cause violence with a perspective of fighting a religious/ holy war. Many people have been left wondering how much religion this war is because it entails the destruction and loss of innocent lives.
Those people who cause these attacks normally consider themselves as holy and faithful to Allah making it to comprehend what drives them in a war that results in loss of lives. This paper addresses reasons why some religions engage in war and violence and how they do justify this action by presenting specific data from the book Sacred Fury by Charles Selengut. The study of different religions about the Holy War is also discussed in the paper.
Muslims insist that the reason why they conduct the Holy War is mainly for defense not for offensive reasons. They believe that ranging war against non-Muslims is like a raging war against evil in all forms and ways. Muslims do not see this form of action as brutality instead they believe that it is fighting according to the ways of Allah. Some religions cause war or violence to promote their religious ambitions. Muslims also launch a holy war to defend their religion and also to build their society. Jihad or Holy War is a way of earning temporal and spiritual victory which is more valuable than life itself. Holy Wars are always supported and endorsed by religious leaders.
It is not only Muslims who fight Holy Wars but also Christians, Hindus, and Jewish among other religious groups in the world. This means that these religions commit crimes in the name of fulfilling religious demands. Christians are unlike Muslims because they find it hard to use force as a way of justifying religion. Muslims will easily use any form of violence without thinking twice to promote and protect their religion. According to the Christian faith, they should love their neighbors and enemies as they love themselves and they should strive as hard as they can to have peace with everyone (Selengut 27).
This is why Christians still struggle with when to use force to justify religion. However, there are cases in the bible whereby adulterous people and thieves were stoned to death for sin. The case for Muslims is exceptional because to them they believe in Jihad and this is evident in the number of violence that they had carried out in the past and even today. Muslims will launch a war against those whom they perceive enemies of their Religion-Islam.
In the past, they had launched was against women which were supported by tenets. Islam religion also justifies and motivates terrorism making the situation even worse especially because of the huge number of believers. Judaism is also a violent religion just like Islam (Selengut 108). Judaism believes that their God is violent and thus they try to justify their violent action through this quote.
In conclusion, the Holy War is a kind of conflict fought mainly for religious purposes and beliefs. Every religion has got their reasons for conduction Holy Wars even though it entails destruction and loss of lives. In Muslim society, Jihad is promoted by Islam leaders themselves. Today, there are still extreme groups of people who cause violence with a perspective of fighting a religious/ holy war.
Catholicism is a term coined from the Greek adjective Katholikos, which simply means universal. Catholic was first used by St. Ignatius of Loyola about 107 D.C in a letter to Smyraeans (McBrien71). Catholicism has unique but specific religious and liturgical attitudes and practices. Since the reformation, the term has been used or applied in opposing the Protestants.
What is emphasized in Catholicism is the universalism and orthodox of the Christian faith. St Cyril of Jerusalem describes the universal Church as Catholic because it exists all over the world. Besides, Catholic teaching centers on universality and doctrines that form part of human knowledge. The universality of Catholicism is ingrained in individuals faith because of its practices such as; being a true religion for all statues of people, rulers, and subjects.
The Word Catholic became controversial after the East-West schism of the 11th century and the reformation period during the 16th century. The West demanded itself the title Catholic Church whereas the East, which had a strong relationship attached to communion with Rome, seized the Holly Orthodox Church . After Reformation, those who had communion with Rome retained the term catholic whereas the splinter group was referred to as Protestants. However, modern theologians suggest that Catholics relate to all Christians. The Second Vatican Council of 1962-65 expanded the concept of Catholicity to include churches outside the mainstream Catholic Church (McBrien 4).
My position
McBrien has elucidated well on the use of the word catholic. I am personally convinced that Christians should be united as one. I am also convinced that the church at the chore is one save for differences due to different traditions. What the leaders of the church in our world of today ought to do is to seek ways of going beyond these traditions to embrace the oneness in faith. This cannot be done as a matter of compromise but as a matter of humble acceptance of the truth.
Ada Maria Isasi and Diaz Enlaluncha
Enlaluncha (87) looks into human solidarity as a calling to which all Christians have to respond. In current or common usage, solidarity is used with nuances to the effect that it is a temporal consideration. One is in solidarity at some point and can choose to withdraw solidarity at any time. True solidarity is anchored on shared responsibilities and interests as opposed to mere empathizing (Enlaluncha 89). Solidarity is anchored on true love for mankind or the world at large.
The people most in need of solidarity are exploited many. Through solidarity with such people, the world is healed of alienation. Solidarity is not based on pity but rather on belief in the soundness of the interests of others. Therefore, at the heart of solidarity is mutuality or mutual concern (Enlaluncha 93). If the oppressed in the world are to find liberation, then they have to find strength in their numbers and struggle together for their liberation. The easiest way of achieving dealing with oppression in the world is getting the oppressors to appreciate the benefits of solidarity with the oppressed (Enlaluncha 97).
My Position
Enlaluncha is right about solidarity as the sure way towards empowering the oppressed. Those who seek justice for the oppressed should not do it merely out of pity but out of profound identification with the interests and responsibility of the oppressed. Concern for mutuality should guide all solidarity endeavors.
Christ, P. Carol. Rethinking Theology and Nature
Christ (309) asserts that ecological problems are at the root spiritual. It is often assumed that industrialization, social and political decisions that determine human activities are the due cause of environmental degradation. However, all human activities are dependent on a realm deeper than many are willing to imagine or face; the spiritual selves.
As traditional theologians, philosophers and poets have shown, man is one with the earth and all that is in nature. The idea that reasoning and morals will mean man is superior to nature is misguided. In an actual sense, being rational and moral is a natural disposition; meaning that we belong to nature and we are one with nature. Quoting Susan Griffin, Christs article shows clearly that nature has a deeper intrinsic value that many trivialize through the separation of man and nature; dualism.
Although Christ (316) notes that Kaufmanns conception differs from Griffins conception, they both make sense. Human ability to transcend nature and even self to detachedly look at everything does not translate into our lacking incapacity to feel as one with other beings in nature. Women in society are looked at as a rank lower than men. The dualistic theology of the west tends towards treating the female human beings kind of as less human or not as human as men. Man sets himself apart from other being through social choices. In their struggle to attain rational purity by way of pure reason, western theologians and philosophers minimize anything to do with intuition and our senses or feelings.
My Perspective
I agree with sentiments in the reading to the effect that human beings are neither superior nor different from nature. I am personally convinced that even though a dog may not be as rational as humans are, it has its superior capacities that humans can only imitate. I am also convinced that environmental degradation will reduce if spiritual misconceptions based on dualism were responded to.
Ackerman, Denise, and Joyner Tahira. Earth Healing in South Africa: Challenges to Church and Mosque
. It is argued by Ackerman and Joyner that social disparities and environmental degradation were augmented through the classist way of thinking and patriarchal attitudes. The church can be very instrumental in driving environmental awareness. It is noted that the majority of South Africans i.e. over seventy-five percent are Christian (Ackermann and Joyner 124). It follows, therefore, that if the church can be engaged in environmental conservation and preservations, a lot of gains will be registered.
The church in South Africa has for long identified with the paupers. However, many tend to think paupers have no contribution to conservation and preservation. For instance, one would wonder how paupers would be interested in preserving a forest rather than plundering the same for firewood and charcoal. Ackermann and Joyner (127), note that lack of participation in conservation has to do with a lack of awareness in terms of Gods will. If people can be helped to appreciate that environmental conservation is not only good for human survival but is one way of serving God, they will take to it with all their hearts. Muslims are not different from Christians in terms of their attitudes towards their environment.
Just like Christians, there is male dominion in Islam as well. Further, people have not come to appreciate that the environment belongs to God. Ackermann and Joyner (131) note that it is only a change in consciousness that can help towards environmental conservation and preservation. Apart from a general shift in consciousness, women have an important role to play in conservation. Women suffer most due to environmental degradation and they have to be incorporated in conservation efforts (Ackermann and Joyner 132).
My Position
Ackermann and Joyner have a great case. It is true that in Africa the church is very strong and powerful. People are deeply religious and the majority are Christians. It would follow that around churches, mobilization towards a greener world would work. Moreover, change in consciousness and spirituality can go a long way in making a difference. Women are important in dealing with environmental degradation. However, due to patriarchal structures, they are dominated seriously.
Borg Marcus. The Heart of Christianity; Salvation
Borg (172) points out that one of the worst contributions of Christianity to religion is over-emphasis on the afterlife. One of the reasons why it is wrong to emphasize the afterlife is that people are pre-occupied with the next world rather than using their capacity to care for and transform mother earth. Borg (172) argues that the over-emphasis on the next life is unbiblical. To illustrate that salvation is in this world and thus individuals should face this world with appreciation, Borg (173) refers to Jesus life here on earth.
Jesus in his teachings and actions was keener on how best humanity can live in this world. He teaches his followers how to be each others keeper in this world. Moreover, Borg (174) points out in the gospels e.g. the gospel of John, use the phrase everlasting life as opposed to the afterlife. This is indicative of fact that the desired kind of life begins in this world and is not necessarily a preserve of the next world.
My Perspective
I am persuaded by Borg that salvation as popularly known is a mistake. Individuals tend towards rubbishing life here on earth. They go as far as creating boundaries, excluding themselves, and renouncing life on earth. This is an erroneous approach to life; individuals do not appreciate the beauty of this life that God has granted them. With lacking in such appreciation, one cannot claim to be in union with God.
Borg Marcus. The Heart of Christianity: The Kingdom of God
In chapter seven of his book, Borg explains that the kingdom of God is at the center of the biblical messages. The reason for this is an appreciation that our God is loving and caring; consequently, he is a just God. Borg (126) explains that in the gospels, Christian life is likened to the kingdom of God. Further, the bible goes ahead to frame clearly what the kingdom of God is like.
Interestingly, Borg (129) argues that political passion is at the heart of the biblical journey. In the bible, from the exodus story through the kings of Israel, exile in Babylon, and later the life of Jesus, one can discern passion for a new social order that is anchored on justice. Jesus message, Borg (131) indicates, was centered on the kingdom of God. The metaphor kingdom of God is multifaceted and captures the political struggles of the children of Israel and the reign of God or Gods presence among his people. Therefore, the kingdom of God is not about heaven or the next world but this world as well.
My Opinion
Just as Borg explains when it comes to salvation, we are supposed to unite with the Lord in the now and forever. The kingdom of God is not restricted to the heavens. Therefore, as Christians, it would follow that we have to enter the kingdom or become one with God or follow Gods ways of starting in this present life.
Isasi Diaz: to Struggle for Justice is to Pray
In this source, Diaz argues in support of the idea that struggle for justice has profound spiritual fulfillment and is one way of communing with God our Father. She narrates how participating in a procession had a profound impact on his understanding and faith (Diaz 30). From the experience, Diaz (30) confesses to having realized something profound about the religiosity of the poor.
Narrating her struggle with the notion of spirituality she was introduced to during novitiate, Diaz (31) points to duality in the churchs approach to matters of faith. The nuns, priests, and others in religious orders are considered spiritual while the rest are considered not as spiritual as the former. Duality also manifested in the dichotomy between the body and soul that was created. Drawn by the struggle against the oppression of women due to patriarchal structures, Diaz (33) argues that the more one takes on injustice, the more one feels close to the divine. The gospel message according to Diaz (33) is about justice and peace on earth. Therefore, profound prayer is a prayer of those seeking an end to injustice.
My Perspective
Like Diaz, I have also sought to be more spiritual. However, I noticed that the more I try hard to practice the austere acts like fasting, regularly attending church function, or meditating for long, the more I find myself even drier spiritually or confronting dilemmas in faith. I have noticed that profound faith is lived and felt not as a formal practice but as ones life situation.
Borg Marcus. The Heart of Christianity: Thin Places, Opening the Heart
In the bible, there is a sustained rallying call for individuals to open their hearts. The heart according to Borg (147) refers to the self. Having an open heart or a closed heart as Borg (151) explains has to do with ones way of living. One with an open heart lives lovingly and relates well with God, nature, and other human beings. One with a closed heart has difficulty in his or her relationship with God, fellow humans, and other beings in nature.
Human interaction with divinity is in thin places that are everywhere. Borg (152) quoting Thomas Merton indicates that the thin places are all over but one has to be disposed to seeing them be able to see them. The work of spirituality is to help individuals open hearts (Borg 161). When individuals open hearts then they can find the thin places and in them, they can experience or meet God.
My Opinion
I agree with Borg in the assertion that true spirituality should open peoples hearts. When ones heart is open he or she can encounter and handle other beings with loving understanding. It is this kind of disposition that makes the difference between a holy man and an evil man. Evil men are too full of themselves and out of grandiosity to treat others as objects or tools.
Anne Cliff; Feminist Perspectives on Women and the Church
Cliff (133) points out that the challenge in the church at the moment lies in knowing what to change and what not to change. Over the years, the church has accumulated structures, systems, ways of doing, and ways of operating that served it. However, some systems or aspects of the established institutions are questionable in the world of today. The church is under pressure to reform and champion reform. However, the challenge is in deciding on the amount of change to allow in that will not jeopardize the chore of Christian mission and vision.
One such challenge has to do with the role or place of women in the church. The bible is replete with strong women followers of Christ who worked alongside other disciples in spreading the gospel. However, at some point, the patriarchal structures of a society overwhelmed the initial discipleship as instituted by Jesus (Cliff 135). The Romanizing of Christianity led to hierarchical structures creating inequality between men and women, clergy, and the laity (Cliff 139). Different traditions have also held differently on several issues such as the ordination of women. Such differences in standpoint to the relativity in some of the churchs teachings. Over time, women have become vocal and active in public life. Cliff (141) points out that the church can no longer afford to insubordinate women.
My Perspective
Cliff like all the other writers captures the sense that Christianity requires or needs purification. Over time, Christianity mixed with culture and the thin line between cultural relativities and the absolute truth is not visible enough. One such thin line concerns the truth about womens position as per Gods intent. The cultural practice was taken up and informs what the church holds as truth. To be true to itself, the church has to discern such as practice and reform the same.
Comparison of the Readings
The theme of change and finding a proper social response to human problems runs through all the readings. The first source, which is a reading from McBrien helps bring out how differences in interpretation and understanding led to church schisms. However, there is something universal about Christianity despite the differences.
The second source discusses solidarity. This is a critical element in addressing issues like social injustice, oppression, and inequality in society. As the third source, reading by Christ shows the world would change a lot of human beings understood their place in nature. We are not superior to nature but rather one with it. This realization can serve as a good starting point towards the kind of spiritual consciousness that Christ refers to. The fourth source augments the idea that a change in spirituality would help in finding a better way of dealing with problems like environmental degradation. Ackermann and Joyner argue that if individuals saw the rest of nature as Gods creation and came together to care for it in service to God, environmental sanity would be restored.
In the fifth source, Borg Markus discusses the concept of salvation. He points out clearly that the spirituality that emphasizes life after death is misguided. In the sixth reading from Borg, he again brings out the fact that the kingdom of God begins with our life here on earth. In the same vein, in the seventh source, Isasi makes it clear that spirituality is not about dualistic endeavors that make the body and soul antagonistic. In an actual sense, profound faith is to be realized in day to day struggles for a just society.
The eighth source is a guide in terms of what true spirituality should be about. In the reading, Borg points out that true spirituality to open peoples hearts so that they are open to encounter others, nature, and God. In line with opening our hearts and being keen to test spirits, the 9th source by Cliff urges towards more objective consideration of the place of women in society. Just like Ackerman and Joyner, cliff points out that paternalistic tendencies have for long make women less than men.
From the readings, it is clear that the church has a great role to play in society. The church can be instrumental in dealing with social injustices, environmental degradation among other issues. However, there is a need to revisit traditional theology and expunge from it the life-denying elements resulting from human error over time.
Participation in any type of religious doctrine is a significant element of life for many North Carolinians; there are almost nine thousand churches in this area. Scots and Scots-Irish settlers in North Carolina, for instance, carried Presbyterian congregations with them when they arrived in the area. Furthermore, religious organizations have made significant contributions to North Carolinas culture in several ways. For instance, the states 37 independent schools and institutions were all established by religious organizations (East). In many situations, these affiliations have diminished over time, but the reality remains that these institutes of higher education exist today due to religious organizations efforts.
It is required to establish the background of the Christian Church organization in order to offer a brief history of the North Carolina Christian Conference. James OKelley was pivotal in the Christian congregations foundation and organization (East). He used to be a Methodist, but after becoming disillusioned with the Methodist authoritarianism under Bishop Asburys direction, he left and took a massive number of others with him. OKelley founded the Republican Methodist Church, which was more liberal. However, the Republican Methodists disbanded their association a year later on the basis of a larger concept.
More recently, figures on the rise of Catholic churches reflect the recent influx of persons from the northeastern United States and Hispanics into North Carolina, and retirees who have come to the area seem to have carried their prior religious affiliations with them. However, it appears that denominational commitment has decreased significantly, and people are becoming increasingly likely to swap church affiliations from one denomination to another. In a poll of North Carolina Episcopalians, for instance, it was discovered that a significant number of congregants came from other religions and that one of the most popular decisions to join an Episcopal congregation was because a friend was a member.
Work Cited
East, John P. The Conservativism of Affirmation. The Vision of Richard Weaver. Routledge, 2018. 163-190.
For many years, states have been formed under the influence of religious precepts and moral values. Religion provided a moral criterion for evaluating not only personal but also social life. The church sphere is also subject to some changes, as is everything in peoples lives. The Action Research is the correct way that will help to carry out these changes accurately, considering all the evidence to implement changes in practice. Although Action Research is not a widely used tool in the church environment, it can still help to successfully introduce pre-education into the practice of the work of churches.
The study of actions will make it possible to lead changes in the Christian church effectively. The process of Action Research includes several components, which include participation, engagement, and action orientation (Cassell & Johnson, 2006). Participation implies the work of the churches, which will be aimed at exploring their issues with the help of scientists and other people. The administration is to monitor the effectiveness of each minister and their results. Involvement means guiding people to learn to hear themselves and to listen to the God they believe in. Action orientation helps guide what people get in the church and what they achieve because of reflection.
Action research is a process that consists in collecting factual data that will then be put into practice. This process includes various stages, such as diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. Diagnostics consists of the fact that the person is working on changes working with employees and asking them questions (Cassell & Johnson, 2006). The analysis stage is characterized by generalizing information on identified problem areas and possible actions. The feedback stage brings the employees the information collected in the previous steps. In addition, it is necessary to form goals and an action plan based on the data obtained. The penultimate stage is to implement the action plan and eliminate the identified problems. In the last step, the effectiveness of the plan is evaluated.
There are various reasons why the church is ineffective, for example, the continuous wars between various religious branches. This problem cannot be solved because it is different faith that generates these mass quarrels. The decline in effectiveness also lies in the fact that Christians do not fully understand some of the essential doctrines. To solve this problem, it is necessary to regularly tell people that there is a God, which way to go, and what awaits people at the end of this path.
Organic and mechanistic structures are types of structures that are created through environmental conditions. The mechanistic structure has a high complexity, centralization, and a high level of formalization. The organic structure has a low level of complexity, formalization, and mechanization. These structures affect changes in different ways, for example, mechanistic structures do not allow changes to be implemented, which makes them unsuitable for innovation. Organic structures allow to develop, adapt to the new and be flexible.
Faith-based businesses differ significantly from secular organizations. The motivation of faith-based businesses lies in peoples boundless faith in Jesus and love for him. Secular events are motivated only by goodwill and the understanding that people can do good to each other (Bleijenbergh et al., 2021). Promoting the growth of faith-based businesses comes at the expense of local churches and the Christian companies in which they work. Secular organizations promote mutual growth, that is, from one such enterprise to another, and they are also supported by the government. Stress management in both enterprises comes from the members of the organization themselves, faith-based enterprises are more resistant to stress, since for them the main consolation is the presence of God and Jesus in their hearts.
In conclusion, Action Research is a positive tool that allows you to work with the effectiveness of churches. This process includes five main stages such as diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. There are various enterprises, for example, those that are based on faith or secular. Each of them is aimed at working with people and God, but still these enterprises have significant differences in their functioning and characteristics.
References
Bleijenbergh, I., van Mierlo, J., & Bondarouk, T. (2021). Closing the gap between scholarly knowledge and practice: Guidelines for HRM action research. Human Resource Management Review, 31(2), 100764.
Cassell, C., & Johnson, P. (2006). Action research: Explaining the diversity. Human Relations, 59(6), 783814.
I chose to write about the possibility of the world coming to an end in 2012 because the topic has attracted global attention as a number of individuals have taken drastic measures such as selling off their worldly possession and even committing suicide in preparation for the end of the world.
However, as the discussion in this paper will show, there have been many predictions since time immemorial made by the scientists and religious adherents about the possibility of the world coming to an end, with both sides suggesting a number of evidences to back their claims.
Christian and Scientific predictions
Although there have been a myriad of end of the world predictions made by great minds, one thing has remained constant. According to Crabtree, these predictions have all been erroneous (1).
There have been different types of apocalyptic predictions about 2012. According to The Voice Magazine, an online publication, the bible prophesized about the end of the world but it does not state when this will happen. Jesus Christ gave signs that would usher apocalypse.
These signs include; emergence of false prophets; wars; famines; earthquakes; and deceptions, among others (Robertson 3). However, the world cannot end in 2012 since several biblical prophesies such as the emergence of anti Christ, a unified world, and the Battle of Armageddon have not occurred (Robertson 4).
On the scientific front, there have been technology based apocalyptic prophecies, based on the nuclear arm race which has led to the predictions that the human species is on course from total self-destruction. Some scientists have also claimed that some celestial aliens with superior technologies would emerge and wipe out the entire human race (Crabtree 2).
The present publicity in relation to the end of the world in 2012 is attributed to Harold Camping who has predicted the demise will take place on December 21, 2012.
The Mayans were the first to attempt to predict the demise of the world using scientific methods. The Mayan star-gazer studied movement of stars to predict the end of the world. However, their lack of adequate knowledge about cosmology, the Milky Way and solar system limited their ability to make any rational calculations about the end of the world.
According to the Mayans predictions, the end of Mayan Great Cycle will occur in December 23, 2012. However, there are a number of discrepancies on whether the present cycle of the world will entail the demise of the world itself (Finney 3).
The 2012 proponents
Accordingly, the proponents of the 2012 date make sensible arguments about the end of the world. As a matter of fact, they point to some elements of evidence that general point to 2012 apocalypse. These include a fairly accurate time for the spiraling from the Age of Pisces to one of Aquarius in 2011.
Moreover, the proponents of 2012 show how the planet Venus acts in an extremely exceptional ways at the start and end of the frequently utilized set of dates. This is related with the emergence of Venus on the horizon at the first sign of light at certain precise time of the year.
Cotterell shows this to be a strongly emblematic event to the Birth of Venus, a Mayans belief. Other scientists also assert that the Earth will comes into configuration with the axis of the Milky Way Galaxy on 2012, and that linear time stop working at that point (Finney 6).
According to Islam, there will be a major disaster that will destroy 60 percent of the world population. The continents will shift and given the enormous alterations in plants, humans and animals will die in big numbers since food will not be available. This event is expected to occur in 2012 although the Quran does not confirm this.
The book however predicts that there will be some kinds of meteorites that will alter the earth axis. This will result in the sun rising from the West. During this period, daylight will be prolonged as the earth shifts into a new axis position. Prophet Muhammad directed Muslims that during this period, they should split up the day evenly to observe their praying schedules (Bilal 2).
Islam predicts that an individual, named Mehdi will emerge and assemble the Muslim who oppose the Anti-Christ and fight him. However, Mehdi and his legion will be engaged in a losing war. The Anti-Christ will invade the walls of Medina and Mecca but will be unable to gain entry. Jesus will descend in Jerusalem as a prophet and slay the Anti-Christ one of the gates of Jerusalem.
There are other sign that will mark the end of the world according to Islam: murder will be deemed a trivial act; men will be paid for their reproductive organs; individuals making honest income will be ridiculed while those making income via unscrupulous means will be hailed; Homosexuality will be prevalent and corruption will be the order of the day; incidences of divorce will be prevalent; evil and goodness will be considered in equal measure; men will nurture their hair in ladylike style; and liars will be accepted as authentic witnesses (Bilal 4).
However, the Quran states that neither angels nor humans have the knowledge of Qiyamah. The precise time of the Doomsday is neither stated in Haddith nor Quran. Only Allah knows when the world will end (WordPress 3).
Works Cited
Bilal, Muhammad. Islam: What it says about the end of the World. 2009. Web.
The goal of religious reasoning is to ask questions and provide holy theological explanations for the answers. The fundamental concepts of reason include elements like meanings, essences, causation, differences, and so forth (Bock and Figueroa 3099). One can ask, for instance, what mercy entails and what God discloses via it. This imparts the ability to think critically about theological issues, touching the believers heart and enhancing their comprehension of the mysteries of religion.
Reason vs. Faith
It should be stressed that the two entities of theological justification are seen to be reason and faith. Given that the sources stated above have the same epistemic purpose, it is important to understand how they are related, especially how the first source may enrich the second. These components, according to certain thinkers, could contradict to differing degrees (Craw et al.). Though being more sensible, the reason could offer crucial justifications for maintaining religion. People must have both the right justification and faith in order to believe, as those are the two fundamental components of believing.
People may have a tendency to misapply and misinterpret reason, regarding it as a rule or as being in opposition to God. Both approaches are incorrect. A believer, on the other hand, may only rationalize this or that matter correctly and genuinely as Gods gift (Packard and Todd 503). More significantly, it is crucial to look for biblical justification. In other words, the Bible exhorts readers to learn about the world, broaden their knowledge, develop their cognitive capabilities, and engage in other intellectual pursuits (Wright 14). Due to its lack of psychological and spiritual components, reason alone cannot bring about Christian life and redemption.
Conclusion
A believers spirit, combined with the justification provided by God, creates a powerful force that can penetrate even the deepest recesses of the soul. Therefore, faith, loyalty to God, and realization of His grandeur are all based on reason and understanding. In addition, reason plays a crucial role in comprehending oneself and religion as a whole.
Packard, Josh, and Todd Ferguson. Being Done: Why People Leave the Church, But Not Their Faith. Sociological Perspectives, vol. 62, no 4, 2019, pp. 499517.
Wright, Karen. The Principles of Catholic Social Teaching: A Guide for Decision Making from Daily Clinical Encounters to National Policy-Making. The Linacre Quarterly, vol. 84, no. 1, 2018, pp. 1022.
Bock, Mary, and Ever Figueroa. Faith and Reason: An Analysis of the Homologies of Black and Blue Lives Facebook Pages. New Media & Society, vol. 20, no. 9, 2017, 30973118.
Afro-Christian congregations maintained their fundamental nature from the start of Afro-Christian church activities, directly following the Civil War, until the creation of the United Church of Christ. African-Christian churches and their pastors were fiercely protective of their freedom and control. Afro-Christians politely refused such donations out of strict respect for their independence, integrity, and autonomy, in contrast to many of their Puritan sisters and brothers who had grown reliant on them for pastor supervision and church structures.
Up until recently, they refused assistance from the denomination out of concern that it may come with conditions that might limit their independence and autonomy. They had misgivings about any centralized religious power that resided in international, regional, or national organizations. Afro-Christian churches suffered from a lack of trained ministerial leaders and suitable infrastructure as a result of this independence passion.1 Afro-Christians insisted on liberty and independence while yet being passionately dedicated to community and covenant. This paradox was demonstrated during Afro-Christians annual Conference.
The Conferences control over individual churches was the subject of contentious discussions. However, the high caliber of camaraderie at worship and meals fostered a strong and enduring feeling of the covenant that produced an agreement. In Afro-Christian churches, administration, prayer, and purpose were never complicated. These structures were disorganized. The priests in command of the churchs governance received lifetime appointments. Typically, the board chairperson held that position until death. Preaching, providing for the ill, and burying the dead were the pastors three primary responsibilities.
The declaration that Jesus Christ is the one Head of the Church has been the foundation for the doctrine, teachings, singing, ritual, and mission of Afro-Christian churches. Sometimes this Christocentric discourse came in the way of the formulation and execution of a socially defined vision. Additionally, the deacons, who controlled with an iron fist, did not always act in accordance with their rhetoric. When leading the flock, even passionate pastors occasionally ignored the first Cardinal Principle.
The Afro-Christian churches featured sermons, music, and screaming that were influenced by the African experience. The yelling was quite reminiscent of African dancing, while the lecturing and singing harkened back to African chanting. Religion was mostly an emotional experience; the ability to experience and express faith with intensity and great delight was one of the talents that Afro-Christians contributed to the United Church of Christ.
A tool for controlling overly pushy and aggressive preachers and deacons was provided by the Christocentric affirmations of Afro-Christians, which functioned as both a theological center and a means for affirming Afro-Christians. Members of the congregation would remind pastors and deacons when they went beyond their bounds of authority that Jesus Christ is the Head of this church, not you. 2 The provided features of Afro-Christian churches indicate their significance and peculiarity.
From my perspective, Afro-Christian tradition within the scope of the theme inspires me to be a faithful minister of Jesus Christ. I should note that the previous Afro-Christian churches have undergone and are undergoing significant transformations. Their modest size and narrow geographic scope prevented them from playing a significant role in the creation of the United Church of Christ. But these churches distinctiveness nevertheless contributes greatly to the community. Afro Christians generally embraced the challenge to join the United Church of Christ as an essential component of the new communion. They have enhanced this Churchs broad plurality, humanitarian vision, tenable congregation governance, and soul.
Bibliography
Zikmund, Barbara. Hidden Histories in the United Church of Christ (vol. 1). New York: United Church of Christ Press, 1984.
Footnotes
Barbara Zikmund, Hidden Histories in the United Church of Christ (vol. 1) (New York: United Church of Christ Press, 1984), 30.
Barbara Zikmund, Hidden Histories in the United Church of Christ (vol. 1) (New York: United Church of Christ Press, 1984), 35.
Human thought is inherently dynamic. People need a narrative and a reason to believe something. Eventually, people need to think, investigate, and find roots in the beliefs and thoughts passed down from their ancestors, tell this story, and share their interpretation and narrative. Therefore, one of humanitys major beliefs, faith in God, is a subject of constant scrutiny and re-interpretation of its religious texts. One of such famous interpretations was made by Robin Ryan Anselm on the death of Christ and its meaning. Living in the age of emerging academia and reappearing of Aristotles thought, Anselm was influenced by the Greek foundational rules of argumentation. Thus, his work reflects that impact, telling the story of the life and death of Christ and establishing its connection to the original sin of humanity. Even though Anselms work provides the basics of the Bibles modern-day interpretation, the logic and details behind the argument are still not impervious to the critique.
Anselms Disagreement with the Earlier Interpretations
Anselm disagrees with the details of the earlier interpretations of the crucifixion, providing his outlook on the idea. In the earlier views, according to Crisp, God is merciful; thus, he wishes to free the people and offer their souls immortality by striking a deal with Satan. The life of Christ is a ransom in this view. According to Mills, before Anselm, the beneficiary of this ransom was Satan, who represents not only the idea of sin but death and human mortality. Anselms first and main objection is that this interpretation makes God less powerful, perfect, and omnipotent. At the core of his disagreement, it is unclear to Anselm why God needs to bargain with Satan in the first place. The simple fact that Satan has control over humanity that God cannot overrule goes against the idea of Gods omnipotence.
Furthermore, if God can take control over humans from Satan and actively wishes to do that, why he chooses to bargain instead and sacrifice Jesus is unclear to Anselm. God is all-knowing and all-powerful. In other words, Anselm questions whether Satans claim over people, both of whom God punished, should be respected by God or if it exists in the first place.
Moreover, by sacrificing Jesus, according to these interpretations, God tricks Satan. This behavior is unlike God, who does not need trickery to achieve something and cannot even consider it, as he is omnipotent and perfect. On the other hand, this trickery is more of a characteristic associated with Satan and his seduction of humans into sin. God cannot possess the behavioral patterns of Satan, as the latter was banished from heaven by God for them. It again could show Gods imperfect nature, which is impossible due to the core idea of God as a perfect creator.
Anselms Arguments for Atonement and Salvation
As he disagrees with the previous efforts to interpret the life and death of Christ, Anslem proposes his version. In his view, humanitys greatest sin is taking away honor from God, and people cannot compensate God for this sin,
No member of the human race except Christ ever gave to God, by dying, anything which that person was not at some time going to lose as a matter of necessity. Nor did anyone ever pay a debt to God that he did not owe. But Christ of his own accord gave to his Father what he would never lose as a matter of necessity, and he paid, on behalf of sinners, a debt which he did not owe& He was in no way needy on his own account, or subject to compulsion from others, to whom he owed nothing, unless it was punishment that he owed them. Nevertheless, he gave his life& (Seals and Bush 58).
According to Anselm, only Jesus can repent humanitys sins through living and dying. Any other person except Jesus is destined to die due to their sinful nature. On the other hand, Jesus is the one who Satan cannot seduce and, thus, can protect the immortality of his soul. Jesus, unlike humans, is not bound by the original sin and does not have human imperfection. Thus, his death brings more than any humans, and there appears to be room for bargaining for humanity. As a result of his sacrifice, humans can now have immortal souls if they live morally and do good deeds.
Critique of Anselms View on Incarnation, Original Sin, and Cruxifucation
The main critique of Anslems conclusion is that he presents God as a tyrant. In the most religious interpretations, God is benevolent and merciful. Anselm also claims Gods eventual goodwill towards humans. However, the notion of atonement and repayment for the sins can be viewed in the light of tyranny. Anselm talks about humans taking away the honor from God, but the question remains how mere humans can do that to an all-powerful and all-knowing God. If humans can accomplish that, God must not be omnipotent and perfect. This conclusion can further imply that God can have emotions, which is impossible if God is perfect. Emotions are purely human and born from the human condition of suffering. In this case, humans can experience anger, surprise, and sadness from lost honor. On the other hand, God cannot feel these emotions because he could have predicted that and have power beyond human imagination to prevent dishonor attempts. Thus, people cannot dishonor God because of the idea of God as an all-powerful creature.
If humans cannot dishonor God, the source of the sin remains unknown. If God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and a perfect being, the question arises of why humans are imperfect, can sin, and are destined to suffer. Moreover, for what sin should Jesus sacrifice himself? If God is extremely different from humans, he actively needed to invent the flawed creatures and sufferings for their flaws. This conclusion would imply that God is an evil tyrant who created humans for his sick pleasure. Jesuss sacrifice would also become fuel for this pleasure. However, this idea clashes with the core foundation of Gods perfection. Perfection cannot be evil or good as it stems from its notion. This statement would mean that God is imperfect like humans, undermining the whole interpretation.
According to Koryakin, it is important to remember that societys feudal and patriarchal order influenced Anslem at that time. Thus, it is possible that he emulated the feudal lords in his view of God. The punishment for the subjects was seen as normal and encouraged, which further establishes the connection with the idea of atonement and salvation. Another interpretation of this idea might be more fool-proof. According to Meyer, it is the idea of God being a loving parent instead. This view also contains patriarchal motives, but Gods motivation is argued to be benevolent rather than tyrannical. God placed humans on earth for them to experience emotions and suffering to become better and closer to him in perfection.
However, this argument has one flaw. It is the idea of God creating perfect creatures like himself. If God did that, then there would be no need for suffering. One possibility would be that he is unable to do that or is afraid. However, the existence of such perfect creatures like Jesus dismisses such theories. Moreover, as mentioned before, Gods emotions disprove the idea of God. Similarly, his inability to create anything undermines his omnipotence as his primary characteristic.
Moreover, according to this view, the basic idea of incarnation as God or a perfect being like Jesus taking on the human form is under question. How does an omnipotent and ideal being like God or Jesus even take the form of such an imperfect human creature? The human condition implies being flawed, not perfect, and, thus, the suffering of such beings is justified and happens in the real world. This reasoning would mean that Jesus is not excellent because he takes on human form. However, Bible shows Jesus being flawless, which could mean that humans can be created perfect, but God decided not to for some reason. This trail could lead back to the dilemma of the tyrant or loving parent mentioned above. However, Jesus is the incarnation of God, which supports the idea of a loving parent more than a tyrant, as the tyrant could not sacrifice himself. This trail could suggest that God is not capable of creating the separate perfect being and only incarnations of himself, implying the lack of his main characteristic omnipotence. These statements are examples of how the idea of atonement and salvation can be criticized.
Consequences of Incarnation, Atonement, and Salvation View
In the aftermath of Jesuss sacrifice, people need to lead a good moral life to preserve their souls and honor the painful life and death of Jesus. Thus, the idea of faith and morality was always interconnected. However, this relation does not mean its dependency on each other. Philosophers prove that humans behave morally because of other incentives than faith, including the inherent human willingness to be a good person, fit into society, and other reasons. However, according to Ahn, the connection of morality to faith was used to establish a sense of shame in people and control them in the past on the examples of dangerous cults. The idea of the peoples inherent sinfulness helps perpetrators further achieve this goal.
On the other hand, the concept of salvation gives people hope for a better outcome and motivates them to be and do better. Hope is a powerful tool. In opposition to shame, it has the potential to change society for the better, protecting it from destructive nihilism, according to Sutherland. Thus, there are possibilities for positive and negative impacts on society.
Humans Cannot Judge Higher Beings
After examining the ideas of incarnation, atonement, and salvation, there seem to be some degrees of logical fallacies or possibilities for critique. Every argument refers to the impossibility of God being imperfect and not powerful. This pattern shows the inherently flawed human nature. If God is perfect and humans, as a fact, are inadequate, these humans cannot comprehend the inner motivation and realities of such a creator. This conclusion can also imply the impossibility of finding the correct religious interpretation for the necessity of incarnation, atonement, and salvation. However, this view is not enough to disprove the existence of God.
Works Cited
Ahn, Hojin. A Constructively Critical Conversation between Nonviolent and Substitutionary Perspectives on Atonement: Theological Motifs and Christological Implications. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2021.
Albl, Martin C. Reason, Faith, and Tradition: Explorations in Catholic Theology. Saint Marys Press, 2009.
Crisp, Oliver D. Approaching the atonement: The reconciling work of Christ. InterVarsity Press, 2020.
Mills, Matthew J. Just Enough to Be Satisfied. Forgiveness and Restorative Justice. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021. 57-74. Web.
Seals, Zachary, and John Bush. Redeemed From Death: Atonement, Incarnation. McMaster Journal of Theology and Ministry: Volume 20, 2018-2019 20 (2020): 147.
The religious beliefs of societies affect how they react to daily life experiences. Karl Marx stated that religion is the opium of the people, and this statement is made evident through how religion shapes the belief systems of communities (Pedersen, 2017). For most people, religion is the first sense of community that people are often introduced to, even before they attend school. Religious beliefs affect the ideologies people identify with; hence it determines how political leaders run the government. There are significant differences in political leadership styles, which are influenced by the religion with which people identify. The current influence of religion over political leadership is not a thing of the present; it has been in existence throughout history. In the west, the Catholic Church played a significant role in controlling state governance and peoples capacity to embrace change. Similar to Christianity, Islam also greatly influences leadership styles, especially in the Middle East. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the contribution of Islam and Christianity to change leadership. Religion significantly affects national and organizational leadership and hence it influences the extent to which people are able to adapt to change.
The Influence of Christianity versus Islam in Political Leadership
Christianity is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, who emphasized the importance of promoting love by upholding the virtues of justice and the common good. Countries whose largest demography is Christians believe in the importance of treating fellow human beings with dignity and creating an enabling environment for them to lead a quality life. Human dignity in Christian countries is promoted through the bill of rights. The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee that a countrys citizens are treated with respect regardless of their socioeconomic status, race, or ethnic background (Heifetz & Donald Laurie, 2002). On the same note, Islam countries have a bill of rights; the fundamental rights are justice, freedom, security, and the right to life.
Christian countries promote the common good by implementing the ethnic principle of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism emphasizes the most significant interest for most people, which the government facilitates via public amenities, student loans, security, and employment (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Regarding justice, both Christians and Islam believe that people should respect others and treat each other the way they would prefer to be treated. Similarly, both Christians and Muslims suggest that people that break the law are supposed to be punished for their wrongdoing, hence the need for correctional centers like jail. The concept of punishment is present in Christianity and Islam and is related to the idea of hell.
Although it is not prevalent, forgiveness is present in both Christian and Islam politics and state law. Forgiveness is granted to inmates through pardons, which are given to the lucky few who have improved their behavior. However, Christian and Islams countries differ on the issue of capital punishment. While most Christian nations have obliterated capital punishment, many Islamic countries practice it. Nevertheless, there are several exceptions in Christian lands where capital punishment is legal such as the twenty-seven states in the USA.
Islamic countries believe God is the fundamental law and political leaders are Gods instruments. Unlike most Christian countries, Muslims take religion seriously, and hence breaking rules that the state has passed is viewed as a sin to God. In contrast, Christian countries claim that God ordains quality leaders, but they tend to separate state laws and divine laws (Davis & Jones, 2018). They selectively apply some religious principles in national governance and business leadership. Divinity does not influence political leadership as much as it affects Islamic politics. For instance, Islam countries are more stringent on abortion as it is treated as a crime; the Quran influences this rationality. Abortion in these countries is only the last resort and is only deemed necessary to save the mothers life. As much as the Christian bible advises against any form of murder, many countries that Christianity guides have considered abortion legal. Moreover, the financial accounting guidelines used in Muslim states hail from the Quran. Therefore, political officials in Muslim states have minor corruption and financial scandals because most of their values are strictly guided by their religion. Consequently, business people in Muslim countries uphold the virtue of accountability as there are significantly fewer cases of financial fraud as compared in Christian nations.
As illustrated above, religious nationalism is the tendency for nations to blend national and religious objectives in a manner that reinforces each other. The traditions of Christianity and Islam affect how countries are run and the type of laws passed. As a result, it acts how people can cope with changes even in their places of work. Both Christian and Islam nations are interested in promoting the common good and human dignity for all citizens. Nevertheless, there are numerous differences in the political leadership of countries that mainly subscribe to the Christian faith compared to Islamic countries. Islamic countries are considerably stricter and stauncher as compared to Christian lands. Therefore, in comparison, citizens of Christian countries have a more flexible and relaxed approach to life and are better at embracing change either concerning national law or within the organizational setting.
References
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2017). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. John Wiley & Sons.
Davis, H., & Jones, S. (2018). The work of leadership in higher education management. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 36(4), 367370.
Heifetz, R. & Donald Laurie. (2002). The Work of Leadership. Web.
The post provides a deep insight into the best ways to communicate ones Cristian view to the advocates of Secular Humanism. Indeed, since, in Secular Humanism worldview, the ideal of freedom is the inadmissibility of any form of totalitarianism and the rule of law, it is best to approach its advocates with kindness and understanding. Secular Humanism worldview opposes all kinds of repression and dogma, so it is good advice to build conversation as a discussion but not as an instruction. Moreover, Secular Humanism worldview is based on critical thinking and assumes the possibility and necessity of deducing moral norms without religious revelation.
Remembering that, one should discuss the word of the gospel not as a kind of guidance that we, Christians, take it to be, but as rules that have the truth within them due to their high moral value. Being the adepts of critical thinking, Secular Humanism advocates are more likely to share the beliefs expressed in the gospel when they see them not as a dogma but as the best practices that have been critically reconsidered and have stood the test of times.
At the same time, the post provides good advice not to wait too much from conversations with Secular Humanism adepts since it may be difficult to convince them of the truth of the scripture. Nevertheless, the God told us To be strong and of good courage, fear not, nor be afraid& for the Lord thy God, he it is that doth go with thee; he will not fail thee, nor forsake thee (Deuteronomy 31:6). Therefore, I would not despair if my attempts to communicate the truth of the gospel to non-believers prove to be unsuccessful. Even if they do not believe the Bible, we can still share Christian practices of mercy, non possessiveness and love for all living things and develop relations built on trust and respect for each others differences.