Category: Christianity

The spread of Christianity began in the first century. It continued steadily as different missionaries traversed various continents globally. Activities such as crusades and campaigns significantly influenced the success of the spread of the religion which started in Northern Europe before proceeding to other continents. Among the earliest regions to receive Christianity were northern Africa, the Middle East, and Asia during the medieval time which lasted 476 to 1500. The advancement of Christianity is still going on in various countries regardless of it starting early globally. Among them is Malaysia in the Asian continent. From its introduction into the country to its current state, Christianity has developed in the country to encompass different denominations, missions, and institutions.

The spread of Christianity in Malaysia dates back to the 16th Century. It was first introduced by the Military Crusade Order of Christ through the Portuguese who conquered a Muslim sultanate in the then commercial capital of Malacca. The Portuguese first landed on the southeastern coast of India before traveling to various countries around the region such as Thailand, Japan, and Malaysia (Nickens, 2020). The Portuguese collaborated with the Sultans and the Dutch in the 17th Century in spreading Christianity in Borneo. Arguably, Christianity at this point was aimed at enabling the Portuguese and the Sultans to gain an advantage in establishing their trades in the majorly Muslim area. Christianity came to Malacca through the Portuguese who ceased it in 1511 (Ng, 2012). The spread of Christianity in the Malay Peninsula was reinforced in the 18th Century when the English East India Company settled in Penang to secure its trade with China.

The establishment of Penang as a Christian base by the British led to the immigration of various other missionaries such as the French missionaries. This led to the development of churches and various institutions such as the College General in 1809. The settlement of the British in Penang led to the start of missionary work in Malaysia in the late 18th Century. The setting up of schools was the most successful endeavor. It raised a generation that was at ease with Christianity in the region despite the initial upheaval by Muslims. The mission work done by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British among others lay the foundation for the present Christianity in the country.

Numerous denominations have sprung up in the current state of Christianity in the country today. From the recent statistics, 9% of Malaysias total population is Christian in contrast with the 63% that are Muslims, 20% Buddhists, and 7% Hindu (Mutalib and Suleiman, 2017). Among Christians, the Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and Methodists are the most spread denominations in the country. There are diverse missions and churches in the country such as St. Michaels church in Penampang, and St. Johns cathedral in the countrys capital Kuala Lumpur. Over the years missions such as the Borneo Church Mission have enhanced the presence of Christianity in the country. There are Bible colleges and seminaries in the country such as. The Bible College of Malaysia, Sabah Theological College and Seminary, and Methodist Theological School among others. These institutions have enables the rise of Christianity in the country. As much as the country is predominantly Muslim, the presence of Christianity is gradually being felt with the development of institutions such as Bible colleges and seminaries.

Bibliography

Mutalib, Marina Munira Abdul, and Mashitah Sulaiman. Understanding Religious Pluralism in Malaysia: A Christian and Muslim Debate. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 2017.

Ng, Peter Tze Ming. Globalization and Religion: The Case of Malacca and the Work of Robert Morrison. Religions 3, no. 4 2012: 075-184.

Nickens, Mark. A Survey of the History of Global Christianity. B&H Publishing Group, 2020.

The Christian faith has been preached across the world for generations. Spreading the word of God took many translations and interpretations of the message. With the need for clarification and consolidation, teachings, or doctrines, were required. Those could vary in meaning and weight; they were argued and debated throughout history. To some, the church, faith, and doctrines mattered only as means to gain power and wealth; to others, they were of lifes meaning.

For centuries, Christs worshippers were separated geographically with almost no means of proper communication. The separated Christians had only one thing in common: their faith in God and Jesus Christ. However, the teachings were misinterpreted many times; several contradicting philosophies were formed, leading to internal disputes and hatred. For example, according to Gonzalez (2010, p. 197), some Christians who lived in the desert proclaimed themselves holier and wiser than bishops and leaders of the church. They felt entitled to decide on proper Christian teaching, inevitably resolving to violence (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 197). They and others were led astray from God due to the absence of unified, mutually concerted doctrines. I believe that without the doctrines of God, the Christian message would have been long lost and forgotten, with many alternative views and philosophies sprouting and threatening the core of the Christian faith.

Besides spreading Gods word and leading people to the path of righteousness, doctrines had other powers used by many historical figures. Being proclaimed heretics, the Donatists decided to develop their doctrines, their view of the validity of sacraments, and the Just War Theory (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 212). Straying further from faith and twisting Gods message to pursue personal gains is how some doctrines were constructed. Other teachings were created faithfully in the name of God. Being concerned about repenting for sins committed, Gregory proposed a doctrine of contrition, confession, and punishment (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 327). Whether for personal profit or the sake of all Christians, doctrines were designed and followed throughout the entire history of Christianity, causing war and harmony alike. I personally believe that constructing the doctrine of God should derive purely from faith for the good of all people.

By altering the definition of God and misinterpreting the message and faith, many heretic views were formed. Nestorius, Marcion, and Gnosticism plagued the church and endangered the Christian faith. Nestorius believed in a clear distinction between the divine and the human in Christ; Marcion claimed the world was evil, and its creator was either evil or ignorant. Gnosticism is derived from the idea that all human beings are eternal spirits imprisoned in evil bodies. The most widely accepted view, the doctrine of Nicea, in contradiction with Nestorius, stated that the Son is of one nature and not less divine than the Father (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 223). Both Marcion and Gnosticism radically misinterpreted and rejected the doctrines of creation, incarnation, and resurrection, posing a significant threat to the church.

The heresies existence was dangerous to the Christian church and faith; they required a response. Nestorius was pronounced a heretic and condemned to exile by the council; however, the impact of Gnostics and Marcionites proved to be much more difficult to challenge (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 339). In response, the church started defining itself by reaffirming its Jewish heritage and doctrines supporting the Nicea understanding of God (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 95). For this purpose, a series of instruments, creeds, the canon of scripture, and apostolic succession, were developed (Gonzalez, 2010, p. 101). As a result, orthodox Christianity was defined, remaining the central theme of the Christian life, teaching, and faith.

Reference

Gonzalez, J. L. (2010). The story of Christianity: Volume 1: The early church to the reformation. HarperCollins.

Deontology is derived from two Greek words, Deon, which means duty, and logos, meaning science. It is an ethical term that applies the laid down rules to determine whether a thing is right or wrong. The theory argues that rules should be followed without establishing the consequences of the actions taken. Particular emphasis is laid on how duty and morality relate during the day to day interactions of human beings. Essentially, deontology gives us the answers to the actions we are about to perform. According to this theory, some of the choices we make produce dire consequences that are morally forbidden and cannot be justified. The choices made by Christians should conform to the moral norms highlighted in the bible. Deontologists believe that the right is more important than the wrong and this ought to be observed by every person universally. Most Christians have embraced the deontological system because they like getting answers to their lifes most demanding and relevant questions. Generally, individuals expect the answers given to concur with their views and expectations. In this regard, this paper will argue that Christianity is mainly deontological.

Examples of Deontology in Christianity

The first way to show that Christianity is deontological is the Ten Commandments given to Moses in the mountain by God himself. Although other commandments addressed almost every aspect of life, these laws in the first five books of the Bible (The Torah) give a perfect example of a pluralistic deontology, a set of laws that are all binding at the same time (Eskenazi & Weiss 2017). The chronology of the theory of creation, the fall of man in the Garden of Eden, the sinful nature of the people of Sodom and Gomorrah, the floods and the saving of Noahs family in the ark, the call of Moses and the journey of Israelites from the land of bondage to the promised land give perfect reasons that provoked God to issue the Ten Commandments that virtually covered every aspect of life. These moral principles are required by all Christians, not because they make sense, but because they are Heaven and Earths creator who has commanded them. Notably, these laws were meant for the Israelites only, Gods chosen people.

The Ten Commandments were designed to help the Israelites live in righteousness and injustice. Christians believe that by keeping the law, one would please God and be righteous before His eyes. Additionally, a Jew who keeps these commandments exercises justice to fellow human beings regardless of their race or religious affiliation. The Israelites believed that other gods belonged to the gentiles and had their requirements. Unlike the gods of the gentiles, the God of Israel expressed a lot of concern to His chosen people; giving them the Ten Commandments was a sign of divine love and immense grace. Human beings are slaves of sin and do not know how to live appropriately. Therefore, God gave these laws to chat the right way of life for His people to relate well with Him and their fellow humans.

Jesus differed with the Pharisees because they had read and understood the Law of Moses, and any deviation from the norm meant to sin. The Pharisees believed that the law was supposed to be followed flawlessly in every detail. They differed with Jesus because he violated the laws they earnestly taught the Jews; there is no doubt they were right. Jesus did not have any problem with the law; in fact, the bible records that He did not come to remove one jot or title but instead came to strengthen the law. Jesus violated the Law of Moses deliberately and purposefully to teach the spiritual motivation behind it (Chambers, 2017). The Pharisees focused on the practicality of the law and ensured that every person kept it religiously with a lot of precision. Jesus teaching of the law was based on compassion, whose primary motivation was love because love covers many sins. According to Jesus, if the action involves love, it is right that it is wrong if it does not involve love.

Jesus reduced the Law of Moses to a single guiding principle commonly referred to as Monistic deontology, which is obligatory. Jesus summarized the law by saying that one should love their God with all their heart and mind and soul and strength and love their neighbor as they love themselves. Here, Jesus was affirming and agreeing with the teachers of the law because loving God brings the gift of righteousness to an individual, and loving a neighbor gives one the gift of justice. This is a real demonstration that Christianity is mainly deontological because the guiding rule, which is love, determines whether one is right or wrong. The principle of love and compassion, as affirmed by Jesus, is universally acceptable and intrinsic to Gods nature because God is love. Exercising love for fellow human beings means keeping the law; perhaps, obeying the law means to love, and love is the absolute truth. According to the teachings of Jesus, it is easier to keep one guiding principle than keeping the Ten Commandments.

Todays robust growth in modern technology is not addressed in the bible only because it never existed during biblical times. The deontological Christians may enter into a conflict, particularly when establishing the right to do something and the book of laws expectations. For instance, the Law of Moses clearly says that one should not kill. Those who kill are viewed as the worst criminals who should face the same wrath. If a killer is found in a society, one would be hated and given all manner of insults because of killing. On the contrary, one may have killed the other while exercising self-defense. Advancement in technology and medicine may bring unique difficulties to deontological Christians. For example, when a childs birth goes wrong, doing one thing will cause the childs death, and failure to do it leads to the mothers death. What should a deontological Christian do in light of the high technology today? All these decisions are tough to employ, and any particular choice may be heartbreaking. However, a tragic decision has to be made to save one life and lose the other.

In his theory of ethics or deontology, Immanuel Kant argues that people can only exercise morality if an act of duty guides them. Kant believes that our ability to do good should be intrinsically motivated. A good thing should be good in itself, either with or without any qualification. Kantian ethics are characterized by goodwill precisely because of duty. Kant (2017) argues that will moves individuals to attend to their duty to be right within the ethical system. According to Kant, there is only one thing in the world and even beyond that can be considered acceptable without qualification; the goodwill itself. Deontology may be classified into two; act and rule deontology. Act- deontology relies on intuitive thinking to determine what is right, while rule- deontology argues that some absolute truths and morals should be followed by every person regardless of the perceived outcome. Christians should not embrace Act-deontology because it relies on intuition on the hearts decisions, which the bible says is deceitful and desperately wicked. According to this theory, an act is generally right if it agrees with Gods commandments and is motivated by love.

Conclusion

Most of the worlds challenges today are the same for all Christiansfor example, poor economy, technological and economic problems, and biomedical and individual issues. To solve these issues, Christian ethics are put into perspective with deontology being the guiding principle. In the contemporary world, socio-economic inequalities and human rights violations among the Christians have taken center stage. However, in light of these hardships, deontology alone is not enough to address these pertinent issues facing the Christian family. Several other options should be explored, such as consequentialism or utilitarianism, to make sound decisions. Additionally, when Christians are faced with a dilemma, they should embrace love and continue seeking guidance from the Holy Spirit. It is better to be firm on moral decisions and carry out actions that will shape the character and help make more right decisions. Finally, virtue ethics should also be incorporated into the aspect of deontology or consequentialism to give the most valuable theory of morality.

References

Chambers, A. (2017). Eats with sinners: Loving like Jesus. NavPress.

Eskenazi, T. C., & Weiss, R. A. (2017). The Torah: A womens commentary. CCAR Press.

Kant, I. (2017). Kant: The metaphysics of morals. Cambridge University Press.

Purpose

Imprisonment of fathers causes a significant effect on the development of affected children. For example, the father-child relationship and well-being of children are greatly strained when their fathers are imprisoned. The absence of fathers affects children in five main ways. It nullifies the importance of co-parenting, causes poor psychological and educational performance, generates psychological distress to children, and affects the social behavior of these children (Lara & Saracostti, 2019). Overall, parental imprisonment, especially fathers, represents a substantial portion of parental absence. A large percentage of incarcerated males in the United States have young children below eighteen years. Furthermore, many children in America have had the experience of losing a male parent to imprisonment (Turney & Goodsell, 2018). As a result, most imprisoned men suffer depression while others lose hope of ever being available to raise their children. This paper will focus on the role of Christians in transforming imprisoned men.

Context

Love Oasis Christian Center (LOCC) is a church ministry located at queens in New York that has emerged to give hope to these men. The populations demographic composition is 49% White, 28% Hispanic, 25% Asian, 20% African American, and 0.5% Native American. Among the residents of Queens, adherents of the following religious movements are most common: Catholicism, Judaism, Islam, Orthodoxy, and Baptism. Queens has a well-developed transportation system. It is connected to neighboring districts by bridges, tunnels, and ferry services. Here are the international airports of New York  named after J. Kennedy and LaGuardia. This ministry is designed to introduce the gospel of Christ to incarcerated men by showing them love and encouraging them to walk in Christ. Comprehending that the United States has the leading rate of incarceration around the world among developed countries, this ministry recognizes that it is necessary to minister the gospel to the imprisoned, especially men. Therefore, this ministry affirms the need of the church to support these men, encourage their families, and advise ex-prisoners as they embark on society. LOCC acknowledges that God loves all human beings in society, whether they are free or imprisoned. They are all equal in the eyes of the Lord since it is through faith that His grace saves them. Additionally, according to Mathew chapter twenty-five, Jesus Christ teaches that a true believer should visit those in prison (King James Bible, 2017). Thus, the greater purpose of visiting, supporting, and encouraging incarcerated men by LOCC is to obey and follow the teachings of Jesus.

Goals

The vision of church services is not only to introduce prisoners to the gospel of Christ but also to make efforts so that they never return to prison again. The tangible goal of these institutions is for these people to be released, join the Church as members, and possibly join the prison ministry, thereby developing a cycle of assistance to prisoners. The Church will contribute to the spiritual and personal development of former prisoners. They have a significant ability to form the experience, knowledge, skills, opportunities, and self-image of formally imprisoned men. While these people are considered immoral, churches and volunteers strive to give them hope that they can change if they believe in Christ.

Methods

Evangelists believe that ex-convicts can be redeemed, and if qualified, they have a right to be considered potential preachers. They believe that when former convicts serve in gospel ministries, many are reminded of the restoration and redemption enjoyed by Christians in Christ. They also believe that the testimonies of former prisoners are clear and that their heart for serving Christ is triggered already tried by fire. They believe in changed hearts and repentance, which is the core of the gospel of Christ. At least two ministers involved in volunteering to preach to inmates were once inmates themselves. Therefore, when convicts listen to the pasts of these ex-convict preachers, they develop hope and admire living a righteous life free from crime. Additionally, these ministers understand that most inmates come from poor backgrounds and that their condition largely contributed to them being criminals. As a result, they easily convince them to change their immoral perspective about life.

Practices

Most ministers and volunteers take a whole Sunday to visit prisoners at least thrice a month. They perform a normal Sunday service to the inmates during these visits: essentially, the church is brought to them in prison. They also provide Bibles to convicts for free since, in most cases, it is the only thing they are allowed to keep in their cells. These passionate and faithful members of the church aim at conveying the love of God in diverse ways. One way is by ministering the released to reform and be productive individuals. Secondly, some convicts are baptized and later become religious workers. Apart from visiting prisoners, another essential role of religious volunteers is visiting families of the inmates. They can babysit their children while the partner is visiting their inmate partner in prison. This act is important as these partners leave their children with someone they can trust and have ample time to visit their inmate partners without distraction from children.

Volunteers and ministries go to prisons in New York to offer the same support and encouragement to the imprisoned, especially men. These men have been in and out of prison and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds in most cases. When these men are asked whether they grew up in a Christian family, the percentage is the same as one third say no while one third say yes. Those who came from a religious background attended synagogues, churches, or mosques as children to their teenage years. However, after they became adults, their attendance levels returned to a higher level than their teenage years but not as high as their childhood attendance level.

As a result of these self-reports from imprisoned men, volunteers and church ministries try to improve their attendance to religious activities by encouraging them that God has a purpose in their lives. During their preaching, these ministries discover that despite being incarcerated, these men, like others in the free society, have extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for attending spiritual services. The intrinsic motivations included dealing with the loss of freedom and fighting guilt, while the extrinsic motivations constituted access to outsiders, safety, and material solace.

Lean Start-Up Applications

In the United States, incarceration is considered the same as punishment. However, examining major imprisonment rationales, such as deterrence, punishment, incapacitation, and rehabilitation, indicates that the goals of solving and minimizing crime, especially by men, are not met by the criminal justice system of America. In addition, providing a more specific form of punishment results in a higher deterrent value (Kirk & Wakefield, 2018). The emphasis of restitution on individual responsibility serves as a rehabilitative purpose. Furthermore, it aids in providing various means that ensure the rights of inmates and reduce overcrowding in prisons. Christians are therefore urged to take part in these responsibilities by preaching on the importance of living just and responsible lives to both inmates and ex-convicts.

References

King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online.

Kirk, D. S., & Wakefield, S. (2018). Collateral consequences of punishment: A critical review and path forward. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 171-194.

Lara, L., & Saracostti, M. (2019). Effect of parental involvement on childrens academic achievement in Chile. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1464.

Turney, K., & Goodsell, R. (2018). Parental incarceration and childrens well-being. The Future of Children, 28(1), 147-164.

Christian beliefs and practices are connected with the history and origin of Christianity. Beliefs and practices of worship are studied in this essay.

Introduction

Christianity is one of the most popular religions in the world. Beliefs and practices of Christianity are generally the same across the world. Christianity beliefs include the existence of one Supreme Being (God), who is the creator of the universe. In addition, Christians also believe in heaven and hell; the righteous will go to heaven after the end of life while the sinners will go to hell. Moreover, teachings of Christianity uphold that only God can redeem human beings from sins, especially when they repent and receive salvation by believing and proclaiming Jesus is Lord. Christianity practices involve congregating in churches, chapels, and meeting halls to worship, learn the teachings of Christian life, and engaging in social support. Moreover, Christians major form of meditation is prayer, which is normally done with the guidance of religious leaders such as priests, pastors, bishops, and deacons (Miller and Miller, 2005).

Christianity Beliefs

Christians use the Bible as their sacred book, which contains various teachings of spirituality that govern followers of the religion in their life and relationship with their God. This sacred text contains commandments that Christians should observe as written by Moses, the prophet, and later by Jesus Christ. It is divided into two sections, that is, the Old and the New Testaments. In addition, it contains prophecies and talks about forgiveness of sin through Jesus Christ as the mediator between believers and God. According to the Bible, Christians were created holy and in the image of God, but they sinned and God gave them a curse. Therefore, according to the Bible, all human beings are born as sinners, their purpose of life being to know, love and serve God. The Bible also talks about life after death and assures the righteous of eternal life in heaven while the wicked are assured of fire in hell (Fisher, 2014).

Christianity is believed to have originated from Judaism following the emergence of the New Testament that concentrated on teachings about the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Primarily, it was mainly practiced in the Middle East and Western world, but over the years, it has spread to other parts of the world (Gottlieb, 2006). There are three major classifications of Christianity including Catholicism, orthodoxy, and Protestantism; however, all have the same beliefs but they differ in their mode of worship and conduct of service (Fisher, 2014).

Rites of Passage

Beliefs in Christianity are mainly demonstrated in the form of festivals, rites of passage, and meditation. In this paper, the discussion will concentrate on rites of passage, which include marriage, baptism, and funerals among others (Ott and Netland, 2006). Normally, rites of pasaage involve events that accompany a persons important stages in life.

Marriage

Marriage has a significant influence in Christianity practices, as it symbolizes the union of Jesus Christ with the church; that is the reason why Christian marriage is supported by the proclamation that no one should separate those joined in marriage the Christian way. This ceremony takes place in front of witnesses and there must be free will and consent from both partners that they are ready and willing to get married forever.

The religious leaders are always in charge of conducting the whole process of marriage. Vows are taken where the couple swears to live together until death separate them; this is in accordance with the bible. The couple then exchanges rings, which will be a sign of their being together as one. In some denominations, a Eucharist mass is celebrated. Most brides wear white gowns as a sign of purity; vows are based on the quotes from the bible, for example, the book of Mark states that God supports the marriage ceremony and has authorized it (Volf and Bass, 2001). Below are some images of a wedding ceremony.

Another important aspect of marriage in Christianity is procreation, as the bible states clearly that it is against the command of God to bear children outside marriage. Indeed, the seventh commandment given to Moses gives the couple the right to be faithful to one another and never commit adultery.

Christian marriages are practiced in all countries where Christianity is present. In the Church of England, various people are involved in marriage process from planning to the actual event. Prior to marriage ceremony, the priest conducts meetings with the couple to offer instructions and counseling, while announcements are made in the church several times calling for any anyone with contrary opinion to come up and show course why the two should not be married. In most Christian churches, the marriage ceremony is never complete before the couple cuts a cake and shares it with witnesses and the congregation.

Funeral rites

This mostly involves beliefs in an afterlife (Volf and Bass, 2001), as evidenced by the resurrection of Jesus in the Bible. Most Christians believe that it is important to anoint the sick, as it symbolizes forgiveness, healing and strengthening of the spirit when a person dies. Moreover, some people find it worthy to confess their sins before religious leaders and get salvation, as it strengthens their relationship with God; they believe that such actions will take them to heaven.

In most cases, there is always a period of mourning before the actual burial. The funeral service usually takes place in a church and the process is simple and brief, involving prayer, hymns, and a few speeches to give condolences to the family of the deceased. There is also a presentation to pay tribute to the life of the deceased, before the body of the deceased is placed into a coffin and then buried into the ground.

In most cases, flowers may be placed to symbolize that the dead person is entering a new life, while candles may be lit to symbolize salvation.

In some cases, believers cremate the bodies. This form of funeral service takes place in all Christian denominations all over the world. The Bible is used as the reference book of blessing and asking God for forgiveness on behalf of the dead. The main participants in the funeral service are the religious leaders such as priests and bishops who read the scriptures and offer spiritual sermons before and during burial. In addition, family members and friends take the responsibility of organizing the burial, which may involve liaising with authorities to acquire burial permit, as well as providing logistics for smooth conduct of the ceremony. Church members also participate in the funeral and burial ceremony through spiritual, moral, and financial support.

Baptism

According to Christian beliefs, baptism started with a prophet in the Bible referred to as John the Baptist who prophesied about the coming of Jesus (Miller and Miller, 2005). Normally christians baptize both infants and adults as a sign of acceptance in the Christians church. Generally, all Christian churches use water to conduct baptism ceremonies, as water is normally associated with purity and cleansing. Different denominations have different practice of carrying out the ceremony; for example, in Orthodoxy, the baby is immersed in water, while in Catholic, water is poured on the babys forehead.

The main reason why Christians baptize their followers is that, it acts as dedication of someone to the church. In most cases, babies that are baptized are always offered new names from the bible, which are usually associated with the saints. The ceremony is presided over by religious leaders in all denominations. For children, the baptism ceremony is normally preceded by dedication, where children are brought to the priest or bishop and dedicated to the church and to God for protection.

About the Author

The author is a student of theology in the university. In general, the reason as to why I chose Christianity to explain the religious beliefs and practices is that, it is interesting to analyze and discuss the beliefs and practices involved in this religion. What interests me most are the activities involved in Christianity practices such as the rites of passage. I have witnessed almost all the rites of passage and anyone would be amused at how orderly they are done, although I believe in all religions there is order. Their way of doing things is unique, the believers are so enthusiastic and passionate about what they are involved in, and anyone witnessing their activities would definitely be carried away by the moment.

References

Fisher, M. P. (2014). Living Religions. Upper saddle Rriver, England: pearson. Web.

Gottlieb, R. (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology. Oxford, England: Oxford Handbooks Online. Web.

Miller, V. J., & Miller, V. D. (2005). Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practices in a Consumer Culture. London, England: Bloomsberry academic. Web.

Ott, C., & Netland, H. (2006). Globalizing Theology:Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity. MI, USA: Baker Academic Press. Web.

Volf, M., & Bass, D. C. (2001). Practising Theology:Beliefs and Practices in Christian life. Cambridge, England: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. Web.

Christianity is one of the most extensively practiced religions worldwide, and, in some countries, it even has the status of a state religion. At the same time, there are nations, the majority of populations of which historically have been practicing other beliefs. Thus, it becomes interesting to trace the origins of Christianity in such countries and to analyze its current condition. Japan is a country where Shinto has been the most common religion for hundreds of years, yet the share of Christians has been growing steadily since the 20^th century.

Japan has a difficult history with Christianity since, in various periods, the believers received different types of treatment from the authorities. The existing evidence shows that the first origins of Christianity in Japan date back to the 16^th century when the catholic priests baptized local lords in the city of Kyushu (Drazen 2017). The baptism of the Japanese elite was solely practical since it allowed them to freely trade with the West and thus receive considerable benefits. At the same time, the lords also protected missionaries and let them continue their work in Japan. Yet, by the end of the 16^th century, Japanese Christians and missionaries were subject to repressions, and 26 of them were executed and later became martyrs. In the 17^th century, Christianity was banned in Japan since the country chose the path of seclusion. In the 18^th century, after the reopening of Japan to international trade, protestant missionaries were allowed to come to the country. In the 20^th century, after the end of World War 2, the constitution of Japan began to guarantee freedom of religion.

In the 21^st century, the situation with Christianity in Japan is much better than several hundred years ago. For instance, in 2019, Japan was visited by Pope Francis, which demonstrated that the country, despite having traditional beliefs, still had significance in the Christian world. Moreover, Japan has had its own miracle, which is the story of hidden Christians, people who, despite continuous repression, were able to pass the Christian belief from one generation to another (Drazen 2017). Moreover, in 2018, UNESCO recognized the sites of the hidden Christians as World Heritage (). Thus, Christianity in Japan has a complex history of both oppression and freedom and shows how, despite all challenges, Japanese believers have been strong in their faith.

Today, Christianity in Japan is a relatively popular religion which is practiced by a sizeable share of the population. According to the recent statistics, in Japan, there were nearly 2 million Christians which has remained a relatively steady number over the past years (Kee-Fook Chia 2021). Such information shows that Christianity plays a significant role in the lives of many Japanese citizens. At the same time, Christianity is not as common among the Japanese people as Shinto, the traditional region of the nation, practiced by 80 million people. There are several denominations of Christians in Japan; Catholicism is the most popular one, while Protestantism is the second largest denomination in the country. There is also the International Christian University in Japan which is the only evangelical university which is currently accredited by the Ministry of Education (Kee-Fook Chia 2021). Thus, based on the information, it can be said that Japanese Christians have all the means and freedoms to practice their beliefs, study the Bible, and conduct missions.

Japan is a country which for a long time had been opposed to Christianity, yet eventually had to provide complete freedom to believers. The first Japanese were baptized in the 16^th century, yet soon they began to face repressions by the isolationist authorities. Christianity began to develop freely in Japan in the 19^th century, and today there are almost two million people in the country who consider themselves followers of Christ.

Bibliography

Drazen, Patrick. Holy Anime!: Japans View of Christianity. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.

Kee-Fook Chia, Edmund. Asian Christianity and Theology: Inculturation, Interreligious Dialogue, Integral Liberation. New York, NY: Routledge, 2021.

Introduction

Christianity, Islam and Judaism are all religions. Religion can be defined as a set of beliefs and a way of life. Though, there are different religions with different practices and beliefs in the world, there exists some clear similarities. Christianity is defined as the religion that is based on life, death and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth who is also called Christ or Messiah. The followers of Christianity are called Christians. World religions (2009, para. 2) indicates that, Christianity is the largest religion in the world with estimated 33 percent of the world population being its followers. Islam may be defined as submission to Allah, the God. In other words Islam may refer to having been revealed to Prophet Muhammad by God and that Muhammad is the messenger of God. World religions (2009, para. 2) estimates that the Islam religion is the second largest after Christianity with 21 percent of earths population being Islam. On the other hand Judaism is the religion mostly associated with the Jewish people (Religion and ethics, 2009, Para 1). The religion of Judaism is based on the covenant that was made between Abraham and God. The covenant was made when God asked Abraham to leave his land and travel to Cannan the Promised Land. Judaism (2009, para. 2) estimates that the population of the people observing Judaism as a religion is 14 million in the world.

Similarities between the three Religions

While the differences in each religion are well defined, there exist some similarities that make the three religions somehow related in terms of their beliefs and historical backgrounds. However, most of the similarities and common practices are found in the religious believes observed in each religion.

One God

One major similarity found in Christianity, Islam and Judaism is the belief in one God who is a supreme being, all powerful and ever living. The term oneness of God defines the indivisibility of the unseen God in all the three religions. The fact is that, all the three religions there is belief in one God, therefore they are referred to as Monotheistic religions. Christianity believes in the God as being made up of a Holy Trinity: Father, Son and the Holy Spirit. The second being in the trinity became human who was known as Jesus Christ, regarded as the Messiah. The theology in Christianity teaches of the one God in the Holy Trinity. The life and teachings of Jesus Christ are captured in the Bible (Christians holy book) in the Gospel. On the other hand the Islam religion also believes in one God (the true God), the ever living supreme deity who is the controller of every thing and who neither equal to anyone. Quran chapter 112 in Allah (n.d, cited in The Institute of Islamic Information and Education, 2009, Para. 2) indicates, In the name of God, the Merciful, and the Compassionate; Say (O Muhammad); He is God the One God, the Everlasting Refuge, who has not begotten, nor has been begotten, and equal to Him is not anyone. Similarly, Judaism believes in one God, ever living, just, and who reveals Himself to people. This deity in Hebrew is referred to as JHWH or Yahweh, the true God of Judaism.

Common Abraham

How does Abraham unite Christianity, Islam and Judaism? Abraham is regarded as a unifying factor in the three religions. While Islam regard to Abraham as a prophet and the father of prophets Ishmael and Isaac, and an ancestor to prophet Muhammad, Christians regard him as the father of the current generation. In all the three religions, Abraham takes a special, place to represent faith in God and a true believer. According to Place of Prophet Abraham (2009), Islamic religion has a deep connection with Abraham in that, any one who rejects Abraham is regarded as being not a true believer in Islam. In addition, a sacrifice is done by Muslims all over the world every year during Eid-ul-Adha in commemoration of the sacrifice offered by Prophet Abraham in lieu of Ishmael. This aspect has a great connection with Judaism. According to Cohn-Sherbok (1998, cited in Place of Prophet Abraham, 2009, para. 22), Prophet Abraham is regarded as the father of Jewish people. In Christianity, Jesus is linked to the generation whose father is Abraham. Abraham is also considered as a great spiritual father to Abrahamic Religions: Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

Existence of Creed

The existence of a Creed regarded as the holy book is a common phenomena among Christianity, Islam and Judaism. The holy doctrine acts as the guide in the religion. It is believed that the Holy book in the three religions is the words of the God that however follows the faith according to the religion should abide by the practices as depicted in the creed. The Holy Bible is the creed of the Christians. The Bible is said to have been written by people inspired by the spirit of the God. Thus the Bible scripture is regarded as Gods own words. The Islam also adheres to the teachings of the Quran. To be a devoted Muslim, one should adhere to the teachings of Quran. Also, a true Muslim should make a habit of making Quran recitations, do good deeds, and be a good human for one to be a recipient of Allahs kindness and forgiveness. In Judaism, a collection of thirteen articles are regarded as those that contain the Judaism faith. Torah (first six books in the old testament that were revealed to Moses) and Talmud are Holy books that are generally accepted to provide the essentials of Judaism.

Morality

Morality is specifically emphasized as the preferred code of conduct in the three religions. Showing concern for the well being and dignity of other people are areas of emphasis in the three religions. The moral behavior includes both morally in the relationship between man and God and also that between man and other people. In Christianity, the Ten Commandments as outlined in the Holy bible shows the generally accepted conduct expected for people that involve worship to God and concern for other people. Adultery, murder, theft, robbery, falsehood, dishonesty, injustice and other immoral and unethical practices are universally condemned in the three religions. Although morality is a topic that produces varying views, the human race has some inner conscience that distinguishes what is good and what is evil. According to Morality and ethics in Islam, (2009: Para 11), the Quran in the Islam religion defines Al Amal Assalih as the guiding principles that a follower of Islam should follow. Also, it indicates that among the expected behaviors of a Muslim are great humility and accountability to Allah. The observance of moral conduct in Judaism cannot be overemphasized. The teachings in this religion also affirms morality e.g. dignity and sanctity of human life, and kindness to all Gods creatures. Judaism Principles of Moral Thoughts and Actions (2009, para. 3), indicates that Torah, which is looked to as the book containing the will of God should be obeyed. Accordingly, some morals including kindness to stagers, feeding the hungry, clothing the poor, loving God are praised while killing, murder, adultery, interfering with natures course and so on are highly condemned.

Life after Death

Christianity, Islam and Judaism believe in life after death. This aspect of faith gains intense emphasis in all the three religions and plays an important role. In Christianity, the existence of life after death is emphasized and demonstrated during the death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus. The apostles creed which is observed by most Christian groups also outlines the aspect of believe in life after death upon judgment. In Islam religion, life after death is also featured as an important aspect of faith. Nawaz (2009, para. 2) indicates that, all human beings will never diminish after death. Also, life is viewed as a process in life which is a means to transfer the human from one phase to the other. Islam believe that, when one dies, the body is separated from the soul and that the soul either goes to Elliyeen the place of moral souls or to the Sijjeen where sinful souls go. This aspect is also emphasized in Judaism. Jews are taught to view death not as a tragedy but as a natural process. According to Sachs (2007, para. 4), Jews generally believe in life after death where a process of purification is done after death before life can continue with the rest of the journey. Also, it is indicated that the period of purification depends on the way the soul conducted itself in life which is an aspect that shows judgment. The teachings in the three religions indicate that the conduct of people is subject to judgment by the deity on the Day of Judgment. In Christianity view, the life after death indicates that, upon death, the body decomposes while the soul leaves the body and is evaluated to a particular judgment upon which the soul goes to heaven(where the body is glorified), or to hell, (condemnation to eternal punishment).

Origin of the World

The origin of the world and the universe is viewed from a common perspective in Christianity, Islam and Judaism as having been created by God. Also the three religions agree that the first man to be put on earth was Adam. The creation of the universe and the human race has great similarity as indicated in the Christians bible, Islams Quran and the Jews Torah. Although small differences do occur in the details of creation, a general agreement will be seen in the sequences of creation as believed in the three religions. For example, while Islam refers to Adam as a prophet, Christianity and Judaism only regard him as the first human being to be created.

Believe in Prophets and Angels

Prophets, angles and divine beings are all regarded in Christianity, Islam and Judaism. In some cases common beings are regarded similarly in the three religions. Prophets are regarded as Gods messengers to the people. Unlike angles who are spiritual beings, prophets are physical beings who live with people in the society while leading normal lives but are devoted to God. Muslims believe that Muhammad was the Gods prophet who started and taught Islam. Similarly both Jews and Christians have common prophets who are believed to have been used to deliver Gods message to His people. Unlike Christians who adore Jesus as the son of God and their Savior, Islam regard to Jesus as just one of the Gods prophets. However, the Christians and Jews do not recognize Muhammad as one of the Gods prophets. The existence of divine beings in service of God shows that, God has a special way of interacting with his creation a phenomenon that is common among the three denominations. Role of prophets in Islam (2009, para. 2) indicates that, Abraham, Noah, Jesus, Moses and Muhammad are all prophets of God. Apart from Muhammad, all the other indicated prophets are recognized in Christianity and Judaism. However, Christianity refers to Jesus as the Son of God who is the Gods sent savior.

Rituals and festivals

Religious rituals give a common similarity among Christians, Muslim and Jews. While different religious rituals and festivities are held for different reasons and at different occasions, some rituals and festivities are common especially among the Christians and the Jews. Most of the Muslim rituals are held in remembrance of deeds that were done by the Holy prophet Muhammad. Example of such rituals among the Islam is the Ramadhan which is a one months festival conducted to remember the revelations that were done to Muhammad which appear in form of the Holy book Quran. According to Holy days festivals and rituals (2009), other Islamic holy days are Id ulAdha (celebration of faithfulness of Abraham), Maulid al-Nabi, (celebrating the birth of Muhammad), Shadada, (initiation of a young Muslim to Islam) among others. In Judaism, rituals are also conducted in accordance with the original covenant of Abraham and God. The commonest ritual in Judaism is the Pass-Over, (Pesach) festival which is held to celebrate the deliverance of Israelites from the slavery of Egypt. Also in Christianity, some rituals e.g. Christmas held in remembrance of the birth of Jesus Christ are a common feature.

Conclusion

Existence of more similarities between Islam, Christianity and Judaism cannot be overlooked. The most unifying factor in the three religions is that they are all Abrahamic religions. I.e. they identify with the same spiritual father called Abraham who is the father to Isaac and Ishmael.

Work Cited

Islam-Holy Days Festivals and Rituals. Islam-Holy Days Festivals and Rituals. Diversiton: Leading the World Diversity. 2009. Web.

Judaism Principles of Moral Thoughts and Actions. Judaism Principles of Moral Thoughts and Actions. Patheos: Seek, Understand. 2009. Web.

Morality and ethics in Islam. Morality and ethics in Islam. Why-Islam project. 2009. Web.

Nawaz, Faisal. Concept of Life after Death in Islam. 2009. Web.

Religion and ethics. Christianity  General. 2009. Web.

Religious facts. Role of Prophets in Islam. 2009. Web.

Sachs, A. Jewish Afterlife Beliefs. 2007. Web.

The Institute of Islamic Information and Education (III&E) Allah (God): To God (Allah) Belongs 99 names. III&E Brochure Series; No. 2.

The place of Abraham in Islam, Christianity and Judaism. The place of Abraham in Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Soundvision.com. Web.

World Religions. Islam: The second largest world religion&and growing. World religions. Religious Tolerance. 2009. Web.

The Abrahamic religions are the most popular in the world. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the three most famous of them. The word Abrahamic comes from the name of the biblical prophet Abraham, who lived about 4 thousand years ago. According to the Abrahamic tradition, Abraham was the first person who believed in the one and true God. Abraham was the first prophet to whom God promised great offspring. The Jews began the history of their people with Abraham. In Christianity, he was the spiritual ancestor of all believers in one God. It was thanks to Judaism that Christianity and Islam appeared. Abraham had a large family and subsequent prophets appeared among his offspring, including the prophet Moses, whom Jews considered the founder of Judaism.

There are many similarities between Christianity, Islam and Judaism. They all have holy places of worship, that is, a Church, a Mosque and a synagogue for Christians, Muslims and Jews, respectively. They all believe in monotheism and have Holy Books, the Bible for Christians, the Hebrew Bible and Torah for Jews and the Koran for Muslims. All three religions believe in prophets; Jews believe in Moses, Abraham and their descendants as messengers of God, Christians believe in Jeremiah and Isaiah, while Muslims believe in Jesus and Muhammad as prophets of God.

However, over time there appeared some differences too. Thus, Islam, Judaism and Christianity perceive marriage and family differently. Polygamy is forbidden in Christianity, while it is legal in Judaism and Islam. Christians believe in the Holy Trinity, while Judaism and Islam believe in God as one. Muslims pray at a certain time, while Christians pray of their own free will. Jews pray in synagogues led by prayer leaders; Muslims pray facing Mecca as the source of their religion, while Christians believe in the universality of Gods presence, and therefore they do not look in any particular direction when praying, while Jews pray facing the sacred altar, usually in front of the synagogue. All three religions were rapidly spreading during the fourteenth century and had a significant impact on the development of peoples potential, defining acceptable norms and rules.

Work Cited

Hunt, Lynn, et al. The making of the West: Peoples and cultures. Value Edition, vol. 1. [MBS Direct]. Web.

In Platos works, The Republic and Timaeus, the philosopher presents two ideas  the allegory of the cave and the analogy of the divided line. In the analogy, Plato describes a line that is unequally separated into four parts. Each of these segments represents two parts of the visible and the intelligible world, and a persons psyche resides on one of these parts and moves through them. Here, the concept of learning is challenged as Plato denies that all knowledge can be united under one level of truth. For example, imagination based on guessing and observation is assumed to be far from reality.

The cave allegory explores similar principles, where understanding is removed from illusion as two opposites of seeing the world. In this case, Plato considers the difference between the nature of knowledge and its connection to reality (epistemology) and simple perception of reality (ontology). The philosopher denies that knowledge has meaning by itself  in contrast, it is only meaningful when one sees the connections between ideas, facts, and reality.

Similar to Plato, Philos views are based on the denial of knowledge as described by the Stoics. Here, epistemology challenges the idea that absolute knowledge can be achieved. Instead, Philo accepts a form of knowledge that is hypothetical, based on change and the influence of other forces. Therefore, the philosophers approach is close to Plato, who insists that knowledge is not a collection of facts or a simple observation, but a strive towards understanding through thought, debate, and logic. Nevertheless, Philos beliefs are much more based on religion and on Gods role in humans existence. His distinction between the ontological and the epistemological relies on showing that God is the ultimate source of reason and thinking.

Platos and Philos thoughts shape the idea of being as transcendent and not bound by relationality and perception. This way of thinking aligns with many religions beliefs rooted in faith and separation from the corporeal world. Thus, it is clear that there exist connections between Platonian philosophy and religious formation. One can also see how these ideas can influence the relationship between God and knowledge expressed in Christian thought. Plato laid a foundation for the idea that people do not perceive the world directly but through concepts and ideas. The allegory of the cave described above explains this phenomenon and likely informs many seminarians beliefs. Gods understanding does not need to be based on the rational perception of reality, but an abstract plane of knowledge exists.

Justin Martyrs perception of God and Christianity also shows signs of Platonism. As a Christian apologist who learned about Platos philosophy, Martyr sees Christian imagery in Platos Timaeus, combining the philosophers work with Gods image. Here, the comparison of God to the Demiurge differs from the thoughts on religion expressed by other doctrines that were widespread at the time. Martyr perceived God as ineffable, while Jesus acts as a mediator between the material world and God.

Athenagoras writing challenges some of the Stoics thinking, as the latter is rooted in intellectual and not spiritual understanding. He ascribes to Stoics the belief that God is one, although He is divided into different names based on natural, perceived parts of various matter. Athenagoras disagrees with this view, stating that it is impossible, returning to concepts resembling Platos thinking. In his eyes, God is one not in a way that every matter corresponds to God of a certain name, but that one God created all, and the Spirit of God is a guiding force that is connected to humanity. Overall, one can see how Platonism has been accepted as a way of interpreting Christianity and religious thinking by many philosophers.

Bibliography

Edwards, Mark, ed. The Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Philosophy. New York, NY: Routledge, 2020.

Matoso, Renato. Cognition, Objects, and Proportions in the Divided Line. Plato Journal 22 (2021): 19-26.

Yli-Karjanmaa, Sami. Immortality in Philo of Alexandria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021.

The novel Don Quixote was written by the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. The work recounts the incredible adventures of the character of the same name. Don Quixote is a wandering knight with sincere and honest intentions. However, on his way, the hero gets into ridiculous situations, from which he will try to find a way out. Like many works, Don Quixote gives readers a variety of topics to ponder, one of which is the aspect of Christian faith in the context of the time. It also allows analyzing how the problems of the past and peoples perceptions of them relate to the present time. This paper will examine aspects of truth, kindness, and other expressions of Christian faith and foundations in the work of Cervantes.

Don Quixotes behavior is a symbol of nobleness and excellent spirit, the desire to benefit people, even in the name of unrealizable ideals, because it is in this aspiration that the growth of the soul lies. Appearance, financial situation, and status have no importance because Don Quixote is a multifaceted interesting person with pure thoughts. He combines kindness, inner strength, and naivety. Despite the absurdity of his exploits, the hero inspires admiration and tenderness. Don Quixote is the personification of nobility, generosity, and justice. He profoundly disagrees with the fact that people are put in chains.

The character tries with all his might to free those who have been led to hard labor. But the people he saves do not appreciate Don Quixotes exploits. The criminals turned out to be ruthless and cynical. However, for the hero, it did not matter. He had a rule: freedom belongs to everyone, and no one can take it away. After such high demonstrations of Don Quixotes character, it is hard not to agree that the direction of his thought is very noble. Don Quixotes desire to revive chivalry is reckless, but it is respectful that he does not simply preach chivalrous values but begins with himself, with the example of his own life.

Many readers, myself included, notice that the image of Don Quixote, as the novel progresses, becomes increasingly close to that of Christ. That form of Christian representations, stories about Christianity, on the one hand, seems free, renewed, creative, playful, and carnivalesque. On the other hand, it is present because all these ideas about the inner Knight are pretty difficult to relate to these representations. The idea of the inner man who deeply and sincerely embraces Christianity is sidelined, and the whole novel is structured that way. In the first part, we see an aggressive madman who is not good and has bizarre thoughts; he preaches the Golden Age and is socially dangerous. In the second volume, the image grows, and we see a natural Christian sage, and at the end, the chivalrous fantasy is renounced.

The characters of Don Quixote are folk preachers and intense believers. Three forms of religiosity are distinguished in Don Quixote. Superficial religiosity is exceedingly abundantly represented in the text. These are all kinds of phrases and combinations that pierce our everyday speech, but they carry the image of God  May God makes your worship a very fortunate knight, and grant you success in battle (Cervantes 14). Then comes the kernel  whole series of judgments of principle that we need to pay attention tofor example, the role of the devil. The third idea characters talk about is reflexivity, the level of religiosity where problems are conceptualized.

In different times, there were such people in the church, so-called fools, people not of this world, who had a certain spark of God. They were often regarded as prophets or shunned. In his largely allegorical and autobiographical novel of Don Quixote, Cervantes writes about the world and what is expected and what will always be reprehensible. The book is imbued with high moral and Christian motives. The novel about the medieval fool, the prophet in the form of the Knight of the Sorrowful Image, above all teaches mercy and love. Putting on his armor and addressing the imaginary evil wizard Freston, Don Quixote speaks of the exploits of self-sacrificing knights that have passed from books to his heart (Cervantes 6). Quixote is driven forward by a thirst to do good, and this soul fire cannot be delayed. The Knights actions are imbued with Christian virtue, quiet gentleness, and love for his neighbors. Panza and Quixote walk side by side as two worlds  one earthly world that sees everything with its physical eyes and the spiritual world that sees with the eyes of the soul.

The Knights code of honor in medieval novels, taking Christian virtue as its basis, charged the Knight, among other things, with being faithful in various aspects of life. Hidalgo meets a lady who tempts him to betray his convictions, and the Knights refusal is a display of fidelity and purity in the face of the sin of seduction. Quixote and Panzas further reflections on the strangeness of societys attitude toward commitment are also noteworthy. In my opinion, this neglect of the institution of the family and the necessity of marriage is still highly acute.

Before his death, Dulcinea comes to Quixote as an image of perfect Beauty and Goodness in a dream or vision. And casting off the shackles of this world, Don Quixote sets out on a journey. This ending, in my opinion, is the truest because the image of Don Quixote is eternal; his appearance is still needed by people as another message from the Highest, that there is good in us humans, which is so distorted. That society needs a reminder that no matter what year or century it is, there are always those who need a protector, and evil must always be punished. People must wage war even within themselves with obscurantism, and this struggle is more complex and complicated. A man needs a constant reminder that he is a man.

The remarkable idea of this work in the Christianity context is in the idea that no matter how dark and troubled times are, there still appears a character, even fictional, who is trying to bring good into the world. A person or a character becomes a ray of hope, commonly even if he does not always have enough power to resist the imperfections of this world. It seemed to me that the original idea of Don Quixote was to show the lack of meaning in the old way of life. Still, in creating the text, the author significantly enriched the original idea, touching on the philosophical and religious aspects of human existence.

Work Cited

Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Translated by John Ormsby, Lector House, 2019.