Category: Christianity

The most important thing for Christians to acknowledge is that there is no black and white in the world. Only grey areas that must be navigated carefully exist and continuously call Christians to action. The discussed story is Free Fruit for Young Widows by Nathan Englander, featured in the May 2010 issue of the New Yorker magazine. One of the main characters, Etgar Gezer, learns to understand the grey areas of life through his father, Shimmy Gezer, and his association with Professor Tendler. The story details important events in the life of Professor Tendler, a holocaust survivor who also fought for Israel in several battles. This is an excellent and compelling tale that raises many philosophical issues. I chose this narrative because forgiveness and understanding are crucial in my faith, and I wanted to learn more about it through the story. Free Fruit for Young Widows demonstrates that some core Christian values, such as forgiveness, love, and lack of judgment, navigate people towards the right choices and life improvement.

Forgiveness is an inevitable aspect of Christianity, and it might take a severe amount of strength to transfer anger into gratefulness. This is portrayed in the treatment of Professor Tendler by Shimmy Gezer. In particular, Gezer appreciates the severity of Tendlers past struggles and treats him most affectionately. Notably, it is easy to discredit Tendlers suffering, as is done by a young Etgar, because it appears to be universal in the sense that Shimmy also lost his entire family to the genocide.

However, Shimmy understands that Tendler dealt with the pain of losing his family and being betrayed by his other family differently. He recognizes how Tendlers pain unfurled into mental disassociation and turned him into a cold-blooded murderer with little remorse (Englander par. 30). Shimmy describes Tendler as having been already killed in Europe in the aftermath of the Holocaust. In light of this assessment, Shimmy forgives Tendler for brutally pummelling him and forms a strong friendship with him. Shimmy gives Professor Tendler free fruit from his stall as an act of love and affection for the professor. It is valuable that Christians use others pain to create friendship and love as opposed to judging them from lofty positions of moral superiority. Seeing this outstanding example of forgiveness makes me want to be less judgemental and more understanding toward people since forgiveness is one of the greatest Christian virtues.

Another important aspect of a truly Christian person is being a noble giver. Shimmy Gezer gives free fruit to young widows as well as other members of the community affected by previous wars and injustices. Shimmy packs the womens vegetables quietly and with dignity to cause them no shame (Englander par. 22). Thus, there is a way he assists them so as not to invoke feelings of inferiority or weakness in them. This is one of the attributes Etgar learns from his father by the end of the story as Etgar continues with his fathers tradition of assisting Professor Tendler nobly. The episode serves me as an example of love towards the close ones, Christian kindness, and care. He provided them with food and protected their feelings, and such sincerity determines the true Christian.

Additionally, Shimmy offers his assistance consistently, which adds to the sense of dignity in his giving. Christians are regularly called to charity and, especially, to assist vulnerable community members (Mizrachi and Friedman 2). The story reminds Christians to do it quietly to give dignity to assisted persons. Otherwise, charity, a positive act, becomes a fraudulent show that leaves the beneficiary feeling inadequate and inferior to the benefactor. Therefore, giving people unconditional love, help, support, or showing mercy, in general, is an inevitable part of Christianity. It is challenging for my faith because it takes much work to perform those duties.

One of the hardest aspects of Christianity is not making judgments about others and leaving the decision to God. From reading the story, it is easy to condemn Professor Tendler simply from the number of persons he has murdered. In an ideal world, Professor Tendler has done immense wrong and deserves to pay for his actions. However, the story calls for Christians to be more nuanced in their judgments. In particular, all Professor Tendler knows is death, having seen his family murdered and living in a pile of dead bodies for an extended period. Shimmy appreciates Tendlers past and views him as a survivor who had to make difficult choices to save his life. It can be difficult to understand some of the actions done by others. However, it is not in my place to understand them, and it is extremely difficult to put myself in another position. Thus, I believe this is the hardest part of Christianity when I try to demonstrate acceptance and less judgment. However, I think there is a Gods plan, and everything happens for a reason, so that might help me be more open to people.

In conclusion, Christians must accept and expect grey areas to define their lives. A kind act such as assisting the vulnerable can easily turn into a humiliation for the receiver. On the other hand, people who have wronged us immensely in the past and appear emotionally fractured can easily become lifelong friends if we take the time to understand their struggles. Thus, Christians must learn how to navigate the difficulty presented by grey areas by always being kind instead of judgemental to others who are also caught up in tough decisions. From a personal perspective, this text challenges me to become more nuanced in my understanding of the world. It also provides food for philosophical thought that is necessary for shaping the mindset of a proper Christian individual.

Works Cited

Englander, Nathan. Nathan Englander: Free Fruit for Young Widows. The New Yorker, Web.

Mizrachi, Murray, and Hershey Freidman. Raising the Needy from the Dust: The Judeo-Christian Imperative. Journal of Biblical Integration in Business vol. 24, no. 1, 2021, pp. 29-38.

When it comes to discussing the validity of the Christian salvation thesis, many people tend to do it in an emotionally charged manner, especially if they happen to be strongly religious. The same applies to several non-religious individuals as well: all because they find the concerned thesis much too irrational to be given any serious thought.

Moreover, it also represents a common assumption that since the subject matter in question is much too sensitive, in the politically correct sense of this word, people should avoid expressing their personal opinions about it. Nevertheless, it is possible to provide a scientifically sound and yet perfectly unemotional answer as to whether the Christian concept of salvation should be deemed credible or not. In my paper, I will aim to substantiate the validity of this suggestion at length while exposing the concerned religious dogma to be inconsistent with the most fundamental principles of the universes functioning and also with what neuroscientists know about the formation of ones sense of self-identity (soul).

Discussion

The Christian thesis about salvation is based on two axiomatic assumptions: the existence of God and the possibility for ones immortal soul to exist independently of his or her body. Therefore, before defining the measure of the thesiss overall validity, we will need to examine each of these assumptions individually and show that neither of them can be deemed even slightly credible.

Nonexistence of God

The existence/nonexistence of God is best assessed in conjunction with the famous Theorem of Incompleteness by Kurt Godel (Rajeevan, 2017). According to this theorem, just about any ontological system of reasoning, based on axiomatic assumptions, can be defined as being either incomplete (scientific) or self-contradictory (religious). An incomplete system is the one, within the framework of which a particular argument can be proven neither valid nor erroneous.

A self-contradictory system is the one, within the framework of which a particular suggestion can be proven both valid and erroneous at the same time. The observable emanations of the surrounding reality, however, are anything but self-contradictory: there are no simultaneously existent and nonexistent things in this world. What this means is that to be consistent with how the universe operates (and hence, discursively legitimate), ontological statements must recognize the possibility that they are, in fact, incomplete. This can be defined as the main principle of science. Even though humanitys scientific knowledge is thoroughly objective, it cannot possibly be referred to as being complete.

However, the introduction of God (the ultimate cause behind all causes), as the ontological systems conceptual cornerstone, automatically makes it complete. The reason for this is that the existence of God, whose ways are mysterious, makes it quite possible to prove the validity of just about any idea/suggestion, regardless of how improbable it may be. Nevertheless, if one were to assume that God indeed exists, he or she would be consequently forced to assume that the surrounding reality is full of contradictions, which in turn would enable effects to define their causes.

Yet, one does not have to be a scientist to realize that this is far from being the actual case, otherwise people would be able to walk through the walls and it would be possible to boil water by freezing it. Therefore, is there is no omnipotent God, at least in the conventional sense of this word. The reason for this is that the existence of such a deity would prove inconsistent with the existence of nature, as we know it. It is either God or nature, there cannot be both at the same time. And, since there is no God, there is also nobody in charge of saving peoples immortal souls.

Nonexistence of Soul

The very assumption that God can prevent ones soul from being cast into the fiery pit of hell (created by the same God) presupposes the full objectiveness of the former. Soul is assumed to an entity of its own, capable of surviving the persons physical death. Nevertheless, those aware of the actual mechanics of how ones consciousness comes into being will deem such an assumption erroneous.

The reason for this is that, contrary to what religious people believe to be the case, their sense of being endowed with some sort of an unchangeable personality (soul) is nothing but a mental illusion. As Hood (2013) aptly observed, We all certainly experience some form of self, but what we experience is a powerful deception generated by our brains for our own benefit (p. 2). The human brain (where ones personality actually resides) is not designed to do abstract thinking per se. Rather, it is designed to help individuals to solve different situational problems, within the context of how they pursue their biological agenda.

Such peoples agenda is ultimately concerned with sexual mating, securing access to nutrients/resources, and imposing their dominance on others (Braun, 2015). In this regard, the representatives of the Homo Sapiens species are no different from their closest biological relatives: chimpanzees. While accounting for only about one-fiftieth of a persons bodily mass, the brain consumes up to 25% of metabolic energy within the body when addressing various psycho-cognitive tasks (Falkowska et al., 2015).

This is exactly the reason why most people find intellectual pursuits (such as studying) very exhausting and generally unpleasant. The brain does not tolerate excessive thinking unless this activity serves the purpose of making it more likely for the concerned person to succeed in spreading its genome or acquiring some valuable resource without having to apply too much of an effort. The above-stated provides us with the answer as to why many people are naturally drawn to religion.

By adopting a particular religion as an integral part of their existential mode, individuals can preserve valuable metabolic energy. For a religious person, there is no need to think: religion holds answers to all possible questions. Hence, the a well-established positive correlation between the strength of ones religiosity and the persons talent in making babies (Peri-Rotem, 2016). Such a state of affairs makes a good biological sense. For as long as the laws of evolution are concerned, it is being of very little relevance whether the person is morally upstanding, smart, intelligent, kind, or otherwise. All that it matters is whether he or she has what it takes to ensure the passing of its genes to the next generation.

Thus, the Christian thesis about salvation appears to be deprived of any logical sense, whatsoever, just as it is the case with the religious peoples belief in the immortality of their souls. Enough, there is no point in discussing the specifics of ones existential self-positioning as something that has the value of a thing-in-itself. An individuals sense of personhood is the attribute of his or her body and not vice versa. As it has been shown on countless occasions in the past, the surgical removal of even a tiny part of the persons brain will have a heavy effect on the workings of his or her psyche. This alone exposes the fallaciousness of peoples belief in the immaterial nature of personality (soul).

Even if we were to assume that ones soul is indeed immortal, the purpose of its post-mortem existence could not be anything but biological. The earlier outlined insights into the subject matter testify to the full soundness of such a suggestion. After all, our sense of individuality is a byproduct of how our brain strives to adapt to the surrounding reality, which means that the souls perception of the latter would still be reflective of the cause-effect workings of the material world. Hence, the question that Christianity cannot answer: why would anyones soul be interested in being saved by Jesus (so that it can exist in the bodiless form for eternity), if it will continue to think and act as merely a non-physical extrapolation of its former physical body?

Conclusion

In light of what has been said earlier, it will only be logical to conclude this paper by stressing out once again the fundamental irrelevance of the Christian thesis about salvation. It is no more credible than the Christian fables about the donkeys that talk to people and the Sun stands still in the sky on Gods command so that the Jews may enjoy more daylight. I believe that this conclusion is fully consistent with the papers initial thesis.

References

Braun, C. (2015). Biological costs of the evolution of adaptive behavior and consciousness. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2(4), 377-403.

Falkowska, A., Gutowska, I., Goschorska, M., Nowacki, P., Chlubek, D., & Baranowska-Bosiacka, I. (2015). Energy metabolism of the brain, including the cooperation between astrocytes and neurons, especially in the context of glycogen metabolism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16(11), 25959-25981.

Hood, B. (2013). The Self illusion: How the social brain creates identity. New York: Oxford University Press.

Peri-Rotem, N. (2016). Religion and fertility in Western Europe: Trends across cohorts in Britain, France and the Netherlands. European Journal of Population, 32(2), 231-265.

Rajeevan, E. (2017). Gödels theorem and its implications. The Researchers International Research Journal, 3(2), 87-99.

Efficient leadership in healthcare is a subject that, seemingly, attracts a lot of scholarly interest. It could be linked to several positive outcomes, such as elevated patients satisfaction with their visits or hospital stays and improved workplace relations between personnel. Nursing leadership and management is a complex domain that lately strives to incorporate in its methodology forms of spirituality to varying degrees. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, there seems to be a rise in research dedicated to religious and Christian, specifically, leadership and management in healthcare. This change shows a tendency towards more compassionate and just leadership styles, which in such field as nursing, seem to be indispensable. Christian leadership and management in nursing create relationships between a nurse and a patient built on the notions of empathy and care.

Christian Worldview

Christian worldview could be described as a comprehensive understanding of the world formed under the influence of the Holy Scriptures and its religious community. The framework of concepts that could be found in the Bible outlines the most fundamental aspects of human existence. This type of worldview explains, among others, the conception and creation of the world, purpose, and meaning of life; it provides a system of values and a code of behavior that corresponds to the Bible. One of the imperative notions in Christianity is Gods sovereign power that excludes any possibility for polytheism. The trust in Gods justice and benevolence that builds the foundation for ultimate obedience is the basis of this worldview.

The notion of evil propels the Christian worldview as it presupposes a struggle with an overarching interest for the domination of good. Moreland and Craig (2017) claim that members of the Christian family have a responsibility to promote worldview evangelization, the nurture of the saints, and the penetration of culture with Christian worldview (p. 541). Such a position demonstrates that proactivity is another crucial element in a worldview formed according to the Holy Scriptures. In this way, in the Christian worldview, a call for ultimate altruism and kindness is combined with the belief that evil should be overcome on the personal and global levels. Inherent viciousness of earthly existence, its sinfulness as the result of the expulsion from the garden of Eden creates in Christians craving for continual self-improvement.

The Influence of Christian Faith on Nursing Leadership and Management

Christian faith in nursing has different manifestations; for instance, servant leadership exemplifies its virtues and principles. It could be argued that nursing is one of the career paths that embodies Christian values most completely; the dual nature of the nursing profession necessitates a person to assume roles both of a leader and a servant. Caring for those who need it is a Biblical notion that accompanies the everyday life of medical workers. It is stated that servant leadership is the approach that is endorsed by the Holy Scripture since it balances the need for assertive qualities with morality and humility (Roberts, 2015). The need to achieve a specific mission in accordance with Biblical prescriptions, that is to improve and sustain the health of a patient, is the primary concern of a Christian nurse leader. According to Roberts (2015), the positive effects of servant leadership on medical personnels behavior and performance are described in numerous scholarly works. This philosophy encompasses the wisdom of the Holy Scriptures and opposes more egocentric views of traditional leadership.

Humanitarianism and the Christian faith are two concepts that seem to be strongly linked. According to Best (2020), servant leadership is unique in that servant leaders demonstrate humanitarian attributes. They affirm their intent to be effective leaders and have a set of core multidimensional leadership competencies that enable them to be so (p. 130). These competencies are authenticity, humility, integrity, listening, compassion, accountability, courage, and altruism (Best, 2020). The stories within the New Testament describe merits that concur with the ones that Best (2020) ascribes to servant leadership. Moreover, this type of management can be viewed as a philosophy in itself, as its global aim is to build a more caring kind of society (Best, 2020). In this way, servant medical leaders require Christian qualities and cannot be considered as such without them. This religious value system is deeply ingrained in a number of occidental countries, and thus influences institutional structures within them.

The character of the work that nurses accomplish in medical institutions augments the significance of spirituality for the quality of its results. Nevertheless, the spiritual element is not regarded as a priority in general patient care, and only a small percentage of nurses declare that religious training formed a part of their professional education (Best, 2020). Even though medical workers do not undergo spiritual training, Christian faith had an immense impact on the formation of nursing in general and its management and leadership specifically. Servant leadership became one of the most popular approaches and emerged under the influence of values found in the New Testament and the altruistic doctrine of self-sacrifice that stems from the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Ensuring that the professional needs of staff are met, conflicts are solved successfully, and the promotion of professional growth is the task that a servant nurse leader strives to accomplish (Best, 2020). Embracing the values promoted by the Holy Scripture and adapting them to personal nursing and leadership styles could be regarded as a way to evolve as a professional and provide high-quality care for patients.

Nursing Care Delivery Systems

Nursing care systems, seemingly, can be divided into two broad groups: traditional and contemporary. Relationship-based care system views the rapport between a nurse and a patient as the cornerstone of the domain  this system can be considered as rather a traditional one. Nursing researcher, Hildegard Peplau, suggests that relationship-based care system despite revolving primarily around patient-nurse relationships also requires a focus on the relationships within nursing personnel, and reflexive relationships with oneself (Kristoffersen & Friberg, 2016). The system necessitates an active involvement from different parties of the rapport, as well as participation from team members to design an interdisciplinary treatment plan. Communication is an essential notion to this care system, and nurse-leaders, in this case, assume the role of an intermediary. Relationshipbased care system presumes that a well-established rapport impacts patients and their care-givers therapeutically, thus augmenting further the quality of the care provided (Kristoffersen & Friberg, 2016). Another positive aspect of the system is its collaborative nature, as the decisions concerning any interventions are made together with a patient, considering their cultural background and value system. Hence, the relationship-based care system emphasizes the role that patients occupy in nurses professional lives.

Team nursing is a care delivery system that can be traced back, approximately, to the middle of the last century and still perseveres due to its numerous advantages. The system was designed in the 1950s due to the differentiation of skills that nurses obtained (Dickerson & Latina, 2017, p. 1). Its positive effects arise out of the systems incorporation of the variety of skills, experiences, competencies, and qualification levels that differentiate staff members (Dickerson & Latina, 2017). The collaborative nature of team nursing also results in a sense of shared responsibility for a patients well-being. Dickerson and Latina (2017) state that nurse satisfaction is increased when team nursing is used because nurses feel supported, the environment is collaborative, and staff communication improves. Research shows that team nursing can improve quality and patient safety (p. 1). The utilization of all personnels strengths, potentially, leads to enhanced levels of patient care and has a beneficial impact overall. In this way, this care delivery system ensures that patients have access to individualized treatment and allows nurses to perform tasks in which they can excel.

Primary nursing is a care delivery system that emerged from the dissatisfaction that a group of nurses had with team nursing. They viewed team nursing as such that aims to satisfy first of all nurses but not patients and their families; in this new system, one registered nurse provides care for an inpatient with the help of an assisting nurse (Manthey, 2015). A primary nurse directly cares for assigned inpatients; they also supervise and direct the work of supporting medical workers. The implementation of primary nursing did not significantly affect hospital budgets and did not disrupt the balance in the nursing skills mix and staffing (Manthey, 2015). Researchers ascribe the quality of flexibility to this system, as claimed to be able to deliver nursing care in any setting (Manthey, 2015). Primary nursing centers around the nurse-patient relationship and heightens responsibility for the care provided. Moreover, the family and relatives engagement in a patients care seems to be perceived as another of the systems strengths. Primary nursings impact on patient care stems from the shift from group accountability, as in team nursing, to a more personal one.

Efficacy is one of the primal criteria on which a nurses work is build given a hospitals limited functioning capacity and illness seasonality  both factors affect workloads and work distribution. Functional nursing is a system that aims to maximize the number of assignments executed in a given interval of time, shifting the focus from patient-nurse rapport to performance (Treas et al., 2017). This model presupposes that each team member is given a specific task; for instance, one nurse is responsible for medication delivery, another one for transcribing physicians orders, et cetera. Functional nursing was developed at the beginning of the twentieth century when highly-qualified and versatile nurses were scarce, so each one was trained to perform a specific function (Treas et al., 2017). This nursing care system was advantageous for its time; nevertheless, the outlined above systems seem to be more accommodated to contemporary tendencies in the field. The system, supposedly, is disfavored in the current health care system, since it forces nurses to terminate specific tasks, but not to care for an individual patient. Functional nursing seems to have adverse effects on patients care due to its inherent characteristics, such as performativity, impersonality, and a quantity-over-quality approach.

The Roles and Influences of Leaders and Followers in Health Care Organizations

Even though the people management theory was amalgamated, mainly, for business and administrative spheres, a particular part of it applies to the field of healthcare. Leadership is a skill that demands a specific body of knowledge and dexterity in the resolution of conflicts, people management, and even basic psychology. In a healthcare organization, a leader is required to obtain even more specified skills tool-box. This role presupposes that a person is able to impact the quality and direction of group activities, helping to adapt to a change or produce a change (Gordon et al., 2015). Effective leadership in the context of a hospital alludes to its influence on patient care. A healthcare professional leader is supposed to control that the relationships and potential problems within a nursing unit do not cause concern or decrease patient care quality. The person who assumes or earned the role is also responsible for intellectual stimulation and enrichment of the subordinate staff. Ensuring that a nursing team works to the best of their abilities, but also that their work conditions are adequate and motivating is another vital function of a healthcare leader.

Followership in a healthcare organization has two opposing sides  the experience of a follower healthcare worker yields the role of both a passive observer and an active participant. A nurse in this position is supposed to meditate the given instructions but also be responsible for their completion. It can be argued that the complexity of this role lies in the acute need to reflect on the competence of the superiors, but also exhibit a certain degree of sensible and reasonable loyalty. The influence of a subordinate or assisting nurse on patient care is manifested more directly and instrumentally than that of a medical leader. The role of a follower is demonstrated in its community-building quality. Gordon et al. (2015) describe in their research that when followership experiences were evaluated more positively, and the leadership process was seen to go well, pronouns we and us would be used to describe the whole team, including both leaders and followers together (p. 6). Hence, only in synchrony, mutual support, and respect followership and leadership in a healthcare institution can attain the paramount objective, which is high-quality patient care.

Effective Units Budget Management

The budget design in one of the principal responsibilities of a nurse manager. Managing a units budget necessitates taking corrective measures based on its performance  types and levels of the proffered services may also undergo modification as a result of this process. Budget projection and prediction is an instrument that may also increase the efficiency of the financial management of a unit. Consequently, the units budget should be continually monitored through consistent and precise financial reporting and account-keeping; this would help eliminate gaps in cash and debts to suppliers. These reports help identify discrepancies by contrasting the income from a specific period and expenditures to the actual budget. This type of budget analysis could assist in determining costefficiency, profitability, and revenue growth or decrease. Inventory management is another indispensable part of effective budget management.

Christian Conflict Resolution

When resolving a conflict, motivation to do so should stem from Christian moral values. Generally, the process begins with conflict identification  discovering the root of a problem could prevent energy dissipation and shorten the time needed to achieve a solution. One of the essential things for Christian medical professionals at this stage is to investigate their own feelings and wrongdoings before accusing the other person. Giving every side of a conflict an opportunity to express themselves fully and ensure that their thoughts and opinions are heard helps prevent further complications and misunderstandings.

Forgiveness appears to be an indispensable act in the process of Christian conflict resolution, as this value is at the core of the faith. This step could lead to the validation of the relationships between the parties of the conflict. Depending on their history, the significance of mutual professional respect and corresponding behavior should be underlined for the quality of patient care. Discussion about feelings could help to bring empathy into a conflict, as it allows the persons in question to comprehend the impact of their actions. A healthy discussion based on Christian morals should conclude in the proposals of how to resolve the issue. If every party involved adheres to this approach, it could result in an open discussion that would occur according to Biblical standards of compassion and kindness.

Conclusion

Effective healthcare is partially built on the notion of leadership and management in nursing as it is one of its most extensive domains. The relationships between medical staff can indirectly affect patients, increasing or decreasing the quality of the care provided. In this case, the Christian approach has the potential to bring several benefits, since nursing is one of the activities that crystallize qualities presented in this religion most fully. Caring for those in need is one of the principal dogmas of both nursing and the Bible. Servant leadership is the embodiment of Christian faith and virtues that it promotes; it emphasizes the characteristics that consolidate a call for altruism and the necessity to govern people. In this way, expressions of Christianity in nursing leadership and management are numerous and beneficial for nurse leaders, followership, and patients.

References

Best, C. (2020). Is there a place for servant leadership in nursing? Practice Nursing, 31(3), 128132.

Dickerson, J., & Latina, A. (2017). Team nursing. Nursing, 47(10), 1617.

Gordon, L. J., Rees, C. E., Ker, J. S., & Cleland, J. (2015). Leadership and followership in the healthcare workplace: Exploring medical trainees experiences through narrative inquiry. BMJ Open, 5(12) 112.

Kristoffersen, M., & Friberg, F. (2016). Relationship-based nursing care and destructive demands. Nursing Ethics, 24(6), 663674.

Manthey, M. (2015). Primary nursing: Person-centered care delivery system design. Springer.

Moreland, J. P., & Craig, W. L. (2017). Philosophical foundations for a Christian worldview. InterVarsity Press.

Treas, L. S., Wilkinson, J. M., Barnett, K. L., & Smith, M. H. (2017). Basic nursing: Concepts, skills and nursing. F. A. Davis Company.

With a composers ear, the author tried to document the expression of faith and joy for a community. As he dealt with a vast subject, he has drawn boundaries to limit the discussion. What will appeal the most to the readers is the ways the Christian Community found during the ages and in different parts of the World to worship. In The Bible, we can sense that music has an immense power to penetrate where all the other forces fail and it resonates in every age. It is said that folklore is to the Natural World, music is to humanity. Musics importance was sidelined earlier, but recently the situations are changing. For the last thirty years, Music Therapy is evolved as an effective technique to treat mainly psychological treatments.

Early Christian writers understood the integrated pattern of music. Music synchronized with Gods creation. Music also addresses fundamental issues, and all the religions of the World have used music for the same purpose. To communicate emotion, music is sometimes better than language. In Christian music, the melody is used wonderfully for the same. This has been successfully dominated both Western Classical and popular music since the seventeenth century. The Western Classical tradition earlier believed that music is strictly a product of European culture, but Christian Music has derived many influences from Oriental music, even of the barbaric music.

The earliest music in The Bible is less but can be found in instances. Short lines, rigorous movements, simple texts are some aspects of the music in The Old Testament. Shir and Isharim are two of the musical instruments. Music was an indispensable part of Jewish life; the women participated in dance and music. In the temples, there was an official body of trained musicians. In the Bible, there is a description of musicians in the Solomon Temple. In the book Ecclesiasticus, there is the mention of twelve singers, with lyres and other instruments. Singing was part of the daily offering. Music is a kind of open expression. It is mainly impulsive as the music therapists say.

In The Book of 150 Psalms, there are instructions to the priests about the appropriate works on each day of the week, and music features there prominently. The precise form of singing in Psalms may be doubtable, but many things can happen. It was like a solo singer sings first then others repeating etc. A general feature of Hebrew poetry is it does not have rhythm, but the influence is too strong to be neglected even today.

The synagogue became the place to worship afterward. The style of worship there was based on the temple worship model, so there was plenty of scope for music, psalms. The chanting was based on a single note. This is called Ekphonesis. At that time music had little scope for a spontaneous approach. Actually, it was symbolic, Gods authority, power was represented by music. The two most important abilities of music, the ability to process and symbolize complex thoughts, have profoundly affected the nature of Christian Music.

Christians started to make hymns for the praise of God. Christianity began to spread. They intermingled with different cultures, so the music had also mixed evidently. In the Middle Ages, psalms, hymns were practiced, psalms were popular. The efforts of Pope Gregory are still remembered in Gregorian chant, which may be called the richest of all Christian Music.

Woks Cited

Wilson-Dickson, A. (1992). The Story of Christian Music (pg: 7-32). Fortress Press: Minneapolis, MN.

Introduction

As a rule, war is perceived as a social, political and economic catastrophe that profoundly affects the lives of many innocent people. In most cases, this clash between nations is a cruel way of resolving conflicts.

This is why diplomats representing various countries attempt to avoid violent confrontations between nations at any costs. Sometimes, they even make concessions that eventually compromise their ethical principles and integrity.

Nevertheless, there are situations, when it is not permissible to avoid this military conflict because in this way, political leaders can only endanger the lives of many people.

This paper is aimed at examining the principles of just war theory, which postulates that sometimes that military conflict can be called ethical if it meets certain criteria. Overall, it is possible to argue that sometimes war is the only way to stop injustice or aggression that can be orchestrated by a certain state.

More importantly, people, who attempt to avoid this violation, can face severe consequences in the future. This is the main thesis that should be advanced. In order to illustrate this argument, one should focus on various aspects. In particular, it is necessary to examine Biblical evidence, which can justify the use of force.

The Old and New Testaments can show leaders how to evaluate the moral aspects of a military conflict. Much attention should be paid to Christian theory of just war.

Furthermore, one should examine historical cases showing that sometimes it is irrational to avoid the use of military force at any cost.

Finally, this paper should present the discussion regarding the relevance of this issue to contemporary societies. These are the main questions that should be examined in greater detail.

The origin and definition of Christian just war theory

At first, one should examine the key principles of Christian just war theory which was introduced during the Early Middle Ages. Political scientists who attempt to examine various aspects of military confrontation have often used this framework.

Theologians Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas formulated the principles of the doctrine¹. These theologians attempted to describe the situations when the use of force could be justified from an ethical viewpoint.

For instance, Thomas Aquinas believed that a military conflict should not be driven by self-gain since this motive can undermine the ethical principles that Christians must practice. Moreover, its central motive of war has to be the restoration of justice and peace².

This is one of the main aspects that can be identified. Thomas Aquinas further asserted that just war was supposed to be supported by a well-instituted authority that represented the common good in the form of peace, which was a true end of man that is God.

In addition, Augustine argued that peace was supposed to be the central motive in any circumstances where there was violence.

Additionally, one should pay close attention to the ideas of Augustine of Hippo. In his opinion, it is unethical to promote peacefulness if a person knows that this strategy will result in the suffering of innocent people³.

Augustine Hippo asserted that it was possible for a Christian to become a soldier and at the same time serve God as well as his nation honorably. He also argued that people were not supposed to revert to violence immediately, though God had given the sword to the government of any nation for a justifiable reason.

Hence, Christians as part of the government were entitled to aid in the protection of peace while punishing wickedness. Augustine Hippo, further asserted that, the defense of one’s life as well as that of others could be seen as a necessity in circumstances were it could be authorized by a legitimate authority.

He further admonished that Christians had no choice but only to comply with their political masters while ensuring that they executed their war duty with the highest degree of justice as may be required. Thus, the views of these theologians lay the foundations of Christian just war theory.

Certainly, in the course of history, they have often been misapplied. For example, one can mention numerous crusades launched during the middle Ages⁴. The School of Salamanca also supported just war.

Those who supported the school believed that a state was supposed to use war for the aim of preventing greater evil from taking place. The school also argued that the use of diplomatic agreements were necessary before the commencement of any war.

Some of the examples given by the school as it pertains to just war included;

1. war used in self-defense provided that there was reasonable possibility of success;
2. that preventive war was used in order to deter a tyrant who was ready to attack;
3. war was just if it was used in punishing a guilty enemy;
4. moral limits must be ensured even after war starts, such as by ensuring that innocent people are not attacked;
5. that all other obligatory options as relates to dialogue and negotiations must be undertaken before a state engages in war;
6. the people of any nation have the right of deposing its government in the event that it was waging an unjust war.

Moreover, in the first half of the twentieth century, propagandists justified violence by arguing that some nations had been superior to others. Therefore, one should be very careful when saying that a certain war is just. However, the views expressed by Thomas Aquinas and Augustine still remain valid in many situations.

This is one of the main arguments that can be put forward. Furthermore, it is vital to examine the definition of just war, which can be derived from this theory.

Overall, the just war can be described as a provoked use of military force that is aimed at responding to or preventing cruelty, wrongdoing or other forms of injustice that can threaten innocent people.

This is one of the ways in which this term can be interpreted. Moreover, this military confrontation has to meet the following standards:

1. the right cause such as the need to defend innocent people;
2. lack of opportunities for peaceful resolution of a conflict;
3. proportionality⁵.

The third criterion means that the adverse effects of this war must not outweigh the improvements that it is expected to bring.

This theory is based on Christian philosophy in reference to the evil of taking human life, that nations are bestowed with the duty of defending justice as well as defending their citizens and that the protection of human life as well as defending moral values may require the use of both force and violence.

The just theory gives specifications in the passing of judgments as it pertains to engaging in war as well as providing conditions on which the war should be fought.

The attributes of just war should be considered because they indicate that political leaders should provide sufficient reasons for starting any military confrontation.

Just War Criterion

There are two criterions found in this theory. The first set involves establishing the right of going to war while the second establishes the right conduct within the specific war. The right to go to war was referred to as Jus ad bellum in Latin. This set comprises of several factors that emphasizes on the right of engaging into war.

The first factor is just because that clarifies on the reason behind the engagement in war, it needed to be just, and it could not be merely for punishing wrong doers or rather for the recapture of seized items. This was because innocent lives would be exposed to danger and the proper intervention would be to protect such lives.

The second factor is comparative justice, which holds that even though there may be rights and wrongs on all the sides of the conflict, in order to overcome any assumptions on the use of force, the sufferings of one party because of injustice, must outweigh those of the other party.

The third factor is the competent authority. This criterion holds that, war would only be waged by duly constituted authorities in the public domain.

Justice distinction by systems was important in determining circumstances under which political would initiate just war. A system that undermined the process of justice could not guarantee genuine process of passing judgments regarding just war.

The fourth factor is the right intention. Based on this factor, force would only be used in a true and just cause and mainly for the intended purpose.

The correction of wrongs suffered by states may be considered a right intention. On the other hand, the maintenance of economies and material gains attainment may not be viewed as right intention.

The fifth factor is proportionality. The factor argues that the benefits to be derived from the use of war must almost be of the same amount in relation to the expected evils. Based on the factor, in instances where disproportionate measures were to be used in attaining success, then force would not be applicable.

The last factor is the last resort. This factor holds the view that force must only be applied after all other alternatives of initiating peace have been vigorously tried and failed, or rather the available alternatives may not be practical.

Care must be taken to ensure that opponents of a conflict are not using tactics that are not made to yield meaningful concessions.

The second criteria of the just war theory involves the right conduct within the war. It is also referred to as the Jus in bello in Latin. This criterion explains the way in which combatants should act in the event that war has begun.

The criterion uses a number of factors such as proportionality, distinction, military necessity and fair treatment. The concept of distinction is used to govern the conduct of just war.

The concept holds that, only enemy combatants must be targeted by the acts of war rather than non-combatants who find themselves in confusing circumstances. Distinction concept does not allow combatants to apply such actions that may result to losses of innocent civilians.

Combatants are also not allowed to attack after enemy combatants have surrendered. The sole purpose of any attack must be directed to the defeat of an enemy. The initiated attack must be a legitimate objective of the military.

In addition, the civilians and together with their property must not suffer damages that are exceeding the benefits anticipated by the military. The main aim of this principle is to reduce the number of deaths and destructions that occur in the war place.

The fair treatment principle argues that combatants needed to treat prisoners of war with fairness. It holds that enemy combatants who have already surrendered or rather who are captured need not be tortured or mistreated since they did not pose any threat.

Combatants are not allowed to use any method warfare or weapons that may be considered evil such as the use of weapons whose effects are uncontrollable, the forcing of enemy combatants to fight against one another and the use of mass rape.

Ending of War

Several theorists proposed a third category within just war theory in the recent past concerning justice after the war. Orend Brian, Bass Gary and Lasiello Louis proposed Jus post bellum. Justice after war would be brought using reconstruction and other peace trials. Regarding the maintenance of justice in ending war,

Orend proposed the following principles. Firstly, he argued that there was supposed to be just cause for its termination. He argues that a nation could terminate war in the event that there was reasonable vindication of the earlier violated rights and in case that the aggressor was willing to negotiate the terms of surrendering.

The use of compensations, rehabilitation and giving a formal apology may constitute surrender. Additionally, a nation could terminate war in the event that they realize that the goals of the war would not be attained or rather it could only be achieved by the use of excessive force.

Secondly, a state must only terminate war with the solitary goal of attaining the right intention.

Thirdly, Orend argues that discrimination may be applied in differentiating military and political combatants and civilians.

Lastly, there must be a legitimate authority on both sides of the war for the peace deal to be successfully implemented.

The concept of just war in the Bible

It should be kept in mind that the idea of just war is not directly mentioned in the Bible. This text does not include an explicit argument regarding the ethical justification of violence and the use of military force.

Nevertheless, there are several examples indicating that military conflict is an inseparable component of human history.

This issue is explored in the Old and New Testaments. One can say that in many cases, God sometimes commands the acts of violence and coercion.

First, much attention should be paid to the Plagues of Egypt, which are described in the Book of Exodus. The punishment was supposed to make the Pharaoh release Jews from captivity⁶. One should bear in mind that at the beginning, God attempted to avoid the victimization of innocent people.

For instance, Egyptians had to face such punishments of locust, hail, or darkness. Moreover, the death of first-born children was the last plague or the last method of forcing the Pharaoh to free the Jews.

This example is important for this discussion because it suggests that violence can sometimes be the means of preventing injustice⁶. However, this coercion should be the means that can be adopted only if there are no other alternatives.

To a great extent, these actions can also be described as the Biblical conception of a just war. There are other examples military acts commanded by God.

For instance, one can mention the fall of Jericho in Josh. 6:21. However, they do not quite comply with the standards of just war theory because these conquests were driven primarily by self-interest, rather than the struggle with evil⁶. Therefore, one should keep in mind that Christian theory of just war does not always comply with the examples provided in the Old Testament. This is one of the key points that should be made.

One should also focus on the way in which the theme of just war is explored in the New Testament. Sometimes, people argue that Jesus Christ advocated pacifism and avoidance of confrontation. Yet, this assumption is not quite accurate.

Additionally, it is possible to refer to the famous words of Jesus who said in the Mathew 10:34, ‘I come not to bring peace, but to bring a sword’. This phrase has been interpreted in many ways. Sometimes, it can be perceived as the open provocation of violence⁷.

Yet, such an interpretation does not take account the context of this quote. One of the possible explanations is that it is not permissible for a person to tolerate or accept evil. More likely, such an attitude will lead to the compromise of one’s moral principles. To a great extent, this behavior is self-destructive.

Apart from that, one should mention that Jesus also recognizes the person’s right to self-defense⁷. For instance, it is possible to examine the following quote from Luke. 22:36.

‘Let him who has no sword sell his mantle and buy one’.

This indicates how Jesus acknowledges the use of legitimate force. It suggests that a person has a right to oppose injustice⁷. However, at the same time, the New Testaments contains several passages, which show that a person should not perceive violence as the only way of resolving disagreements.

For example, one can mention the Sermon, which took place on the Mount during which Jesus set very high moral standards for an individual. On the mountain, Jesus said that in the event that an individual struck on your right cheek, you should turn him the other in return⁸.

In addition, Jesus used the Beatitudes in telling people that those who were peacemakers were blessed. Overall, Thomas Aquinas and Augustine of Hippo later elaborated these principles⁷. This is one of the details that should be considered.

In broader terms, Christians are not allowed to love violence, they are supposed to promote peace always, and at the same time, they should be slow while resulting to the use of force. Additionally, they are not supposed to be afraid in using force when it is needed. The theory further holds that all evil must always be checked⁸.

In the Bible, in the book of Eccles. 3:3, the Old Testament gives an acknowledgement that there was a time to kill. The Israelites were commanded by God in several occasions to apply force in order to ensure maximum protection of their countries.

In spite of this, the achievement of peace was the solitary goal behind such actions. Hence, the attainment of peace was an important goal, but in instances where it was impossible to achieve it without force, then force must be used instead.

The psalmists, also urges individuals to live with each other as brothers while maintaining peace. New Testament in several instances also acknowledges the use of force. In Luke 3: 14, John the Baptist, acknowledged that the Roman soldiers could keep their job of enforcing peace in Rome.

Overall, one should not assume that Bible promotes unrestricted violence. This text also contains a system of checks and balances that are supposed to prevent a person from committing injustice in the course of military confrontation. Any war that is supposed to be just has to comply with certain ethical principles.

For instance, one should refer to the famous commandment an eye for an eye⁹. Traditionally, this principle implies that a punishment should not exceed the crime of a person. In other words, the retribution is supposed to be the standard of proportionality.

This argument can also be applied to a military conflict and the use of force. To some degree, this principle is of great relevance to modern political leaders. As a rule, they strive to ensure the military action should be proportionate to the possible risks that are posed by an enemy state.

In particular, they should safeguard non-combatants against possible dangers. These examples are vital for better understanding of this question because they suggest that the Bible can indeed offer moral justification for war.

However, this text also shows that a person has to have some solid reasons in order to inflict violence against other people. This is the main issues that should not be overlooked by modern policy-makers who believe that violent confrontation is the only possible way of addressing current problems¹⁰.

The relevance of Biblical arguments to the modern world

The principles of Christian war theory and Biblical arguments can be applied to modern communities, which can be affected by geopolitical and economic conflicts. It is important to remember that the preservation of peace can be viewed as a common duty and a common good.

This is one of the opinions expressed by people who believe that different states can eventually reconcile their interests by join their efforts⁸. The reference to this concept can be found in the New Testament.

For example, the Epistle of Barnabas contains the following quote, ‘Do not live entirely isolated, having retreated into yourselves, as if you were already justified, but rather instead to seek the common good’⁹.

People who belong to the Catholic Church often use this argument¹⁰. This quote implies that it is impermissible for an individual to remain indifferent to the wrongdoings that can be committed in the outside world.

As a rule, this indifference can imperil the long-term interests of a person or even the entire community. In many cases, this principle can be applied to international politics. For instance, the work of many international organizations is supposed to avert the risks of violence committed against innocent people.

Very often, military intervention is the only way in which countries can cope with this challenging task. Therefore, one can argue that sometimes the ability to use force is critical for the preservation of peace.

Certainly, one can say that modern societies as well as international relations are driven mostly by self-interest, rather than common good. In fact, it may sometimes be irrational to expect the government of a country to work for the interests of other nations.

The objection means that the ethical principles postulated in the Bible can only be proclaimed but not practiced. Similarly, it is possible to argue that economic interests, rather than the need to restore justice or save innocent people drive the so-called just wars.

This critique should not be disregarded since it shows how political leaders can misuse the principles of just war theory. Nevertheless, this limitation does not mean that the idea of just war is completely unfounded. This is one of the key aspects that should be taken into consideration.

The theory of just war and its applications in the course of history

Moreover, it is important to mention historical cases indicating that sometimes-military conflict was practically unavoidable. Just war was well applied during World War 1. This happened in the 1917, when President Wilson Woodrow of US waged war against Germany.

It was then that the US Catholic head, Cardinal Gibbons James of Baltimore issued a letter to all Catholics urging them to support the war.

William Manning, the New York’s Episcopal bishop argued that Jesus Christ was in support of peace and every American would rather face war than seeing the country’s flag lowered with dishonor.

William then argued that it would be of practical benefit for the country, if all men in the country underwent a universal military training. There were situations when the governments of various countries attempted to ignore aggression.

Such a strategy is often described as ostrich policy, which means that people are unwilling to recognize a problem as well as the need for action. The key issue is that this policy eventually results in a war but its consequences eventually prove to be much more severe than it was expected.

The most eloquent example of this phenomenon is World War II, which was partly caused by the fact that the political leaders representing European nations attempted to appease the Third Reich¹¹.

Additionally, they even signed various treaties with this country. They hoped that this approach would be the safest one. Yet, they forgot that such appeasement could be perceived as a sign of weakness or lack of preparedness.

Later when the Allies struggled against the Nazis, they believed that this war had been just. At that point, they were fighting against a regime that was ready to kill millions of people in order to attain its goals.

This is one of the main issues that should not be overlooked. This case continues to attract the attention of people who study the underlying causes of wars and their ethical aspects. It is usually used to justify a preventive war.

There are recent examples indicating that military intervention can be justified from an ethical viewpoint. For instance, it is possible to refer to Rwandan Genocide which originated from the internal hostilities within a country¹².

The main problem is that international organizations were reluctant to intervene even though international leaders knew about the eminent danger. They preferred to believe that the conflict could be resolved without any external intervention. However, this unwillingness to act led to the death of many innocent people.

In this context, the international intervention cannot be described as war because under such circumstances, peacekeepers are mostly concerned with the need to save civilian population¹³. However, in order to do it, they sometimes have to use military force.

These historical examples show that military confrontation can sometimes be the only way of protecting the safety of people. Moreover, sometimes the avoiding of war can be immoral. This issue is still important for politicians and diplomats who determine which course of action is most appropriate.

The principle of proportionality and asymmetrical warfare

One should take into consideration that the just war should meet certain criteria. They were described in the previous sections of this paper. At first, one should note that the expected benefits of this military intervention should be equal to the anticipated adverse effects¹³.

For instance, it is permissible to start a war provided that it can result even in greater dangers for innocent people¹⁴. As it has been said before, this use of force should not exceed the possible threat posed by the opponent.

This is one of the reasons why military leaders have to make sure that the lives of civilians are not imperiled. Surely, it is possible to say that this principle is often violated even at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Such skepticism can be accepted only to some extent.

However, in the course of the last fifty years, the principles of warfare have changed, since nowadays military leaders take at least some effort to protect non-combatants. This is one of the main aspects that can be identified¹⁵.

Another issue that is closely discussed by politicians and military commanders is asymmetrical warfare. This term is applied to the conflict between opponents who differ in terms of military power and techniques. For example, one can mention the war between the Israeli Army and Hamas.

Under such conditions, a country, which is more advanced in terms of technology or weaponry, is responsible for making sure that the civilian population is safeguarded against possible risks. Provided that, this government does not attempt to attain this objective, their war is not considered to be just¹⁵.

One can say that just war theory continues to be debated by many political leaders nowadays. At this time, this question can be even more important because many countries possess weapons of mass destruction.

Conclusion

Overall, this discussion indicates that the principles of just war theory continue to attract the interests of policy-makers, military leaders, economists as well as theologians.

The examples provided in this paper indicate that war can sometimes be justified from an ethical viewpoint, especially if there is no other method for stopping cruelty, injustice, or even annihilation of many people.

This argument can be derived from various religious texts such as the Old and New Testaments. Moreover, there are historical cases, which suggest that war should be the lesser of two evils.

Under certain circumstances, it is unethical to avoid confrontation at any cost because this policy can bring disastrous consequences such as greater casualties among civilians and soldiers.

Nevertheless, it is vital to make sure the war is driven by just cause, rather than by prejudice or self-interest. This is the main precaution that should be taken.

Bibliography

Barnes, Rudolph. Military Legitimacy: Might and Right in the New Millennium. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Bell, Daniel. Just War as Christian Discipleship: Recentering the Tradition in the Church Rather than the State. London: Scott Sterling, 2009.

Brueggermann, Watler. Journey to the Common Good. London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010.

Brunschot, Erin. Risk balance and security. London: Sage Publications, 2007.

Cadoux, C. John. The Early Christian Attitude toward War. New York: Gordon Press Publishers, 1978.

Corbin-Reuschling, Wyndy. Reviving Evangelical Ethics. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2008. ISBN: 9781587431890.

Gardam, Judith. Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.

Geisler, Norman. Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010. ISBN: 9780801038792.

Fiala, Andrew. The Just War Myth: The Moral Illusions of War. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.

Hand, Stephen. Catholic Voices in a World on Fire. New York: Lulu, 2005.

Kaiser, Walter. C. What Does the Lord Require? A Guide for Preaching and Teaching Biblical Ethics. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. ISBN: 9780801036361.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The crusades: a history. London: Yale University Press, 2005.

Stevenson, William. Christian Love and Just War: Moral Paradox and Political Life in St. Augustine and His Modern Interpreters. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1987.

Swetland, Kenneth. L. Facing Messy Staff in the Church: Case Studies for Pastors and Congregations. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2005. ISBN: 9780825436963.

Wilkens, Steve. Beyond Bumper Sticker Ethic: An Introduction to Theories of Right and Wrong. 2nd ed. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2011. ISBN: 9780830839360.

Footnotes

¹ Daniel Bell, Just War as Christian Discipleship: Recentering the Tradition in the Church rather than the State (London: Scott Sterling, 2009), 3.

² William Stevenson, Christian Love and Just War: Moral Paradox and Political Life in St. Augustine

And His Modern Interpreters (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1987), 5.

³ Jonathan Riley-Smith, The crusades: a history. London: Yale University Press, 2005, 10.

⁴ Judith Gardam. Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States. (London: Cambridge, University Press, 2004), 9.

⁵ Andrew Fiala, The Just War Myth: The Moral Illusions of War (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 12.

⁶ Rudolph Barnes. Military Legitimacy: Might and Right in the New Millennium (New York:

Routledge, 2013), 22.

⁷ Steve Wilkens, Beyond Bumper Sticker Ethic: An Introduction to Theories of Right and Wrong. 2nd ed. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2011, 8.

⁸ Kenneth Swetland. L. Facing Messy Staff in the Church: Case Studies for Pastors and Congregations. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2005, 22.

⁹ John Cadoux, The Early Christian Attitude Toward War (New York: Gordon Press Publishers, 1978), 10.

¹⁰ Watler Brueggermann, Journey to the Common Good (London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010), 10.

Bar. 2:11.

¹¹ Stephen Hand, Catholic Voices in a World on Fire (New York: Lulu, 2005), 50.

¹² Erin Brunschot, Risk balance and security, (London: Sage Publications, 2007), 89.

¹³ Kaiser Walter. C. What Does the Lord Require? A Guide for Preaching and Teaching Biblical Ethics. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009, 13.

¹⁴ Norman Geisler, Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2010, 7.

¹⁵Wyndy Corbin-Reuschling, Reviving Evangelical Ethics. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2008, 17.

Introduction

Jarvis Christian College was founded in 1912 as an institution for higher education for the colored and it was affiliated to Disciples of Christ Church. Since its foundation, this institution has been known for its excellence in sports. The institution is known to promote talent among its student population in various fields. As such, it has gained popularity among college students who feel that they have a talent in a given area of sports. The sports complex that is currently in use is incapable of meeting the varying sporting needs of students at this college. In the past, volleyball, basketball, netball, and bowling were the popular sports given emphasis at this college. However, other sports such as cricket, tennis, gymnastics, swimming, badminton, and squash are also growing in popularity. The management of this institution, known for its love for sports, has the responsibility of ensuring that its sports complex is capable of supporting various sports for the benefit of students of this college.

The campus sits on a 1,000 acres piece of land that is expected to offer the needed space for administration, boarding, classes, recreational, and sporting facilities. There is need to utilize the land very appropriately to ensure that adequate space is created for all the needed facilities. That is why in this proposed sports complex, courts and fields for various sports will be integrated as shown in the figure below. Within such a relatively small compound, there will be a basketball/netball court, tennis/volleyball court, swimming pool, cricket pitch, bocce/ten-pin bowling, badminton/squash court, gymnastics floor (taekwondo/judo, boxing, and karate), and a space for snooker, and table tennis. Below is the aerial view of where the complex should be built.

Scope of the project

This project seeks to create a complex where all forms of sports currently popular in the United States can be played within a limited compound. The scope of the project is to offer a plan to the management of a possible creation of a new sports complex. It is the mandate of the school to determine whether or not the plan should be implemented. The project only provides the plan, proposed budget, proposed timeline, and the benefits that it will offer to the students once it is completed.

Purpose and vision of the project

The vision of this project is to create a multi-disciplinary sports complex where students with different sporting talents and interest can practice and play within the campus without having to visit other sporting facilities outside this institution. The purpose is to maximize the limited space within the compound to offer students sporting facilities that meet their needs.

How it will benefit students

This complex will be of great benefit to students of Jarvis Christian College. This college has students who are talented in various sports and they need facilities that can enable them practice and play within the compound. If implemented, this project will transform lives of many students who see their future in various sporting careers. They will have a rare opportunity to practice various sports at professional level. It is for these reasons that the management of this college should seriously consider implementing the plan.

Usage and Flexibility

The complex is designed in a unique way as to meet varying sporting needs of students in this institution. As mentioned above, the design takes into consideration the fact that the school has limited space but the demand for sporting services is highly varied. To ensure that space is created for different sports, the complex is design to integrate various sports in a limited space. The design took into consideration popularity of various sports in the college and the space that they need.

The facility offers a space where tennis or volleyball, basketball or netball, badminton or squash, hockey, cricket, gymnastics, snooker, swimming, and badminton can be played simultaneously. It means that tennis and volleyball will be sharing the same pitch. The same applies to netball and basketball, bowling, and badminton and squash. This kind of arrangement was made after it was determined that a good number of those playing netball are the same people who play basket ball. It is also possible for basketball and netball players to practice in the same pitch at the same time, with each using half of the field. The figure below shows the proposed plan for the complex.

As shown in the above plan, gymnastic floor is expected to meet the needs of students who want to practice taekwondo/judo, boxing, and karate. These are sports which are growing in popularity among students. The space will also be used as a gym where any student interested in keeping physically fit can visit. Students with special needs interested in playing table tennis or snooker will also have their needs effectively met within the complex. It is important to note that the complex does not include field for soccer, rugby, and baseball. This is so because the institution already has standard fields for these very popular sports and in this proposal it is believed that they should remain the way they currently are because they are meeting the expectations of the college students. The complex also lacks a locker room because the one currently available can meet the current needs. Given that it is close to the locker room, it was considered unnecessary for it to have its own locker room. The flexibility of this pitch means that the institution will not be forced to purchase more land for the purpose of meeting its sporting needs.

Finance

In this project, it was not only the space that the team needed to maximize but it was also necessary to minimize the cost of putting it up. The entire complex will be an open space hence the construction materials will be less expensive and the process itself will be simple. The figure below shows an image of part of the complex upon completion and the type of construction and materials that will be needed.

The new sports complex is expected to cost about $ 2.0 million based on the current cost of the needed labor and materials that will be used for the construction. The cost is inclusive of a possible inflation, which is possible given the expected change of regime and the toll that election has had in the American society and miscellaneous costs that may arise during the process of implementing the project. The following table is a proposed budgetary allocation for this project.

Table 1: Proposed budget

It is important to note that the project is planned in a way that the contractors who is assigned the task of constructing the hardwood floors, basketball rims and stands, concrete footings and slab, and paving and landscaping are expected to purchase the materials needed for their tasks as per the agreed quality and pay for the labor from the assigned budget. It means that the amount of money set aside for these tasks, as shown in the table above, include cost of labor and materials. The table below shows the expected sources of income for this project.

Table 2: Sources of income

As shown in the table above, the main sources of income for this project will be grant from the government and budgetary allocation by the college administration. The project can also get a loan from the commercial banks to help realize the set objectives. The pie-chart below shows the sources of fund in terms of their share percentage.

The figure below shows an example of the activities that will take place when preparing the ground for the project.

Once the project is completed, it is expected that there will be costs associated with its maintenance, as proposed in the section below.

Timeline

This is an important project that will significantly transform sporting activities in this college. It is also going to cost this college a lot of money. The college must get the value from this project as soon as possible. It is, therefore, important to ensure that the project is completed within the shortest time possible. To ensure that the project is completed within the desired time, it is important to come up with an appropriate timeline for all the activities involved in the project. Coming up with such a timeline helps in determining when every activity should be completed. It identifies the time within which every contractor must complete the assigned task to ensure that the value for this project is achieved as per the project’s plan. The Gantt chart below shows the duration each of the major activities should be completed.

Timeline of the Activities in Project

As shown in the table above, development of the proposal will take about one month because it is already clear what is needed and how the need can be met. The approval needed from the college administration is also expected to take another month. The administration will need to make necessary consultations before giving the approval. During the same period, approval from the government will be sought. When the approval is given, the stakeholders involved in the project will take one month to get initial funding to start the project. Within that one month, the initial funding will be expected to come from the administration. Funding will be continuously received for the entire period that the project will be in the process of implementation. Loan from the commercial banks and grants from the government may take more than one month. Immediately after receiving the initial funding, the project will commence on January 1, 2017. For the entire year, construction activities will take place and by December 31, 2017, the project shall be completed.

Barriers

When undertaking this project, a number of barriers may be met, and it is important to find a way of overcoming them. One of the possible barriers may be failure to get the needed approval needed from the administration or the government. Without these two approvals, this project cannot commence. As such, the stakeholders will need to put a compelling case that will convince both the administration and the government about the need to undertake this project. Another barrier may be lack of resources to fund the activities of the project. To manage this problem, the team will need to convince the government and the college administration about the need to support the project. This institution can also access loan from commercial banks.

The management will be convinced to go for bank loan to support part of the total cost that cannot be supported by this project. The cost of this project should be repaid through yearly school fees paid by the students. The repayment period can be spread through a period of about 10 years. It means that the burden of repaying this loan will not only be limited to the current students but also future students who will also benefit from these facilities for the next ten years. The parents, who are expected to bear the cost, should be duly informed about these arrangements.

The final decision about the implementation of this project should be made by the government and the administration of the college. The college administration must be convinced about this project and give its approval for the project to be implemented. The college must also seek for government’s approval for the project to commence. It means that although the final decision is to be made by the school’s administration, some forms of approval will be needed from the government. Consensus should be made to ensure that there is a universal agreement to undertake the project. To get this consensus, the parents should be duly informed to ensure that they do not reject the project.

The school’s administration and the government will also be informed about the need for the project and the benefit it will have on students. I will try to get the support of the students to help push the agenda for the project. These students are better placed to convince their parents that this project is important to them and therefore, needs to be implemented. The community within which this college is situated is known for its support for sports. As such, it is likely that the project will receive approval of the community. With the community’s approval, it is likely that the government will support it. The college’s administration will also be pressured to support implementation of the project.

Governmental Approval Overview

The proposed project will have significant impact on the environment, parents, students, the college itself, and the environment. Its significance means that it has to get permit from various government institutions before it can be allowed to commence. It is important to look at how these approvals can be obtained to make sure that this project is undertaken as per the plan. The following are the governmental organization that must give their approval.

State, county, and city approval

The state, county, and city authorities must give approval for this project to take place. At this level, the concern of the authorities will be to determine if the project will have significant impact on the security and safety of the students and the immediate community. It will also look at whether the proposed project is in line with the national government’s policies and regulations regarding co-curriculum activities. This project will not face any serious challenge getting the needed permit at this level.

School district approval

The school district will also be responsible for giving approval for this project. The stakeholders will need to convince authorities at this level that this project will not only help students of Jarvis Christian College but also other students within the district, especially in cases where this college hosts district tournaments for various sports.

College/university system

College authorities will be interested in determining the financial implications of this project on the college. The college will be keen to avoid costs that may burden the college. In this project, it has been explained how funds used in this developmental project will be recovered.

Environmental organization’s approval

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) will be conducted by the relevant government authority to get the needed environmental permit for this project. This project will not have devastation impact on the environment. As such, it is unlikely that the permit will be denied.

Mgmt. /Maintenance

Once the complex is completed, the management and maintenance will be directly under the leadership of the college’s administration. It will have the responsibility of ensuring that the complex is maintained, issues of repair addressed, and that complex remains in good state. The chart below shows the leadership structure in terms of management of the complex.

As shown in the above figure, the principal will be the senior most authority responsible for the management and maintenance of this complex. He will delegate the responsibility of managing this complex to the sports director who must always report to him on a regular basis when any issue arises. The athletics director, gymnastics director, and director of indoor games will be directly responsible for managing the courts and facilities within their jurisdiction. They are answerable to the sports director.

Conclusion

Jarvis Christian College has a rich history not only in academics but also in sports. This project proposes development of a complex that will enable students interested in various games to have enough space to practice and play. The complex is relatively less costly, but it will greatly benefit students of this college, including those with special needs. It will completely transform sporting in the college as it will make it possible for students to try their skills in different games, including students with special needs. The college will also be capable of hosting major sporting events. If completed as proposed, the complex will offer this college competitive advantage over its market rivals. It will make it more attractive.

The Most Human Human: What Artificial Intelligence teaches us about Being Alive, is a chef-d’oeuvre book by Brian Christian. The book highlights how computers are slowly becoming “human” courtesy of the undergoing technological revolution. In addition, the author explores how human beings behave like computers. Conventionally, the book underscores how computers shape the idea of being ‘human’ in the eyes of different people. The book has numerous strengths and weaknesses, just like any other popular science book.

This paper gives a critical analysis to Brian Christian’s masterpiece work, The Most Human Human: What Artificial Intelligence teaches us about Being Alive, by highlighting its strengths and weaknesses.

The first clear-cut strength of this book is the wide application of study areas right from the beginning. Brian Christian has extensive knowledge in poetry, philosophy, and computer science, and this aspect helps the author to cover a wide array of subjects concerning humanity. The book is chiefly based on the Turing test, and thus one would expect the author to be major on the events surrounding this test, which occurs during the annual Loebner Prize competition. However, Brian Christian uses the events of this competition to explore other areas of human living.

The book explores issues in philosophy, biology, psychology, theology, poetry, communication, and computer science, among others. In a recap, the author tackles hundreds of topics by provoking the reader to think logically. The book is suggestive, which stirs the readers to think from different perspectives. Christian achieves this goal by sticking to a form of narrative, which remains in the background, thus letting ideas to stand out conspicuously throughout the book. Therefore, instead of the readers forming opinions, they are compelled to think critically on the issues raised throughout the narrative.

The second most outstanding strength of the book lies in the extensive referencing and exploration of theories by other writers. For instance, the author explores Garry Kasparov’s chess theory to highlight how human beings have stopped thinking by resorting to rules in a bid to achieve the desired results. On the chess game, youngsters are contemporarily concerned with memorizing past games, and thus instead of becoming ‘masters of strategy’ they become ‘masters of memory.

Nevertheless, Christian does not conclude whether this aspect is good or bad; on the contrary, he gives his opinion and lets the reader draw the conclusion on the appropriateness of such behaviors. In addition, Christian highlights Daniel Gilbert’s propositions on the extent to which human beings are animals. From this work, he makes an analogy of the extent to which human beings have become machines. By drawing such analogies, the author allows the reader to understand the book’s context in a better way as the concepts used is not new.

In addition, the book is divided into twelve distinct chapters, with each section highlighting different ideas. In the introduction, the author outlines the genesis of his choice of the book’s title by discussing the origin of the term, ‘the most human.’ Therefore, the introductory chapter gives the reader a strong base of understanding, which prepares one to what to expect throughout the book.

In the concluding chapter, the author uses the same title used in the introduction, that is ‘the most human,’ as a recap of the ideas explored throughout the text. At the end of the book, Christian gives extensive notes to expound issues that might be unclear to the reader. The notes are divided and labeled clearly under every chapter for easy and quick reference. Therefore, the book is readable and given its suggestive nature, and critical thinkers will find it interesting as it gives room for people to think logically on different issues affecting the essence of ‘humanity’ via the lenses of artificial intelligence.

Despite the strengths as highlighted in the preceding sections, this book has several weaknesses. As mentioned before, Brian Christian has studied poetry, philosophy, and computer science. This aspect helps in compressing a wide range of information into a single volume. However, in the last third of the book, the author resorts to showing how he knows almost everything in the academic world.

He theorizes unneeded anecdotes, which add no value to the text. He should have dedicated this section to outlining the bigger picture of the issues at hand instead of burdening the readers with unnecessary information. For instance, in chapter 10, the author talks of what he calls, High Surprisal. Even though this section mentions the artificial intelligence aspect, the author resorts to jargon, and this aspect is bound to confuse the reader.

In conclusion, the book The Most Human Human: What Artificial Intelligence teaches us about Being Alive, is a masterpiece work, which explores how computers have redefined the concept of ‘human’ in the contemporary world where the technological revolution has taken center stage. The author uses a wide array of information to explain his thesis. In addition, Christian adopts a narrative style of writing with his narration taking the backstage, thus allowing ideas to come out clearly. The book has its strengths and weaknesses, as discussed in this paper.

The Christian Sports International Organization is an organization founded in 1990 in the state of Pennsylvania. This organization helps in the development of children’s sports programs, as well as for everyone who wants to develop in the direction of the sports. In addition, this organization promotes all participants to allow them to live their lives for the sake of Jesus Christ. The organization strives to attract as many children as possible, not only in cities but also in villages worldwide.

The mission of this organization is to change hearts and thoughts thanks to the good news from Jesus Christ through joint activities and physical activity related to sports. The organization promotes serving God and taking part in sports events. More and more children are being involved in the activities of the Christian Sports International Organization. The organization promotes many sports, especially BMX. The company has entered the international level to attract young people from all over the world as actively as possible.

My associations with this organization are incredibly positive. The first is that the Christian Sports International Organization preaches love for Jesus Christ. I respect all religions, and I am glad that such organizations support them and dedicate young people to them. The second is the promotion of a healthy lifestyle that the organization conducts. It is carried out by inviting children and young people to participate in various sports events. This helps improve and strengthen health, develop coordination, and has a beneficial effect on the body. Any organization dealing with the relationship of sports with aspects of Christianity will continue to find a response and increase the value for a broader understanding of sports, culture and human living conditions. (McLeod et al., 2018). The organization is quite effective, as the number of new participants is growing.

Reference

McLeod, H., Justvik, N. and Hess, R. (2018). Sport and Christianity: Historical Perspectives – An Introduction. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 35(1), 1-8.

The Ethical Conflict between Indulging Individual Freedom and a Well-ordered Society

This conflict can be seen in the case of Confucians against Western democracy or Judeo-Christians. Western countries including Europe and America seem to observe individual freedom at the expense of the entire society unlike Asian countries, which embrace the notion of a well-ordered society.

For instance, enhanced standards of living, in countries that embrace individual freedom, such as America and Europe, are likely to be viewed in light of the size of the yard that an individual’s home covers and the number of channels that one can access from his TV. On the other hand, enhanced standards of living, in countries that embrace the notion of well-ordered societies, such as Asian countries, are likely to be viewed in light of societal issues like night security and the capacity to limit undesirable media content to children.

This conflict is as a result of realization, by Asians states, that they can do things equally with other cultures. The majority of present Neo-Confucianists spent their early lives in Asia, where Westerners ruled predominantly. At present, Neo-Confucianists want to overturn the cultural flow, in order to see the Americans concurring with them on some notions.

How Different Religious, Philosophical or Cultural Perspectives Shape Moral Perceptions and Discernment

Confucian and Judeo-Christian ideas shape views of leaders in different ways. Lee, the leader of Singapore and a Confucian, feels that the Americans have deserted the ethical foundations of society. Therefore, he does all that he can, in order to ensure that such a situation does not show up in his territory. Besides, Lee orders policemen to keep a vigilant eye on Singapore, in order to ensure that people do not commit crimes such as littering and chewing gum (Reid 3).

The government of Lee, also, controls the savings of citizens by ordering them to secure a certain amount of their money and no one opposes this act. A number of Neo-Confucians say “the government of Lee is a pervasion of the sage’s teachings” (Reid 3). The same critics argue that Lee of Singapore and Mahathir of Malaysia twist Confucius ideals, in their territories, in order to safeguard their personal power.

The standpoint of Reid is that the authoritarian rule employed in Singapore is not part of Confucianism (3). This is because South Korea, which also embraces Confucianism, is a noisy and polluted state. However, Koreans claim to be no lesser Confucians than Singaporeans. Therefore, the outlook of Lee on Confucianism or Asian culture is for personal gains, because Confucians appreciate democracy.

On the other hand, Thomas Jefferson and Washington got influenced by Judeo-Christian ideals. Judeo-Christian virtues allow democracy since they embrace the virtue of individual freedoms. Besides, both leaders promoted activism during their reign, as an influence of the Judeo-Christian ideas.

Reasons for a Course of Action Consistent with One’s Personal Moral Values

Obtaining the right balance between individual freedom and social order requires enjoying individual rights while not interfering with social order. For instance, adults may be allowed to view any TV channels that they desire, while limiting the content that get exposed to children. This can be a feasible way of balancing social order and individual freedom, as individuals will enjoy their freedom while maintaining a well-ordered society.

A well-ordered society, in this case, will appear because children will not be exposed to in appropriate material, such as violent video games and pornography, which are likely to cause undesirable behaviors like violence and crime, in the society. Such balance can be obtained from societies that embrace individual freedom, such as, Europe and America, since children’s rights to protection from abusive media can easily be incorporated into individual rights.

The Alternate Perspective

Conversely, it would be hard to balance individual freedoms and social order in a Confucius society. This is because a Confucian, such as, Lee of Singapore leads by autocracy, and may not tolerate the notion of individual freedoms. Hence, it would be difficult to maintain a well-ordered society that, also, embraces individual freedoms, in such a territory.

Besides, it would be difficult to balance social order and liberty in a country like South Korea, which is extremely disorganized. South Korea, which also embraces Confucianism, is a noisy and polluted state. Hence, although South Koreans have democracy, it would be extremely difficult to balance individual freedoms and social order in a disorganized state.

Bibliography

Reid, TR. “Confucius Says Go East, Young Man: Many Asians Now Think Their Lives and Values Are Better Than the American Way.” The Washington Post 19 Nov. 1995: 3. Print.

In his letter to Corinthians, Apostle Paul writes that women should be submissive and silent in churches, which also characterizes the approach to women in the Christian tradition. From the very spread of Christianity, female oppression was aimed to reflect and support the social division between men and women. This patriarchal way of life determined different areas of life, including family relationships, politics, social views, and so on. However, it is curious to discover the underlying reasons that were used for considering that women should be submissive and that it is the only correct way to organize society and religion.

One of the explanations is provided by St. Augustine in Genesis, which distinguishes between the human soul and body. According to this theologian, Christianity identifies the secondary position of females, focusing on their capacity to be baptized and redeemed. He states that God created men and women equal in terms of their souls, but their physical nature is different (Ruether, 2015). A sexual body of a female is regarded as the one who is inherently prone to sin. Therefore, she is created to be submissive to men, serving for the purposes of childbearing and sexual roles. This point of view explains why Christian churches encourage the subordination of women.

Furthermore, John Chrysostom claims that the bodily beauty of women is always accompanied by a white-washed tomb that is full of filth. These words reflect the misogyny of the author, who makes his conclusions based on gender inequality and perceives women as those who are born to serve men. In turn, Origen claims that the eyes through which God looks to the world are male since they cannot be feminine and carnal. Accordingly, modern feminists believe that Christianity supports gender inequality for thousands of years. However, little attention is paid to the fact that earlier civilizations were based on female domination, such as those of Egypt or Mesopotamia. The nations of these civilizations prayed for Mother Goddess. It would be interesting to learn more about the shift of domination to men after the collapse of these ancient cultures.

One of the reasons for female subordination in Christianity is the protection that is to be provided by fathers, brothers, and husbands. It seems that they were expected to ensure that women and families in general have all the necessary to live a worthy life. Regarding the modern life, this interpretation loses its relevance since women have great opportunities to make money and care for themselves and their children. Also, a wife and husband make a contribution to the family budget, which promotes trust and understanding in the family.

It is possible to note the modern churches that do not seek to support some form of domination but focus on the recreation of communities, where men and women are viewed as equal human beings. One can state that these churches lead to the integrity of communities since it is no longer required to fight against injustice. At the same time, such an approach allows for standing together against social and political systems that oppress people. God’s Words and His divine wisdom help in empowering both men and women to become stronger and aware of the need to unite. Although the initial and subsequent Christian traditions were based on female oppression, it is possible to address this social inequality and adopt a new integrative approach in churches.

Reference

Ruether, R. R. (2015). Sexism and misogyny in the Christian tradition: Liberating alternatives. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 34, 83-94.