Category: Christianity

Introduction

The Gospel contains vivid descriptions of God, his essence, and his primary creation, which is the human world. The essential part of the Gospel is the description of the life and deeds of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. His birth, preaching, and death are imbued with symbolism that is important to Christians worldwide. These descriptions, in general, form the basis of the Gospel, from which comes the preaching activity, Christian traditions, and worldview. The perception of the world of Christians is influenced mainly by the nature of God and the nature of humanity that he created. Jesus Christ, who combined the human and the divine, is considered the basis for a Christian view of the world. Relying on worldview, Christians answer the question about the restoration of the world and society, about the redemption of sins. Modern society is undergoing a lot of changes, and the world is very dynamic, so Christian values and their interpretation can also vary. The worldview of Christians and their values seem alien and incomprehensible to some people, but they invariably arouse interest, especially in a clash of cultures.

Gospel Essential Beliefs

Nature of God

God has many characteristics inaccessible to anyone else, but the main feature is his trinity. The trinity was controversial among Christians, and the denial of the trinity formed a branch of Arianism (Cole, 2019). The trinity concept is complicated to explain to people of other cultures. God the Father created the world and the first people; God is transcendent and independent of anyone. God the Son entered the human world and became immanent, although he combined the human and the divine. God the Son has the personality and exclusive role of the Savior, who pays with his life for peoples sins. The Holy Spirit is impersonal, infinitely wise, and comes from God into the human world: I will ask the Father, and he will give you another advocate to help you and be with you forever  the Spirit of truth (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, John 14:16-17). In other words, the Holy Spirit is an emanation of God the Father and his forces on the world of people.

The Trinity is the most critical and exciting characteristic, but others. God is omnipotent: I know that you can do all things and that no purpose of yours can be thwarted (Standard Version Bible, 2001, Job 42:2). God is omniscient: Behold, the former things have come to pass, and new things I now declare; before they spring forth I tell you of them (Standard Version Bible, 2001, Isa 42:9). God is love: We love because he first loved us (Standard Version Bible, 2001, 1 John 4:19). Other characteristics are also highlighted, such as sovereignty, wrathfulness, immutability. The creation of God is the world, the first people, Adam and Eve, as well as all humankind.

Nature of Humanity

Human nature can potentially approach God since God created man in his image and likeness. But the devil is also present in a person to a significant extent: For out of the heart come evil thoughts, murder, adultery, sexual immorality, theft, false witness, slander (Standard Version Bible, 2001, Matthew 15:19). The Sin that has struck humankind is the apotheosis of devilry in man, and sin sets before man the goal of redeeming him. It is in Sin that the root cause of human problems is hidden, and it is because of the original Sin that has taken root in humans that Jesus Christ sacrifices himself.

Nature of Jesus

Jesus Christ is the beloved Son of God, who came into the world of people for the sake of their Salvation. Jesus has a human personality, can teach, communicate with people on an equal footing and make friends. His followers were his friends, but ultimately the person of Jesus Christ is the person of the Savior. It is Salvation and the remission of sins for people that is the purpose of the Kingdom of Jesus: He is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world (Standard Version Bible, 2001, 1 John 2:2). In the Christian worldview, the figure of Jesus Christ plays an ethically and emotionally charged role. Being the Son of God, he descended to the people for preaching work. His sacrifice reflects the injustice in the world, and his life motivates many Christians to be grateful to God and Jesus, as well as to people nearby.

Restoration

Observance of divine laws and commandments guarantees restoration, forgiveness, and expiation of sins. Mans sinfulness is not hopeless: Brothers, if anyone is caught in any transgression, you who are spiritual should restore him in a spirit of gentleness. Keep watch on yourself, lest you too be tempted (Standard Version Bible, 2001 Galatians 6:1). It is possible to atone for the Sin by preaching and charity. The grace of God comes to people and leads them to Salvation: But we believe that we will be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will (Standard Version Bible, 2001, Acts 15:11). Faith helps to feel this grace: For everyone who has been born of God overcomes the world. And this is the victory that has overcome the worldour faith (Standard Version Bible, 2001, 1 John 5:4). Repentance is an unusual first step in Salvation and restoration and is what Jesus calls out to: I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance (Standard Version Bible, 2001, Luke 5:32). The transformation of the individual and society takes place gradually since instant heaven on Earth is impossible.

Christian Foundations

The analyzed concepts significantly influence the Christian worldview and its ethical guidelines. God is an omnipotent and omniscient being, the center of the entire religious paradigm (Cole, 2019). He has traits that are similar to other gods in other religions. Humankind and the Son Jesus live in the world, fighting against Original Sin. The death of Jesus plays a central role in this, reflecting the injustice and cruelty of people. Restoration is possible only on repentance of sins and unconditional Faith.

Analysis of the Implications of the Christian Worldview

The advantages of the Christian worldview are mercy, compassion, and charity; this worldview is tied to helping others. Salvation in Christianity is very different from the moksha concept of salvation relevant to Hinduism and Buddhism. Moksha is liberation or salvation from things and attachment to things. Moksha allows a person to fall out of the wheel of rebirth and gain freedom. The Christian worldview teaches people modesty in desires, complaisance, and humility (Lillian Tryon, 2018). Christians are not warlike people but those who help the victims of the war. Many people find this problem in Christianity, considering Christians to be weak-willed. Some of them promote the idea that Christians are easy to manage (van der Walt, 2017). Christianity forms in society a severe and rigid system of prohibitions that ruin many peoples lives.

Conclusion

The considered essentials of the Gospel influence the construction of the Christian worldview and form a behavioral framework. Gods figures, especially his Son, Jesus Christ, are examples of the sacrifice that permeates the entire Christian worldview. The sinfulness of humans is unconditional and primordial, and God eventually gives the opportunity, with the proper lifestyle, to be saved from Sin. Salvation signifies a restoration that requires Faith and sincere repentance of sins.

References

Cole, S. (2019). Your identity in the Trinity: Discovering Gods grace in the Gospel. Wipf and Stock.

English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online. Web.

Tryon, D.N.P., Lillian (2018). Biblical concepts of restoration as a foundation for lifestyle change, The Journal of Biblical Foundations of Faith and Learning, 3(1). Web.

van der Walt, B. J. (2017). Sharing an integral Christian worldview with a younger generation: Why and how should it be done and received? In Die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi, 51(1). Web.

Christian apocalypticism or millenarianism focuses on believing that the day of world destruction will come and take people to a better world of God. The fascinating aspect which encouraged me to explore this movement is that the apocalypse is treated not as dangerous destruction but as the opportunity to get repentance and forgiveness. We treat the apocalypse as a negative notion due to the cinematography products. However, the Christian apocalypticism movement depicts the destruction from another angle.

The essential point of this belief is that the world people live in is a mere tool to execute death, power, and inequality. Skrimshire points out that Christian apocalypticism treats the natural world as a constant war between sin and authority (519). The followers of this movement claim that this is not the war of weapons; it is the war of the soul and mind (Duff 6). Seeking salvation, apocalyptic movement Christians accept the necessity of the destruction of this world. Complying with the leading Christian belief that the real world is just a test to pass to the heavens, religious millenarianism considers the apocalypse a final challenge.

Apocalyptic millenarianism has peculiar features in other religions besides Christianity. Thus, Duff speculates on the theme of the apocalyptic characteristics in Judaism (7). The author also points out that even Bible is originally supposed to contain those features (Duff 10). Therefore, this movement is not specific to a particular group of people. Apocalyptic millenarianism has deeper roots in the laws of world creation, which can be found in the Bible.

Exploring one of the new religious movements, I had the opportunity to consider the familiar facts from another perspective. Another interesting fact is that power is the main problem that humanity has to defeat. The main idea that I would like to remember is that the terrifying and destroying notion is not constantly as horrible as we think. Moreover, sometimes it can bring salvation and forgiveness to those who accept the world the way it is.

Works Cited

Duff, Nancy. Christian Apocalyptic. SAGE Journals, vol.75, no. 1, 2017, pp. 5-8. Web.

Skimshire, Stephan. Activism for End Times: Millenarian Belief in an Age of Climate Emergency. Theology Today, vol. 20, no. 6, 2018, pp. 518-536. Web.

Christianity has always been a cross-cultural and diverse religion with no single dominant expression. Historically, Christians lived in diverse cultural contexts enabling Christianity to gain a multicultural and polytonal context globally. The Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Heathen ancient cultural traits influenced the development and spread of Christianity. Christianity started with the ministry of Jesus that began in Jerusalem. Christians have a history of borrowing whats not Christian and then filling it with Christian meaning hence its growth across different cultures. Different ancient languages can be used to tell Christianitys message even though Christianity did not originate from such customs.

The Jewish religion greatly resembles Christianity and has an integrated belief in Jesus. Jews were the earliest followers of Jesus in Judea during the Second Temple Period and recognized Christ as the prophesied Messiah. Jesus taught Jewish law during his ministries and attracted a lot of Jew followers, creating eschatological expectations. Jew people expected Christianity to be a religion of Jews and perceived other people as sinful (Schama 14). The inclusion of non-Jews influenced a division between Jewish followers of Christ and the joining Christianity. Christianity responded to the hate with Nicene Christianity that discriminated against the Jews, often with physical abuse. Jews totally drifted away from Christianity to become a strand of Christianity during the first century.

Most teachings in Christianity and Jewish are almost identical. Both Christianity and Judaism are called Abrahamic religions since they are tied together by the faith and spirituality. Recognition of the Messiah in Christianity and multiple Messiahs in Judaism are the only difference. After isolation, Judaism became a minority religion that disappeared in the fifth century only to resurface in the 20^th century. The crucifixion and post-crucifixion experiences of Jesus differentiate Christians from Jews (Hamilton 42). Roman law and Greek culture were the dominating social interactions in Hellenistic cultures.

Christianity spread to the Roman law through the Hellenism language in Israel, Egypt, and the diaspora. The Roman people did not respect and opposed the Jews, constantly breaching the peace. In the beginning, Christianity was unpopular in Rome and faced numerous challenges (Wright 4). For instance, the introduction of a new king seems to many Romanian people as the beginning of a revolution. Often Romans initially believed that Christianity was a form of the Jewish religion. Moreover, the secrecy of the Lords Supper made the Roman people develop a popular gossip that associates Christians with eating murdered children. The progressive hate for Christianity in Rome made it identified as a capital crime, and people abandoned it with apostasy. At that time, the decision of the governor determined community direction, persecutions, and convictions.

The Roman Empire believed in the goddess Artemis who brought success and victory to the empire. Christian received unpleasant interactions, and they were distrusted due to their unwillingness to recruit in the army. Christians who denied to pray and worship the Romanian gods were sought and killed by the Emperor (Ludwig 14). During economic strains, barbarian attacks, and military riots, the Christians were blamed for the adversities because they denied the Roman gods. Christian leaders such as Cyprian were murdered under Emperor Decius. Emperor Constantine supported the church when he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted Christians full legal rights. Christianity demonstrated a true change of heart, and their spirituality and behaviors influenced the Romans to convert, including the emperor. Christianity was officially illegal in Rome, but Christians good behaviors and deeds influenced many Roman people to convert.

The Apologists were a group of elites who refuted false allegations such as cannibalism and promiscuity. The Arian elaborated on how religious enthusiasts and Jesus are children of God and elaborated the concept of God the Father and God the Son (Ludwig 7). Apologists protected and defended the Christianity theology against the Jewish and Roman critics. Emperor went ahead to combine efforts with the Council of Arles to form an alliance between the church and empire. Christianity was also recognized as the preferred official religion in the Roman Empire. Constantine saw to it that the principles of Christianity would enable him to establish civil dignity guided by bishops. The majority of the Romans conformed to Christianity, and it had a great responsibility to the administrative governance of Rome. Christianity gained influence and popularity in the Roman Empire, where the Greeks had a significant impact on the Romans.

As Christianity gained momentum in the Hellenic world, the majority of the bishops had knowledge of Greek philosophy. Hellenistic philosophy is the Greek philosophical ideas that were revealed between (356-323 BCE) Dualism is a Greek philosophy that contradicted the doctrines of Christianity and dismissed the biblical approach to Christianity. The relationship between Christianity and the Hellenistic philosophy is first featured in the bible when Apostle Paul discussed it with Epicurean and Stoic philosophers. The Greek culture is a blend of Judaism, Platonism, and Stoicism that largely influenced Christianity. For instance, the first version of the New Testament was first written in Greek.

Hellenistic philosophy aided the conception of God. In Hellenistic philosophy, our unity can either be the essence of number or absolute number. Both aspects taken alone would introduce the concept of the Pythagorean system. This is critical to differentiate the limited from the unlimited used to conceptualize fundamental aspects of Christianity. Integrating Platonic and Aristotelian theories enables Christians to explain concepts such as Omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence (Wright 5). The platonic method describes the individual ideal in the physical world and that physical objects are just mere reflections of the main form. The Platonic theory is a vital figure in the Ancient Greek world used to assert reality in physical reality and existence

Ontological arguments reinforce Christianitys understanding of Greek philosophy. The ontological argument is an existential challenge in explaining the actuality of God. The ontological argument describes the existence of God as irrefutable and not conceived to subsist. In essence, God is the highest being existing perfectly, that no greater can be conceived. Platonism is the basic foundation for ontological argument to explain that God exists by definition rather than conception. Platonism defines the visible or material world as less real, whereas the visible things we can touch are considered less real. The Medieval Christian philosophy includes the Platonic model of realism and infinite.

Different from Greek, Jew, and Roman, Heathenry does not influence the foundation of Christianity. Heathenry is a different religion from Christianity with various gods. Heathenry has decentralized governance with no central authority whereas Christianity has a centralized system of belief with central authority figures such as the Holy Bible. Every object and being have a divine significance in Heathenry compared with the divine separation perspective in Christianity. Many forces determine reality in Heathenry as opposed to the dualist principles of good and evil in Christianity (Sherman 13). Heathenry recognizes all gods but does not practice Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Heathen does not have divine symbols or a unified theory; rather, it is polytheistic. Nonetheless, Heathenry is not an ancient religion that started in Germany around the late 19th century and early 20th century. According to Wright (44), Heathenry is the newest religion founded on invented tradition with no inherent mandate. Moreover, deities in Heathen are representations of natural materials with magical powers. Contemporary Germanic paganism is the latest religion with no effects on Christianitys foundation.

The cultural exchange between different religions creates the foundation of Christianity. Greek, Jews, and Romans, are the cultures that influenced the growth and expansion of Christianity. Jews were the first Christians but the enrollment of new non-Jews sparked separation between Christians and Jews. Christianity and Judaism are almost identical, and only the aspect of the Messiah is different in the two religions. The Roman law and Greek culture were the dominating social interactions in a Hellenistic culture. The Hellenism language was used by Christians in the Roman Empire. At first Christianity was unpopular in Rome, but it was embraced later by Emperor Constantine, who used biblical principles to guide government policy. The majority of the Roman population converts to Christianity, hence the faster growth of Christianity. After gaining momentum, Christianity spread to the Ancient Greeks. That helped with the conception of God and making ontological arguments. Heathen is the latest religion that does not contribute to the foundation of Christianity.

Works Cited

Hamilton, Edith. The Roman Way. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1932

Ludwig, Charles. Cities in New Testament Times. Accent Publications, 1976.

Wright, Robert. The Evolution of God. Little, Brown and Company, 2009.

Schama, Simon. The Story of the Jews. HarperCollins Publishers, 2013.

Sherman, Dennis, and Joyce Salisbury. The West in the World. 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2014.

Introduction

Traditionally, the concept of religion has been related to a populations beliefs. Although religion has been a controversial aspect, it is the worship and acknowledgment of the existence of a supernatural controlling power among the traditionalists. Several attempts to define the term have proved unsuccessful after scholars disagreed on a specific meaning (Chekovikj & Trencevska Chekovikj, 2020). Additionally, religion was categorized based on how it was systematized and according to the populaces different theories and opinions. In this light, Islam and Christianity became the predominant religions; questions about their relations have been an interest globally. Various theologists have come up with numerous philosophies, but the topic remains ambiguous and brings about mixed reactions. Amidst these uncertainties, it cannot be denied that even though both religions worldviews might differ, an in-depth consideration of similarities and differences in their diverse beliefs pointing out a meta-narrative can help understand the concept.

The Meta-narratives of Islam and Christianity

In early human history, religious differences characterized a major crisis period. For instance, in the Arabian Peninsula, the Muslim army arose and formed non-existence borders from the Atlantic Ocean to Punjab, which are currently referred to as the Muslim worlds heartlands (Penn, 2015). However, over the centuries, the situation has changed as Muslims became a minority group in their areas of control. In Syria, these Muslim worlds became a majority-Christian territory. Violence ensued between the Muslims and Christians and subconsciously the latter assumed minority identity due to violent flashbacks.

Before the seventh century A.D, Christian Martyrs suffered and died under the arms of Muslim officials. Scholars have periodically used hagiography as a study tool for religious history, especially matters of holy conceptions and church-state relations. They in return have proved that hagiography, as many people thought, is not built on traditional myths and misconceptions (Penn, 2015). Researchers, however, did not find specific triggers of the religious battles, but with time, the warring religions, that is the Christians and Muslims, amicably settled their differences and started respecting each other. Ultimately, conversion emerged when those of Christian faith would change to Muslim conviction, and vice versa.

Additionally, in ancient times, people relied on metanarratives to understand religion. They outlined critical values that characterized and distinguished beliefs. These worldview predominant stories explained the reality and framework in which religion was founded. The histories are still relevant in the Postmodern era in addressing the existence of conflicting beliefs in religion. For Islam, ethical behavior is governed by what Mohammed did as detailed in the Quran.

Muslims believe that Allah is better, and so is Mohammed, his messenger. They must also convince the world in exchange for a promise to enter the Islamic paradise (Leube, 2019). Consequently, their call is to do that and increase their chances to go to heaven. Christians are guided by what Jesus did as learned in the Bible; he completed humanitys salvation (Billy, 2019). A confession of the mouth and faith in the heart that Jesus is the path and destination to Heaven, where He rules, is all it takes to obtain a pass to heaven. Subsequently, their call is to live because Jesus did all that. A closer look at the above histories outlines some common elements yet so different in one way or another.

Comparison Between Christianity and Islam

The doctrine of revelation and resurrection differs between the Islamic religion and Christianity. Islam faith teaches evading hellfire through Gods mercy, whereby they will be admitted into paradise (Bagley, 2015). Although there is no existing assurance of entering the delightful garden, the followers believe that submitting to Gods will and following His ways could contribute to a persons account during judgment. Additionally, as per their teachings, moral perfection does not count; instead, repentance does. On the other hand, the biblical Christian story tells how the believers are headed towards the judgment day when the rapture will follow the triumphant announcement from Jesus (Billy, 2019). In this case, they concentrate on perfecting their morals to dwell with Jesus in a righteous place.

The existence of God in the world differs between Christianity and Islam. Gods presence in Christianity is emphasized in God-activity. This means that it is interceded by the Holy Spirit. Further, He exists instinctively through his indwelling in a trinitarian nature (Sire, 2009). Because of this complete communion in the Father, Son, and Spirit, his love is everlasting. Nevertheless, in Islam, the view is human activity, referring to feeling Gods presence by calling people names. According to Muslims, God is too great to manifest in human shape or specific essences.

Islam believes that a person has pure inborn nature referred to as fitrah, which allows them to have access to God. Adam had a fitrah that equipped him with the familiarity of Allahs divine attributes and names (Bhat, 2016). This innate knowledge of Allah is considered hereditary and is to be passed on to successive generations. According to Christianity, a fall represents disobedience to God with a consequence of a transmissible tendency towards sinning in the Old Testament. However, the New Testament introduces a different perspective of the redemption of sins. Sire (2009) explains the origin of sin into the world through one person, which resulted in death. Since every person sinned, sharing the death of Jesus brought life and forgiveness to the Christians.

Islamic prayers are rule-driven in contrast to Christians who exercise freedom. For Muslims, there are prayer periods characterized by mosque bells that alert them of prayer time. Further, there is a set sequence of prayer methods where they stand, bow, kneel, and have recitations of Quran verses or other prayer formulas (Bagley, 2015). Muslims prayers are performed at day start, noon, afternoon, and evening with no deviation. On the contrary, Christians have no established prayer series by rule but can instead pray at any time of their choice.

Both Christians and Muslims have expressed a difference in how they view the holy books. Christians seek reference from the Bible as Gods holy word. The Bible is divided into two parts, namely the New Testament and the Old Testament. In total, the Christian Bible has sixty-six books; thirty-nine are in the Old Testament and twenty-seven in the New Testament (Chekovikj & Trencevska Chekovikj, 2020). According to Christian teachings, the Bible is a direct word from God without mistakes. On the contrary, Muslims recognize Quran as the holy word of Allah.

The term Quran refers to recitation; it is derived from its original preservation in Arabic for generations to understand it without alterations (Van der Spuy, 2015). In addition, the religion believes that no Arabic Qurans script varies. A common belief among the followers is that introduction of the Quran transpired when prophet Muhammad obtained revelations for a twenty-three-year era starting in the 609 A.D. from Angel Gabriel (Van der Spuy, 2015). Even though Muslims appreciate Psalms of David, Torah, the law of Moses, and Jesus Gospel as Gods books, they claim that given their various translations over time, they may have been corrupt.

However, Islam and Christian similarity is illustrated with respect to Gods perception. First, attachment to God is a unifying factor regardless of religious differences. According to Vandesande et al. (2018), John Bowlbys behavioral hallmark of attachment can explain the relationship of a religious believer with the Supernatural being. This approach increases the probability that fewer emotionally-strong individuals endure childhood dangers. The concept further reduces fear and forms of distress, allowing people to focus on other life goals and tasks. Similarly, Christians and Muslims demonstrate these hallmarks in relation to God. A sense of security and mental wellness that acts as a safe base for physical well-being also results from believing in God.

In addition, both Islam and Christianity are monotheistic religions. There is a common belief that there is only a single deity in Islam as well as Christianity (Chekovikj & Trencevska Chekovikj, 2020). They trust that God is a supreme being who created and sustained the universe. Furthermore, He is eternal, infinite, and His existence is essential. The Omni-character of this divinity is recognized in both religions. Omnipotence means that God is all-powerful and not subject to limitations. Omniscience refers to an all-knowing God who is aware of everything about humans and the entire universe (Sire, 2009). Omnipresence states that He is all-present and can be everywhere simultaneously.

Lastly, a similarity exists in religious rituals and behaviors. Christians express their need for safety and closure to God through deeds such as prayers, attending church services and fellowships, worshipping, and using physical symbols such as prayer beads and sacraments (Brooks, 2020). Seeking proximity is more common when these practices are used to plea for protection or get closer to God during need. Likewise, Muslims use religious prayers more extensively to seek Islamic spirituality and rituals to place believers nearer the prophets who intercede for them (Bhat, 2016). Other symbols include observing pureness, pilgrimage, a journey towards a place that represents Gods presence, and fasting which brings the believers closer to Allah (Bagley, 2015). The Islam believers also participate in repentance as a way of finding reunification with God.

A comparison of Christianity and Islam has revealed varying core commitments within the religions. For instance, Christians are obligated to follow the teachings of Jesus, such as forgiveness and love. Muslims have set pillars to guide them, such as salat, which means prayer, shahada, a practice of faith, and sawm for fasting (Bagley, 2015). Recognizing the similarities and differences in religious practices between Muslims and Christians is significant. Nonetheless, even as people acknowledge these differences, it is essential that both religions cultivate good relationships since they seek a common good. However, doing so will not be easier considering the past periods of misunderstandings and suspicion, as well as the existing tensions. Embracing and respecting each others beliefs is a challenge facing the contemporary religious world today and develops a research gap for theologists in the coming years.

Conclusion

A difference in peoples beliefs and opinions has brought along the categorization of religion. Both Christianity and Islam believe in a sovereign deity and illustrate a connection of people to the supernatural being. In ancient times, religious wars between Christians and Muslims were witnessed, although scholars failed to identify specific triggers of the battles. Research tools such as hagiography was used to look into religious history and were proved not to be mythical. Meta-narratives on Islam and Christianity have helped understand religion as they outlined critical values that characterized and distinguished these beliefs. The study has illustrated a resemblance between the two religions in their perception of God, acknowledgment of His existence, and their use of religious symbolism. However, there are significant differences some of which appear to be opposing one another.

As outlined in their resurrection doctrine, Christians believe in a rupture day after judgment, while Muslims believe in an immediate presentation to a paradise. Also, prayer time is set by Islam rules, whereas there is freedom of prayers among Christians. A difference is also revealed in their definitions of Holy Books. Christians believe in the Bible as a way in which God communicates to them; it is considered to be a direct word from God. For Muslims, the Quran is the ultimate word of Allah which they trust has no variation unlike the Bible which has been continuously altered during translation. Finally, despite the differences, it is essential to cultivate a healthy relationship between the two religions. Theologists have developed a research gap in the future since it has been challenging to establish a common ground for settling these religious differences. The rifts have been characterized by misunderstandings, suspicions, and ongoing tensions.

References

Bagley, C. (2015). Islam today: A Muslim quakers View. Quaker Universalist Group.

Bhat, A. M. (2016). Human psychology (fitrah) from Islamic perspective. International Journal of Nusantara Islam, 4(2), 61-74. Web.

Billy, D. J. (2019). Jesus and the last things: Death, judgment, heaven, hell. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Brooks, S. D. (2020). Worship formation: A call to embrace Christian growth in each element of the worship service. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Chekovikj, T., & Trencevska Chekovikj, E. (2020). Jesus and monotheism, the similarity and relations between early Judeo-Christian credence and Islam. Modern Islamic Studies, 1, 45-53. Web.

Leube, G. (2019). Encounters of Christian power and Islamic truth? Two stories of divine intervention on behalf of Islam. EHumanista, 41.

Penn, M. P. (2015). Envisioning Islam: Syriac Christians and the early Muslim world. University of Pennsylvania Press.

Sire, J. W. (2009). The universe next door: A basic worldview catalog (5^th ed.). InterVarsity Press

Van der Spuy, R. (2015). The understanding and the use of the term Allah as a term for God in translations of the Bible and the Quran with specific reference to the Talysh speakers of Azerbaijan. In die Skriflig, 49(1), 1-6.

Vandesande, S., Bosmans, G., Schuengel, C., & Maes, B. (2018). Young children with significant developmental delay differentiate home observed attachment behavior towards their parents. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 32(1), 106-120. Web.

Introduction

Fundamentalism originated from the late 19^th century; however, it was not entirely accepted in America until the 20^th century. In 1919, a community, believing that God picked them to encourage people to go back to the Christian origins, collected for a series of meetings. It was a crucial time for the church and Christianity history after the first World War. Although fundamentalists differed in understanding of the world creation described in Genesis, they were united by the idea that it was God who created the world. The 12-volume set of essays called The Fundamentals was written mostly by Protestants, who deliberately considered and addressed previous ideas made in the religious field: Darwinism, Higher Criticism, and the Social Gospel movement. Finally, the establishment of fundamentalists ideas led to the increase of their controversy with modernists.

Christian Reaction to Darwinism

Interestingly enough, before the introduction of Darwinism, humans were seen as entirely ensouled creatures. For instance, according to Reichenbach (2021), in Christianity, a person was viewed as a creature intrinsically connected to the transcendent God who gifted them their souls. After the Darwinian evolution took place, people started considering themselves as biological creatures initially created in a natural way, not divinely. However, later in America, there a law was launched prohibiting people from teaching evolution in state-funded schools.

In the 19^th century, Christians saw Darwinism as an alternative approach to religion in terms of human nature origins. According to Sutton (2019), Darwinism has become a crucial problem to the evolution of fundamentalists theories. Ruse (2021, 4) provides the citation of the 1890 year (the time when Fundamentalism originated) out that when Darwinism appeared, and, under the guise of a foe, did the work of a friend. It has conferred upon philosophy and religion an inestimable benefit by showing us that we must choose between two alternatives. Either God is everywhere present in nature, or He is nowhere. Thus, believers perceived Darwinism as an opposition to their religion, suggesting they choose between two alternatives. Later, this evolutionary theory will put fundamentals and modernists to the opposite sides in terms of their perception of Darwinian ideas.

The Rise of Higher Criticism of the Bible

The whole branch of Biblical Criticism is devoted to Higher Criticism, which is an opposition to a lower one (study of texts and manuscripts). In turn, Higher Criticism stands for the study of historical origins, dates, and authorship of Biblical books, especially those of the Old Testament (Andrews et al., 2017). This Higher Criticism is based on the grammatical-historical understanding of the Biblical events, not just philosophy or morality behind them (Andrews et al., 2017). Andrews et al. (2017) highlight that the significant group in the Higher Criticism movement were men rejecting any sort of supernatural powers. Thus, the wave of higher biblical critics may be characterized by the people who did not believe in God or in Bibles importance and sacral meanings.

The Higher Criticism movement originated in the late 19^th  early 20^th century. According to Andrews et al. (2017), highlight those views accepted by the British-American school of Higher Criticism in 1910 were initially coined by Franco-Dutch scholars in the mid-16^th century. There is also a view that these higher critics of the Bible were seen in Spinoza, a Dutch rationalist philosophers work of the 1670 year (Andrews et al., 2017). Despite the various origins of the movement, one may claim that by the beginning of the 20^th century, the German and British-American schools fully accepted the existing ideas. One of the core arguments of the higher critics is that all the Biblical books were written in different centuries, not in the 15^th. Moreover, as it is claimed by Andrews et al. (2017), these books represent various traditions of the life of Hebrews in the view of higher critics.

The Social Gospel

The Social Gospel is a movement of protestants that took place in the USA and Canada at the beginning of the 20^th century, after the Industrial Revolutions. The Social Gospel representatives actively applied Christian ethics and moral rules to solve social problems, especially those concerning inequality, such as the division between the poor and rich, racism, low literacy rates, and others. Moreover, this movement necessarily indicated the division of social reforms into Catholic and Protestant sides; it was more than mere introduction of Christianity to solve social problems. According to Lubienecki (2021), the Social Gospel applied social reform principles to Christianity as salvation was a social affair of Gods kingdom here and now (p. 85). The aim of the movement was to achieve social readjustment within the divine intervention (Lubienecki, 2021). The Social Gospels representatives saw evil characteristics in crimes, political corruption, urbanization, and labor-capital conflict, all of which are tendencies that were beginning to take place at the end of the 19^th century.

The Social Gospel was an optimistic movement, as it believed in the possibility of achieving equality in all spheres (especially in an economic one) of life by diminishing mentioned above tendencies within the divine intervention. They focused on the necessity to return to Christian values, which is similar to the main idea of fundamentalists that appeared a little bit later, officially in the 1919 year.

The Fundamentals

In 1919, a specific community of believers collected for a series of meetings to decide how to encourage people to go back to fundamentals and to God. The Victoria Institute is an organization that was established in London in 1865. This institute promoted anti-evolutionary and anti-Darwinian ideas and contributed to the creation of The Fundamentals, a 12-volume set of essays aimed at establishing fundamental tenets of the Christian beliefs. As it was claimed by Mathieson (2021), The Fundamentals was a conservative response to liberalizing or modernist theological trends, and the broad movement that formed in its defense became known, often pejoratively, as fundamentalism (p. 255). One of the contributors to the set of essays, James Orr mostly attacked the arguments made by higher critics about the historical facts of the Old Testament (Mathieson, 2021). This fact means that fundamentalists, such as James Orr, deliberately considered previous works made in the religious field of study, including higher criticism, the Social Gospel ideas, etc. Overall, The Fundamentals defended the orthodox Protestant faith because many authors of the volumes were representatives of major Protestant Christian denominations.

The Scopes Trials and its Ramifications

Fundamentalists were confident about the idea that Biblical knowledge was superior to all other possible human ones, including evolutionary theories. In 1925, the Scopes monkey trial accused a school teacher of providing knowledge about evolution to the students (Mathieson, 2021). At that time, it was unlawful to teach evolutionary theories in any state-funded schools, so the case drew wide attention.

Thus, this trial led to the increase of opposition between fundamentalists and modernists. As The Victoria Institute promoted anti-Darwinian ideas, most of the authors of The Fundamentals were from this organization, continuing the anti-evolutionary ideas (Mathieson, 2021). On the one hand, the first group of believers was sure that Gods words were above human theories (evolutionary, Darwinian, etc). On the other hand, modernists argued that religion and the evolution of Earth and humanity should be two separate branches in order not to allow such cases as the monkey trial and consider both views on human life.

Conclusion

Summing all written above, the history of religious studies has a wide range of ideas that appeared in the 19^th-20^th century. One of the crucial Christian movements in the United States of America became the fundamentalists one. Fundamentalists ideas found their origins in the late 19^th century, when the Darwinian theory was created. The Fundamentals, which is a 12-volume set of essays written mostly by Protestants, made a deliberate work in considering and addressing the previous ideas in religious fields of study. As The Fundamentals promoted the protestants ideas, it also attacked arguments made by representatives of the Higher Criticism movement regarding historical facts of the Old Testament as well as evolutionary theories. Fundamentalists encouraged people to go back to the Bible, God, and Christian origins; they also put the Words of God higher than any human knowledge. This position placed fundamentalists on the opposite side to the modernists in the case of the monkey trial in 1925 and after it.

Bibliography

Andrews, E. D., Farnell, F. D., Howe, T., Marshall, T., & Nedwman, D. (2017). Biblical Criticism: Beyond the Basics. Christian Publishing House.

Lubienecki, P. (2021). Social Reconstruction: American Catholics Radical Response to the Social Gospel Movement and Progressives. Journal of Catholic Education, 24(1), 83-106.

Mathieson, S. (2021), The Victoria Institute, Biblical Criticism, and The Fundamentals. Zygon, 56, 254-274.

Reichenbach, Bruce R. 2021. Christianity, Science, and Three Phases of Being Human. Zygon 56.1.

Ruse, Michael. 2021. Christianity and Darwinism: The Journey Is More Important Than the Destination. Religions 12.2.

Sutton, Matthew Avery. 2019. The Day Christian Fundamentalism Was Born. The New York Times.

Introduction

Christianity has spread to all parts of the world since its early days, and the cultural differences of those who adopted this religion shaped their religious beliefs, practices, as well as spirituality. African Christianity is characterized by spiritual and holistic nature, which encompasses the acceptance of the empirical and other worlds. African Christians do not see any ambiguity in combining Christian values and beliefs and such practices as sacrifice and demon execution with practical aspects, such as treating illness. For African Christians, the world is a holistic universe with no boundaries but many shapes and forms. As such, these people are closer to the natural world, which makes them less anxious about different experiences they have to face. They accept the universe with its darkest and brightest manifestations, helping them to reconcile with themselves.

Main body

This comprehensive perspective is what differentiates African Christianity from European Christianity with its rationalism. Andrew Walls states that western tradition was largely influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, while African Christianism remained unaffected, being faithful to its spiritual and cultural values (Ault, 2010). Western people have placed themselves in quite clearly cut limits of rationality as they need rather strict rules and proofs before they are ready to believe. Western Christians need evidence of the might of God, which is provided in Holy Scripts. Doubt is one of the central features of western people who evolved under the influence of Enlightenment values. They are also willing to set boundaries and limits that provide a sense of security. No external forces are allowed to affect Western peoples spirituality.

African Christians are less concerned with rationality but are completely prepared to accept different manifestations of spirituality and the universe. If certain elements of Christianity do not explain some phenomena, African Christians look for explanations in other spheres (natural world, other beliefs, science). All these are regarded as indispensable parts of human life, and no controversy emerges. African Christianity is characterized by the collaboration among multiple spheres related to the spiritual and natural worlds. Different groups, having different roots, try to come to terms with each other, and the holistic view of Christianity often serves as the bridge to bring people together.

It is noteworthy that the fact that Africans accept Christianity as easily as they do is not confined to the cultural peculiarities of these people. Christianity has answers to all spiritual questions people of various backgrounds may have. One of the pillars of this religion is the focus on the individuals inner world. People are encouraged to look for God in their hearts and explore their own spirituality. Instead of searching for responses to basic questions in the outside world, this religion helps people to understand themselves better. By looking deeply into ones soul, it is possible to find all the necessary spiritual answers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is possible to state that Christianity serves as spiritual guidance for people by giving hope and purpose. All Christians welcome God into their hearts and, in that way, find the courage to explore the world. Cultural backgrounds have an impact on the way spirituality is manifested in different parts of the world. For example, African Christians tend to differ in their perspective concerning many aspects. However, irrespective of all specifics and differences, all Christians can find answers to all possible questions by exploring this religion and their own spirituality.

Reference

Ault, James. [James Ault]. (2010). Andrew Walls  Effects of the Enlightenment on Christianity [Video]. Web.

Introduction

Speaking in tongues is a term that is common especially when referring to the Pentecostal churches. It is a supernatural language that is believed to be imparted to Christian believers when they have been baptized in the Holy Spirit. The issue of speaking in tongues has raised a lot of issues especially among the non-believers about its origin. It has been difficult for some people to believe that someone can receive such inspiration and start talking in unknown tongues (Conzelmann, 1987, 65). What causes more confusion about the same is the fact that the people that speak in tongues do not understand what they are saying.

It is usually considered to be a supernatural way in which Christian believers talk to their maker and strengthen their faith. In this paper, we will focus on the mystery of speaking in tongues, where it originated from, and its significance especially to the Pentecostal Christian believers.

The Origin

Speaking in tongues originated from the early years of Christianity which is considered to be a fulfillment of the promise to the disciples. Before Jesus ascended into heaven, he promised his disciples that he would be sending them a helper that will strengthen and guide them in their spiritual walk (Gasque, 1975, 25). They were to wait in Jerusalem for the promise which was fulfilled in the day that is commonly referred to us as the Pentecost.

The book of Acts chapter two describes the incidences that took place when the Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples. The disciples were gathered in the upper room during their normal praying routine when all of a sudden there was a strong earthquake that sounded in the room that was followed by an observation of tongues of fire on their heads. As this happened, each one of them started speaking in different languages as they were enabled by the Holy Spirit¹. It was after this experience that the disciples displayed an extraordinary boldness to preach the gospel of Christ.

Speaking in tongues has hence been considered to be an important requirement for a Christian believer that has to engage in the ministry of the gospel. Before the disciples received such baptism, they were afraid of speaking in public. This was basically because the Christ that strengthened them in ministry had been subjected to the crucifixion and hence leaving them helpless (Hagner & Murray, 1980, 28). There was a lot of mockery on the disciples following the death of Jesus which made most of them go into hiding. Jesus had been their mentor all through their ministry work and they could do nothing without him.

His death was hence considered to be a final blow to their ministry work. Even though Jesus had promised them of his resurrection on the third day, it was hard for them to believe considering the painful death that he was subjected to. Most people were also against his ministry which also weakened their faith. The Pentecost day was hence a remarkable day for the disciples who have revived once again. They were able to do much more things in their service to God than they did when they were with Jesus. This has hence been a day that has been celebrated by Christian believers as a sign of their victory over the enemy that is commonly referred to as Satan or the devil.

The significance of speaking in tongues

Speaking in tongues has been considered to be a foundation of Christian ministry. A reference is always made towards the same when Jesus was commissioning his dispels to spread the gospel to the world. In the book of acts, he told them that they shall receive power when the Holy Spirit descends on them and they shall preach the gospel to all Judea and Samaria². Speaking in tongues comes only when a Christian believer has been baptized by the Holy Spirit.

It is the outward evidence that can confirm such a baptism. The hardships that are involved in spreading the gospel require a believer to be filled with the Holy Spirit which will enable them to overcome the challenges that come with their ministry. Speaking in tongues is also an outward sign of the commitment that a believer has towards serving Christ (Hemer, 1989, 52). The baptism of the Holy Spirit comes only after a believer has diligently prayed to God for the same. This hence shows the level of spiritual maturity that he or she has attained.

Speaking in tongues also enables the believer to be effective in their prayer life. It is usually believed that there are certain spiritual battles that the believer may not be aware of. Speaking in tongues hence enables them to fight unknown battles that were a hindrance to their spiritual growth. Speaking in tongues may also be known as the tongues of the angels³, this means that it is only the angels that can comprehend what is being spoken.

The Holy Spirit will hence enable the believers to speak mysteries through such tongues which will prompt the angels to bring about results. Angels are significant spiritual beings in a believers life as they minister to their needs. It is usually believed that not even the devil can understand the language of speaking in tongues. This is hence significant as he is denied the opportunity of hindering such prayers from being answered. Believers are usually encouraged to speak in tongues especially when they are fighting major spiritual battles in their lives.

Speaking in tongues is a personal issue that should not be extended for public use. Christian believers are mainly encouraged to speak in tongues when they are praying to edify themselves and not use it when preaching or addressing a public meeting. They are however encouraged to use them if only there would be a person in their midst to translate it to the others⁴. This is basically because it may confuse the people who will be contemplating what it means (Wenham, 1988, 53-55).

Tongues are only important to the person that is speaking them and have nothing to the third party as they do not understand what they mean. Speaking in tongues is one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit that only several people will poses. It is hence not supposed to be used by the believers to brag about their spiritual maturity. The Bible recognizes that, just because a person is not speaking in tongues, they should not be disqualified from being a believer. They may be gifted in other areas that need to be appreciated by the church.

Criticisms

Speaking in tongues has been criticized especially by other non-Pentecostal Christians. This came about after it was identified that there was a misuse of the same. The argument was based on the fact that nobody understands what the other is speaking and hence providing an opportunity for some people to speak anything (Hengel, 1979, 85). There are also some Christians who considered speaking in tongues as a religious practice of the early Christians which can not be applied in the current world.

This has been one area that has been a source of conflict among Christian believers. Speaking in tongues has been considered to be a complex way of communication that discourages the people that do not have such an ability to join churches. This has been mostly because of the common and frequent use of tongues even in public places. Pentecostals usually pray loudly in tongues which makes the rest of the congregation that does not have similar gifting feel out of place.

Some Christian believers are discriminated against because of their inability to speak in tongues. They are looked at as people who are not serious with their spiritual walk or are entangled in certain practices that are contrary to the Christian faith. These have been some of the major reasons that have made some Christian churches discontinue the practice of speaking in tongues and made it a contentious issue in the church.

Conclusion

Speaking in tongues, just like any other religious practice can only be understood by those who practice it. It has been difficult to explain it to people who do not believe in the practice. It is a supernatural practice that only requires a person to be similarly connected for them to understand. Them that practice it has enough scriptural pieces of evidence to justify the practice as well as those that do not practice it. The safest thing about it is that it is not a compulsory practice among Christian believers who have a choice to adapt it or not. It is however advisable that one acquires divine understanding about it before they involve in it to avoid any confusion to them and others around them.

Reference list

Conzelmann, Hans. 1987, Acts of the Apostles. Translated by James Limburg, A. Thomas Kraabel, and Donald H. Juel. Hermeneia. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press.

Gasque, W., 1975, A History of the Criticism of the Acts of the Apostles. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Hagner, Donald A. & Murray J. Harris. 1980, Pauline Studies: Essays Presented to Professor F. F. Bruce on His 70th Birthday. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Hemer, C., 1989, The Book of Acts in the Setting of the Hellenistic History. Tübingen:

Hengel, Martin, 1979, Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity. Trans. J. Bowden. Mohr/Siebeck.Philadelphia, PA: Fortress.

Wenham, David. 1988, The Paulinism of Acts Again: Two Historical Clues in 1. Thessalonians. Themelios.

Footnotes

1. Acts 2:1-5.
2. Acts 1:8.
3. 1corinthians 13:1.
4. 1 Corinthians 14:6.

Introduction

In their book The New Christian Counselor: A Fresh Biblical and Transformational Approach, Hawkins and Clinton seek to explain counseling from a Christian perspective. They consider what it means to be a new Christian counselor. Additionally, the book makes a distinction between old Christian counselors and new ones. In the later chapters, the book evaluates how Christian counseling would approach certain matters such as human identity, addiction, and idolatry.

Summary

Integration of Religion and Mental Health Counseling

The book highlights the relationship between these two disciplines. In the past, they were treated as mutually exclusive. However, Christian leaders must now realize the importance of mental health counseling in the modern world. Faith plays a critical part in healing when integrated into the therapeutic process (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). The authors urge Christian counselors to stay updated with advances in research and treatment of mental health issues.

The goal of Christian Counseling

The main goal of Christian counseling is to help a person grow towards Christ. The role of a Christian counselor is to help a person work towards holistic growth. This growth is aimed at restoring the person to whom Christ intended them to be. People attending Christian counseling do so to undergo transformational change. The objective of this type of counseling is to help people improve their personal lives to align with Gods plans.

Process of Christian Counseling

Christian counseling mainly follows the cognitive-behavioral approach to counseling. This method involves recognizing and challenging unhelpful thoughts. Such thoughts include anxiety-inducing, overwhelming, and destructive ones (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). Once a person acknowledges and challenges these cognitions, they can modify their thought process to be more helpful. Eventually, the person learns how to manage their thoughts and consequently their emotions, actions, and behaviors.

Components of Christian Counseling

The three most important elements of Christian counseling are the client, the counselor, and the triune God. God is part of the process because He has been invited. While the focus is on the client, the counselor is Gods junior partner. The authors describe Christian counseling as a collaborative process (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). Other than these three, other components include the Word of God and a community to provide support.

Relational Dimension

Christian Counseling has a strong focus on relationships between a person and God as well as with others. It posits that people experience mental health challenges such as depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness due to failing relationships. This is because relationships are such an important part of human existence that their collapse or dysfunction causes trauma. Therefore, one purpose of Christian counseling is to mend relationships to facilitate healing. Christian counseling also recognizes that healing does not happen in isolation. For a person to get better, they need to be surrounded by a community. The community could be members of the family, school, church, or neighborhood (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). This community offers support and accountability as the person undergoes counseling. They are also a source of love, trust, and affirmation to motivate the person during the process.

Personal Responsibility

Christian counseling emphasizes the importance of taking personal responsibility for ones actions regardless of the circumstances. For instance, sin drives people away from God, and consequently, they form attachments to worldly things, which result in issues such as addiction (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). Emotional, psychological, and spiritual wellness will only come after a person acknowledges they need the help of the counselor to grow closer to God.

Multimodal Approach

According to the authors, an understanding of human nature calls for a multidimensional approach. In essence, there are seven dimensions to human beings: behavior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal relationships, and drugs/ biology (abbreviated BASIC ID) (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). Counseling involves finding out which modality or combination of modalities is causing pain to the client. This approach acknowledges the complexity of clients issues and the possibility of multiple sources of problems.

Intersectionality Approach (Integration)

Christian counseling integrates concepts from Christianity and counseling. It is not a mash of ideas from the two fields. Instead, it is a careful blend that involves borrowing ideas from both disciplines. For instance, Christian counselors must abide by a professional code of conduct such as respect for client values, confidentiality, and seeking informed consent. They also use the Word of God and other scriptures to help their clients. Therefore, Christian counseling is distinguished from other types of counseling by this intersectional approach.

Analysis

Hawkins and Clintons approach falls under the integration model. Their approach falls under this model because the authors seek to integrate concepts from both Christianity and psychology. Specifically, the approach taken by these authors constitutes interdisciplinary integration, which aims at assimilating psychology and theology (McMinn, 2011). The last main feature discussed in the section above is intersectionality, which means that Christian counseling is an interdisciplinary approach. The main strength of this approach is that it allows Christians to take research and science seriously. Consequently, they can reinterpret psychology and recognize Gods role in science.

The authors would not identify psychological issues apart from spiritual issues. Instead, they would say that the issues are more or less the same. This is because the book emphasizes the importance of a holistic approach to counseling that includes God, the counselor, the client, and the community. Essentially, the client is being asked to come as they are because they are not defined by their problems. Consequently, Hawkins and Clinton would not separate psychological and spiritual issues.

Psychological theory and research are important in the Hawkins and Clinton approach. They do not advocate for the use of the Scriptures only. Instead, they say that counselors should consult past research and relevant literature. They also urge Christian counselors to be updated on research and treatment. This shows that even though their approach is centered on religion, it values psychological theory and research. It does not dismiss science in favor of religion but instead, regards them as equally important.

Application

As a counselor, I could apply certain concepts from Hawkins and Clintons approach. In the given scenario, the first concept I would apply is the cry of the soul (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). This involves listening deeply to the said and unsaid words of the client. I would be attentive to my clients worries, hurts, and hopes. Being Christs ambassador entails identifying the troubles of my clients souls and helping them on their path toward healing. To do this, I must show spiritual and emotional vitality (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). I must be in touch with God to guide others to Him. The second concept I would apply is the multimodal approach. My clients experience psychological pain (manifesting as a lack of trust, poor self-management skills, and inability to complete activities of daily living) when there is a dysfunction in a component of their personality or psychology. Therefore, to truly determine the source of the clients problems, I would need to look at all aspects of their lives including their surroundings, family, drug use history, and childhood experiences.

The third concept I would apply is the relational dimension. According to Hawkins and Clinton, healthy relationships with God and others are essential for a meaningful life. I would help my clients to mend relationships with their loved ones. I would also help them develop healthier attachment styles to prevent dysfunctional relationships. Healing is only possible with love and affirmation from a support system. The fourth concept I would borrow from the authors is the process of Christian counseling. Specifically, I would perform my role as explained by Gary Collins (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). I would ensure that I am guided by the Spirit and deeply committed to being a servant of Christ. I would then apply my skills, abilities, and knowledge to help my clients realize personal, interpersonal, mental, and spiritual wellness. Finally, I would apply wisdom and humility in my practice as a counselor (Hawkins & Clinton, 2015). I would recognize that I am a vessel meant to bring my clients closer to the people God intended them to be. My role is to act as a link and during the process, I would remember never to center myself.

Conclusion

In summary, Hawkins and Clinton explain how psychology and theology can be integrated. They say that Christian counselors should not be left behind as psychology advances. Instead, they should help people achieve transformational change. This involves tailoring a biblical approach to a clients need to help them achieve personal growth. This form of counseling is triadic since it involves God, the client, and the counselor. Ultimately, the goal of Christian counseling is to model thoughts, emotions, actions, and behavior to resemble Christ.

References

Hawkins, R., & Clinton, T. (2015). The new Christian counselor: A fresh biblical and transformational approach. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers.

McMinn, M. R. (2011). Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling (Rev. ed.). Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House.

Introduction

Leadership style is the method or approach employed by a person while managing or heading a team. The leadership style is determined by factors such as an individuals personal characteristics or traits, behaviors, and goals. Christian leadership styles have been in existence for a long time, and different people and groups subscribe to different styles depending on their needs and objectives. Some examples of leadership styles are steward leadership and servant leadership.

The steward leadership style focuses more on other parties besides the leader and those being led, while in the servant style, the leader focuses more on the followers rather than themselves or other third parties. No one leader is supremely better than the other, and Christian leaders should decide for themselves which style suits them. Although steward leadership and servant leadership have many similarities in terms of their objectives and characteristics, they differ to some extent.

Differences

One of the differences between the two leadership styles is that, in servant leadership, the leader is influenced by natural feelings to serve the people. Leadership starts with the urge to serve people, prompting them to take the role first. After taking the leadership role, the leaders conscious choice inspires them to lead and influence others (Setiawan & Irawanto, 2020). On the other hand, steward leadership is influenced by the urge to manage resources contributed by other people to accomplish certain objectives like saving or helping the less fortunate people in society (Kamer, 2018).

Steward leadership stems from the notion that God has chosen certain people to be stewards or managers over His creations (Eva et al., 2019). As such, a steward leader aims to use resources efficiently to benefit others. For example, a person may be attracted to the church priesthood to use the available opportunity and influence the church resources to help the church and community members. Thus, servant leaders have a calling to serve others, whereas steward leaders seek to use resources to bring positive change.

Another difference between the two leadership styles is with regard to their goals and primary actions. The main goal of a servant leader is to inspire followers by embodying desirable traits and attributes that can motivate followers to emulate the leader. The leader also aims to serve the needs of the followers. On the other hand, a steward leader aims to utilize the available resources and opportunities to help the organization and fulfill its mission where applicable. Additionally, the primary action of the steward leadership style is to enable the organization to accomplish the stakeholders desires and objectives (Peshawaria & Toh, 2021). While the primary focus of servant leadership is on followers, steward leadership looks out for all stakeholders.

Next, the leadership styles differ in terms of how much each is able to accomplish. Servant leadership does not accomplish the objectives of all aspects of the organizations leadership (Setiawan & Irawanto, 2020). For example, in a Christian setting, the style is more focused on the well-being of the followers but does not focus on achieving certain objectives, such as helping people in the community who are not within the organizational setting. As such, this leadership style can be termed leader-and-team-oriented. In contrast, steward leadership accomplishes the objectives of all organizational leadership aspects.

The main aim of this leadership style is to use the available resources to serve and address the needs of other people who are not part of the leadership (Kamer, 2018). However, for the leader to accomplish this objective, they must ensure all the followers are on board and well prepared. Thus, in the process of organizing the team, their objectives are realized, as well as objectives related to serving the needy in the community.

The other difference between the two styles is that in servant leadership, the leader is assumed to know all the answers. It operates on a top-bottom approach where the leader has command and control over the followers (Mareus,2018).

In this approach, the leader has all the information and answers to inspire the followers. For their leadership to be effective and successful, servant leaders motivate their followers through rewards for those who engage in the right and commendable practices and punishments for those who go against the rules and policies. In contrast, the steward leadership style uses horizontal communication, and all members play essential roles in developing ideas and solutions that could help the organization accomplish its objectives and goals (Peshawaria & Toh, 2021). Since the style is not concerned with the leader or the follower, there are no rewards or punishments among the followers. However, the organization generally celebrates its achievements and accomplishments in addressing other peoples needs. For example, a non-profit organization such as a church usually celebrates its milestones in solving the communitys needs.

Similarities

Despite the many differences between steward leadership and servant leadership, the two share some similarities. First, both steward and servant leaders have Christ-like traits of caring for other people. The two are not selfish in their leadership as they take care of other peoples needs, as Christ taught. Though the two serve different objectives, they are involved in the care and concern for others.

For example, the servant leader is concerned first with the needs of the followers by using their leadership roles and traits to inspire them (Setiawan & Irawanto, 2020). Similarly, the steward leader serves the needs of other people who are not part of the followers. In both cases, the leaders are selfless and love their neighbors as they love themselves. This gesture is what Christ requires of people to use their strengths and opportunities to help others. Such gestures contribute to making the world a better place.

Both leadership styles help accomplish the vision of God by equipping and empowering specific groups. For the servant, the leader is involved in empowering their followers by sharing their skills to motivate and influence them, enabling them to achieve various organizational goals and objectives (Setiawan & Irawanto, 2020).

Similarly, steward leadership helps empower various members of the community. In this leadership style, the leader uses the resources they are entrusted with to help certain members of the community who require their intervention (Kamer, 2018). Additionally, the two styles help the organization accomplish its objectives since the leaders in the two styles direct and guide the followers in achieving the organizations goals and vision. For example, organizations have different personnel executing different roles though aligned to the organization. Thus, for the personnel to work together, a leader needs to coordinate and enforce policies, regardless of the style. Hence, both steward and servant leadership help bring order to the organization, enabling all the personnel to carry out their mandates effectively.

Further, in both leadership styles, the leaders are servants to the higher authority. These leaders are inspired by Christs teachings that require leaders to have a calling and some specific traits that match Gods will (Kamer, 2018). Everyone is below the higher master, and they turn to Him for interventions and guidance to help them succeed in their leadership roles. Although the two leadership styles are different, the leaders ensure their followers follow and engage in the right behaviors and practices for the organization to accomplish its objectives. In both leadership styles, leaders are change agents by initiating policies that affect their followers and the organization.

Conclusion

Leadership is critical for any organization to succeed and accomplish its objectives. Steward leadership and servant leadership are similar and different in some aspects. Some similarities include their Christ-like traits of caring for other people and helping in accomplishing the vision of God by equipping and empowering specific groups. Another similarity is that in both leadership styles, the leaders are servants to the higher authority, and the leaders are the agents of change.

The differences include that in servant leadership, the leaders urge to serve is influenced by natural feelings to serve the people. In contrast, the steward style is influenced by the desire to manage resources contributed by other people to accomplish specific objectives. Another key difference is in terms of the leaders accomplishments. Servant leadership does not achieve the goals of all aspects of the organizations leadership, while steward leadership accomplishes all these objectives. A Christian leader must decide which leadership style works best depending on their personality and the institutions objectives.

References

Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., Van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111-132. Web.

Kamer, J. (2018). Steward leadership and Paul. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 8(1), 126-131. Web.

Mareus, R. (2018). Exploring servant leadership in a top-down environment (Doctoral dissertation, Regent University). Web.

Peshawaria, R., & Toh, Y. (2021). Steward leadership: A win-win-win model for the post-pandemic business landscape. Asian Management Insights, 8(1), 56-63. Web.

Setiawan, R. P. S. M., & Irawanto, S. D. W. (2020). Servant leadership characteristics, organisational commitment, followers trust, employees performance outcomes: A literature review. European Research Studies Journal, 23(4), 902-911.

Poverty is one of the biggest problems in modern society, which is addressed by economists, international organizations, and politicians. Several Christian interpretations have different ideas about poverty and wealth. In the extreme example of the spectrum, wealth and materialism are portrayed as an evil that must be avoided and even fought. On the other hand, some view success and happiness as a gift from God. From the Christian perspective, wealth growth is seen as a resource for promoting a good life rather than a central purpose of their existence (Quigley, 2021). People need to understand that money is not a measure of moral value or spiritual greatness, but it is not a measure of indifference.

Everything people do is important because they are all created to represent God according to the Christian perspective. Some aspects of our lives are more important than the way we manage our finances. Everyone, rich or poor, is a good caretaker of what they have and is called to use their resources to praise God and meet human needs. Thus, peoples interrelationships are more important than their relevance to money.

The Bible commands the rich and the poor to love one another, love one another, and cooperate equally for the benefit of all. It means spiritual brotherhood in the church, and it is one of the tools that could be used in order to combat poverty. If rich people understand that other people are their neighbors and fellows, they could help poor people in a material way. I, as a transformation agent, could promote this idea in church and among Christians who would like to volunteer and donate.

Reference

Quigley, J. A. (2021). Divine Accounting: Theo-Economics in Early Christianity. Yale University Press.