Category: Christianity

Medical Indications

Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

James experienced high blood pressure, fluid buildup, and glomerulonephritis due to a streptococcus infection.

• Beneficence: immediate dialysis would alleviate the patients high blood pressure and fluid buildup. The delay in dialysis due to the patients parents preferences resulted in complete kidney failure. James needs of an immediate kidney transplant to restore normal kidney function and the patients health.
• Nonmaleficence: the kidney transplant could likely worsen Samuels quality of life, as he would have to undergo a complicated surgery at a young age.

Patient Preferences

Autonomy

James is a minor and is, thus, not legally competent. Jamess parents, Mike and Joanne, rejected immediate dialysis as they believed it would cause James unnecessary suffering. Instead, they opted to take James to a healing service based on their Christian faith. The physicians respected the parents autonomy in making decisions regarding their childs treatment and did not place the patient on immediate dialysis.

As a result, James condition worsened, and the physicians subsequently placed him on dialysis. Mike is considering whether to agree to the patients twin brother Samuel becoming the kidney donor or hope for a miracle. He believes it could be a true testament to his faith, as now the matter involves life or death.

Notably, it is unknown how the patients mother and brother feel about the procedure. Perhaps, the physicians should consider their opinions on the matter, especially since the brother could become the potential donor.

Quality of Life

Beneficence, Nonmaleficence, Autonomy

Nonmaleficence: the physician strongly believes that without a kidney transplant, the patient is likely to die after a year. James quality of life has already significantly deteriorated due to the failure to administer treatment early on. The kidney donor would not suffer significant changes to life expectancy, although the surgery does pose potential life risks (Kiberd & Tennankore, 2017).

Beneficence: a kidney transplant would ensure the patient survives and restore his quality of life.

The principles of beneficence and non-maleficence contradict each other as acting in James interest could mean harming Samuel.

Contextual Features

Justice and Fairness

The faith of the patients guardians comes into conflict with the treatment plan, as they believe that this is a testament to their faith, and a miracle could save James life. Notably, the parents are willing to give up their kidneys but not that of their other son.

One could argue that it is not the parents decision but the brothers. Samuel might prefer not to lose his brother and live with one kidney. However, one could also argue that since they are minors, they might not understand the full complexity and the consequences of such decisions. Donating Samuels kidney to James would be unfair and unjust towards the former.

According to the Christian worldview, how would each of the principles be specified and weighted in this case?

Based on a Christian moral beliefs, the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence hold the most weight, followed by justice and fairness, and lastly, autonomy. According to the first two principles, parents should ensure the best for their children and not harm them. The two principles conflict because following the medical advice would benefit one child and potentially hurt the other (Butler et al., 2016). One could argue that the parents did not act according to the non-maleficence principle, as their actions harmed James

The justice and fairness principle would mean that each person receives equal benefits. In this case, it is fair toward James to give him his brothers kidney but unfair to Samuel to take his kidney away from him (Butler et al., 2016). One could argue that opting for spiritual healing over medical advice resulted in the worsening of James condition, which is unfair.

The last principle is autonomy, instructing Christians to respect each others point of view, thereby granting freedom to act in ones best interest. The parents exercised their right to autonomy by choosing faith-based healing. However, it is unclear if Mike and Joanne considered James opinion in making the decision, thereby obstructing his right. Furthermore, it is unclear if the parents weighted Samuels opinion in becoming a kidney donor, as the child might want to risk his life to save his brothers.

According to the Christian worldview, how might a Christian balance each of the four principles in this case?

The above principles conflict with each other, as benefiting one child results in harming the other. According to Christian beliefs, all life is sacred, and low quality of life is preferential to no existence at all (Orr, 2015). Based on this belief, saving James life is of uttermost importance and goes above the suffering he might receive from the operation. Similarly, since Samuel is likely to survive the surgery without major complications, the best option would be to donate his kidney to his brother (Kiberd & Tennankore, 2017). The likelihood of survival for both children outweighs the potential risks of the operations. However, obtaining a kidney from Samuel is neither just nor fair toward him.

To exercise the right to autonomy of his two children, a Christian parent should consider their opinion and beliefs. Samuel might not wish to give up his kidney, or James might not want to put his brother under risk. Therefore, beneficence and non-maleficence should balance the principles of autonomy and justice and fairness (Sorajjakool et al., 2017). A Christian might decide that maintaining life is superior to staying true to the other principles. A kidney transplant increases the chances of survival and, thus, outweighs the risk of reducing Samuels quality of life. However, before making this decision, a Christian might first consult his or her family to ensure to reach a unanimous agreement first.

References

Butler, C. R., Mehrotra, R., Tonelli, M. R., & Lam, D. Y. (2016). The evolving ethics of dialysis in the United States: A principlist bioethics approach. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 11(4), 704-709.

Kiberd, B. A., & Tennankore, K. K. (2017). Lifetime risks of kidney donation: A medical decision analysis. BMJ Open, 7(8), e016490. Web.

Orr, R.D. (2015). Incorporating spirituality into patient care. AMA Journal of Ethics, 17(5), 409415.

Sorajjakool, S., Carr, M., & Bursey, E. (2017). World religions for healthcare professionals. Routledge.

The churchs history began with Jesus Christ and apostles, who, after the Resurrection, carried his word to all parts of the world, particularly to Greece and then to Italy. The Apostle Peter, who was to become a cornerstone of the new Christian church according to Jesus parting words, successfully fulfilled his task. Later, in the 3rd century, the church hierarchy was formed, which survived to this day. The Catholic Church was relatively stable during the early and middle ages, with the Pope in Rome.

It continued until the 14th century when the papacy moved to Avignon, and then came the Reformation. Some scholars call the period of 1300-1500 Age of Adversity since it was remarked by severe pandemics of plague and hunger (Woodbridge and Frank 2013). The lifespan was 30-35 years for men and women, and vast numbers of people died in childhood and infancy. For the church, this was also a time of the conquest of Constantinople by Turks in 1453 (Woodbridge and Frank 2013).

Then Reformation came; its father, Martin Luther, wrote 95 Theses against the sale of indulgences in 1517, which became the first document of a new era. Understanding the realities of the church history, the history of states under its authority, and the realities of life in distant times makes it possible to understand the emergence of the church traditions and new concepts associated with faith.

For example, Luthers marriage and the relationship he maintained with his wife have become the basis for the transition of Christianity from orthodoxy to orthopraxy (DeRusha 2017). The first approach focused mainly on the right beliefs and rituals, while the other put correct conduct, both ethical and liturgical, in the first place. It is possible that the experience of Luther and his wife Katharina von Bora, who spent their youth in monasteries, shaped the new vision of the reformist ministry.

Another interesting aspect is the influence of fear of death and sin on Europeans perceptions, particularly their vision of God as an angry and ruthless father. After the Black Plague, which came from China and killed 25 million people, a strong fear settled in Europeans minds, which church preachers tried to calm down by appealing to faith (Woodbridge and Frank 2013). A part of society perceived terrible epidemics as punishment for sins, which reinforced the concept of fear of evil (DeRusha 2017).

Some people believed that if they subjected themselves to punishment and trials, they could avoid Gods wrath, which gave rise to the tradition of self-flagellation. Another part of the society perceived the epidemic as Gods punishment of people for the churchs sins, particularly for the Great Schism, and moving the center of Catholicism from Rome to Avignon.

In general, people experienced a logically and spiritually unmotivated fear of God, and Luther, who gave rise to the Reformist church, was no exception (DeRusha). A good example is that he made a vow to Saint Anne to become a monk during a thunderstorm for fear of being killed by lightning and kept his vow, in part because of his penchant for church service. But another reason was the fear of breaking the vow given to the saint, which was considered a mortal sin since it spoke of unbelief in God.

Those preparing to work in ministry should consider the facts presented above to understand some popular Catholic and Protestant implied concepts that should be brought to light for people who visit Sunday Services. It is no less important to understand the idea of Gods plan since its incorrect interpretation, without understanding the historical context, leads many believers to a dead end.

References

DeRusha, Michelle. Katharina and Martin Luther: The Radical Marriage of a Runaway Nun and a Renegade Monk. Baker Books, 2017.

Woodbridge, John D., and Frank A. James III. Church History, Volume Two: From Pre-Reformation to the Present Day: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context. Zondervan Academic, 2013.

Introduction

Religious beliefs have accompanied humanity since its origin. People at any stage of their development continue to believe in the existence of God, only the forms through which the divine service takes place to change. As a relatively young religion, Sikhism absorbed the concepts of Islam and Hinduism but later became a separate area. The life of Sikhs is built on attempts to expand their consciousness with the ultimate goal of merging with the absolute God.

Christianity, on the other hand, has a more extended history, and Christians see the redemption of the original sin with its meaning. Both religions have common points as well as aspects that define the critical difference between Christianity and Sikhism. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the relationship between the two religious movements to the purpose of human life and the phenomenon of the afterlife.

Sikhism

As a relatively young religion, Sikhism originated on the Indian subcontinent in the fifteenth century. Sikhism, like most religious movements in India, is primarily a national confession. It is professed mainly by the inhabitants of Punjab and Haryana, and they form a rather compact ethnoreligious community (Alexander, 2019). In modern India, followers of Sikhism make up 2% of the total population (Mann, 2016). It is one of the few faiths that is tolerated by people of other faiths (Alexander, 2019). It is important to note that the religion of Sikhism originated at the junction of Hinduism and Islam in the 15th century and has coexisted with them in parallel since then, without losing its uniqueness.

A Brief History of Sikhism

Sikhism originated in India in the 15th century, when the country became a meeting place for two religious traditions, namely Hinduism and Islam. The founder of Sikhism was Guru Nanak, who abandoned his early career as a merchant and went on voyages (Mann, 2016). Unlike Hindu ascetics and Muslim saints, he did not seek silence and solitude. On the contrary, he went to the people  to towns and villages  initiating a tradition which was later followed by all Sikh gurus. None of them called for asceticism and departure from life, proclaiming work, active life, and mutual assistance worthy of life.

Guru Nanak spent the end of his life in Kartapur, where a Sikh community began to take shape. Morning and evening meetings were obligatory for its members, where sermons were sung, hymns sang, and religious verses were recited (Mann, 2016). There was also a typical meal at which everyone gathered, regardless of caste, age, gender, or religious affiliation. Later, this ritual became one of the most important for the Sikhs.

Basic Concept of Belief

Sikhism is an independent religion that emerged among Hinduism and Islam, but is not similar to other religions and does not recognize continuity. Sikhs believe in the One God, the almighty Creator, whose real Name is unknown to anyone. The Sikh God is seen in two aspects: as an absolute standard beginning and as a personal God within each person. By creating men, God was able to express himself through each person (Kaur, 2017). When God wanted to express himself, He first found His expression through the Name, and through the Name came Nature, in which God is dissolved and present everywhere and spreads in all directions, like Love.

In the Sikhism religion, there are no fasting, animal sacrifices, hermits, or self-defeating. The only way to pray and be with God is to love God, and the form of worship in Sikhism is meditation (Mandair, 2017). In addition, Sikhs preach love and brotherhood to all people on earth, regardless of origin (Alexander, 2019). No other deities, demons, or spirits, according to the Sikh religion, are worthy of worship.

Existence Through the Prism of Sikhism

According to the guru, the moral way of life of a person is not to follow several rules or follow the instructions and rituals. In fact, human life is oriented to a spiritual search, involving the observance of discipline (Kaur, 2017). It is important to note that Sikhism requires the believer to strictly follow all precepts in the spirit of the highest devotion, offering him immortality and eternal bliss in return.

Sikhism does not define the purpose of human life as a search for opportunities to reach paradise, but as merging with God. Every Sikh longs for a final merger with the absolute God, and the time allotted for life are regarded as the time to achieve this goal (Mandair, 2017). In the event a person is unable to reach the state of highest enlightenment during his or her lifetime, he or she returns to the cycle of births and incarnates again.

The Afterlife of the Sikhs

To the question of what will happen to a human after his or her death, Sikhs approach through the prism of reincarnation. Adepts of faith are convinced that when they die, they go back to their Creator and then can be reborn many times in another human body (Mandair, 2017). Sikhism lacks such elements as heaven or hell, sin or the afterlife, vengeance, or karma. It is essential, however, that fasting and good deeds do not affect the subsequent lives of the human soul in any way (Mandair, 2017).

The only obstacle to merging with God in Sikhism can only be human nature itself, which has five central vices: lust, anger, greed, desire for vanity, and pride. The task of the guru is to support the initially weak disciple and help him avoid temptation. However, it is crucial to understand that in doing so, religious teachers did not demand unnecessary asceticism from their followers, nor did they prevent the growth of wealth and marriage among the Sikhs.

Christianity

Christianity is one of the most numerous monotheistic religions practiced by many followers around the world. The foundation for Christianity is the doctrine of Jesus Christ, who laid the foundation for religion. As sinners, Christians must follow the ten important commandments described in sacred texts. Each commandment demonstrates a humanistic orientation, which makes this religion non-military but aimed at goodness and love for God and neighbors.

A Brief History of Christianity

Christianity emerged in the first century AD, standing out among mystical movements in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. It quickly isolated itself from Judaism, becoming an independent religion with its specific creed, its liturgical practice, and a church organization (Robertson, 2018). Christianity, above all, proclaimed the equality of all people as sinners. It rejected the existing slave-holding social orders and thus gave rise to the hope of getting rid of the oppression and enslavement of desperate people. It called for a reformation of the world, expressing the real interests of the disenfranchised and enslaved (Robertson, 2018). Finally, Jesus gave the servant comfort and hope for freedom only and understandably through the knowledge of divine truth.

The Problem of Existence Among Christians

Christianity defines the only universal meaning of life for all followers  the salvation of the soul. An ontologically independent being is only God, while all others exist and are understood only in continuous communication with the Creator. It is essential to know that a person cannot create the meaning of life by himself, but he or she can realize the ideas laid down by God through his or her life path (Robertson, 2018). Spending life in service to God, a person approaches the final result, namely merging with the Kingdom of Heaven. From this point of view, it is interesting to point out that human life is not a self-sufficient value, but instead represents only a necessary condition for achieving unity with God.

Christian Afterlife

Life after death is of particular importance for Christians because all the life that has passed led a human to the end. However, the philosophical meaning of death for this religion is not defined. On the one hand, death is an eternal punishment, which every person is forced to bear for the transgression committed once. Still, on the other hand, death is the deliverance of human from the chains of the mortal body, releasing their indestructible soul. After a person dies, his or her spirit leaves the body (Farris, 2017).

Becoming free, the soul acquires a new level of feelings, it becomes capable of communicating with the world of good spirits and the world of demons. The soul after the physical death of the body is not in complete peace but continues to progress, and the subsequent formation of the soul will depend on the direction in which it will go at the moment of death: to the Light or the Dark. It is important to note that in Christianity, the phenomenon of reincarnation of the soul is absent. Instead, after the death of a human, the soul is given eternal life, passing into another world (Farris, 2017). Subsequently, any soul, regardless of the path of life, will wait for the Last Judgment, which will determine the future fate.

Sikhism and Christianity: Common and Different

Being different directions of philosophical, religious thought, Christianity and Sikhism, however, find common aspects linking different faiths in the context of the afterlife and questions of existence. It can be noted with a certain degree of an assumption that both religious movements are monotheistic, placing one God at the center of human life (Cole & Sambhi, 2016). Both faiths have humanist goals at their core, teaching people love and respect for others. Serving God is the foundation of the lives of Christians and Sikhs, but the methods through which services are carried out vary.

The essential differences between Christianity and Sikhism begin when one studies the primary mission of faith. Christians believe that the meaning of their lives lies in the salvation and spread of the faith so that other people, too, may be saved after death. At the same time, Sikhism is dominated by merging with the Godhead: it is a matter of receiving the benefits of Gods love (Cole & Sambhi, 2016). The study of human nature and purpose also finds discrepancies. While Christianity is originally a sinful person who aims to do good to atone for the original sin, Sikhism is originally good. God helps Sikhs to ignite the inner spark of good.

Life after death determines the critical difference between the two religious movements. Christians living in sin aim for the salvation that the Last Judgment will give them (Farris, 2017). The soul of a dead person does not reincarnate but continues to wander in the world until its future fate is determined. On the other hand, the Sikhs are convinced that after the death of a human, the soul is to be relocated (Mandair, 2017). The final result of such reincarnations lies in merging with the absolute God.

Annotated Bibliography

Alexander, L. E. (2019). (The image of) God in all of us: Sikh and Christian hospitality in light of the global refugee crisis. Journal of Religious Ethics, 47(4), 653-678.

Annotation: Unlike other used works, this article aims at comparing Sikhism and Christianity in the context of friendliness and hospitality. The author introduces the reader to the two religions, one by one, and gives them some description so that the reader could get an idea about it. As a result of the study, the author concludes that despite the widespread Christianity in the world, Sikhs provide a closer and more hospitable welcome to people in distress.

Cole, W. O., & Sambhi, P. S. (2016). Sikhism and Christianity: a comparative study. Berlin, Germany: Springer.

Annotation: The authors in their two hundred-page book focused on the comparative study of the two religions. Unlike other works, the authors focus not only on the differences between Sikhism and Christianity but also on similar elements. Thus, both authors compare step by step the phenomenon of God, the prophet, sacred books, rituals, and rites among the religions studied. The fifth chapter, devoted to the issue of spiritual liberation and salvation of souls after death, plays a vital role in this essay.

Farris, J. (2017). Christianity. In Y. Nagasawa & B. Matheson (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of the Afterlife (pp. 129-152). London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

Annotation: The book within which this chapter is written is entirely devoted to the issues of life after death in understanding different beliefs. The essay chapter explores how Christians perceive the afterlife. The author addresses such concepts as Hell, Paradise, and Purgatory. The critical value of this work, which immediately attracts the attention of any reader, is a small story told in the first paragraph of the chapter. Through the story of a dying woman, the author brings the reader to the question of the afterlife. His work is descriptive because it covers and structures existing phenomena in the Christian afterlife.

Kaur, A. (2017). The Nature of God and man in the writings of Guru Nanak. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Culture, 3(1), 31-38.

Annotation: This work was chosen for citation because it has a unique feature: the author refers directly to Guru Nanak and his relationship to the nature of God. On all pages, the author gives the reader an idea of the terminology used in the doctrine. In addition, the author elaborates in detail on the problem of describing God in the words of Guru: the work presents seven properties through which Nanak has been able to convey his image of the one God in as much detail as possible. The author introduces the reader to several categories of people, each of which is described in the Sikh term.

Mandair, A. (2017). Sikh afterlife beliefs and funerary practices. In C. Moreman (Ed.), The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying (pp. 98-109). London, England: Routledge.

Annotation: This chapter focuses on the concept of the afterlife from a Sikh perspective. By analyzing the various rites and traditions characteristic of Sikhism, the author demonstrates the philosophical value of death for believers. The author provides evidence for the existence of certain rituals associated with the phenomenon of the unity of the soul of the dead and the one God. The uniqueness of this article lies in the connection that the author makes between God, the guru, and the death of a human.

Mandair, A. (2017). Sikhism. In S. Sorajjakool, M. Carr, & J. Nam (Eds.), World Religions for Healthcare Professionals (pp. 130-148). London, England: Routledge.

Annotation: A unique feature of this text is to investigate the relationship that may exist between Sikhism and health care. The author concludes that modern Sikhism has no objection to medical intervention, but that medicine must satisfy the basic positions of Sikhism. The author stresses the Muslim origins of Sikhism and provides an example of how medicine can accommodate the needs of Sikh patients.

Mann, G. S. (2016). Sikhism. In L. Woodhead, C. Partridge, & H. Kawanami (Eds.), Religions in the Modern World (pp. 129-158). London, England: Routledge.

Annotation: In this thirty-page work, the author addresses the formation of the Sikh religion and the phenomenon of the spread of religion around the world. The author provides a retrospective analysis and influence of historical events that led to the spread of religion. The peculiarity of this work is that the author provides current statistics on the number of adherents of the faith.

Robertson, J. M. (2018). A Short History of Christianity. Norderstedt, Germany: BoDBooks on Demand.

Annotation: The peculiarity inherent in the book is the scientific and artistic stylistics of writing the history of Christianity. The analysis conducted by the authors can not be called superficial, because the book thoroughly covers the critical points in the Christian chronicle: from Jesus Christ and Martin Luther to the modern realities of the Christian world. However, it is essential to note that most of the book is dedicated to the issue of the origin of Christianity and its formation as a world religion. The author, putting forward innovative theories, states in the preface that he initially understands that the world scientific community may disagree with him.

References

Alexander, L. E. (2019). (The image of) God in all of us: Sikh and Christian hospitality in light of the global refugee crisis. Journal of Religious Ethics, 47(4), 653-678.

Cole, W. O., & Sambhi, P. S. (2016). Sikhism and Christianity: a comparative study. Berlin, Germany: Springer.

Farris, J. (2017). Christianity. In Y. Nagasawa & B. Matheson (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of the Afterlife (pp. 129-152). London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

Kaur, A. (2017). The Nature of God and man in the writings of Guru Nanak. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Culture, 3(1), 31-38.

Mandair, A. (2017). Sikh afterlife beliefs and funerary practices. In C. Moreman (Ed.), The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying (pp. 98-109). London, England: Routledge.

Mandair, A. (2017). Sikhism. In S. Sorajjakool, M. Carr, & J. Nam (Eds.), World Religions for Healthcare Professionals (pp. 130-148). London, England: Routledge.

Mann, G. S. (2016). Sikhism. In L. Woodhead, C. Partridge, & H. Kawanami (Eds.), Religions in the Modern World (pp. 129-158). London, England: Routledge.

Robertson, J. M. (2018). A Short History of Christianity. Norderstedt, Germany: BoDBooks on Demand.

Hesychasm is a form of religious practice in Eastern Christianity in which followers pursue spiritual silence through continuous prayer and worshipping of God (Loba-Mkole, 2014). The main goal of Hesychasm is to achieve connection with God through the recitation of the Jesus Prayer (Loba-Mkole, 2014). This implies the Hesychasts are muting their feelings, emotions and eliminating their thoughts. This practice has no substantial equivalents in Roman Catholicism or Protestant confession. Though Hesychasm shares several similarities with Buddhist meditation principles, it nonetheless adheres to a Judeo-Christian perspective instead of a pantheistic kind (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Therefore, Hesychasm emphasizes connection with divine force by separating oneself from all sensory or intellectual aspects and concentrating on praying, which makes it important to the foundation of Orthodox asceticism and the history of Christianity thereof.

Origin of Hesychasm

Hesychasm is derived from the Greek word hsychia, which means peace or serenity. The Hesychasts accomplished their utmost notable work in the early 14th century on Mount Athos, the Hesychast heartland (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Members were most known for their structured Jesus Prayer, which typically began with Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy upon me, as well as various physical positions and breathing practices that they saw as beneficial additions or support to the prayer (Loba-Mkole, 2014). While the practices and the mission have been changing throughout the centuries, the idea behind the tradition remained the same.

Hesychasm arose in the religious context between the fourth and fifth centuries and underwent formal organization in the 13th and 14th centuries (Miu, 2018). The practice manifested itself as a deeply religious and particularly spiritual revolution (Miu, 2018). The practice began in the fourth century when the spiritual endeavor of the Egyptian monks living in the deserts, known as hermits, was separated into private prayer and asceticism (Miu, 2018). This was done in order to create a specific balance between them.

Nonetheless, even since the first phase of the advancement of Hesychasm, there has been a deviation from the holistic approach to combining praying with an ascetic lifestyle (Miu, 2018). This was introduced by monks, known as Euchites and Messalians, or praying individuals, who wished to devote themselves entirely to prayer and, as a result, chose not to work and lived as beggars (Miu, 2018). Due to this heresy, several early Christian theologians were skeptical towards Hesychasm. Even in the renowned argument in the 14th century involving Barlaam of Calabria, the followers of Hesychasm were accused of Messalianism (Miu, 2018). Therefore, the Church Fathers later started to strongly advocate physical labor paired with prayer, which is also beneficial to the underprivileged.

Towards the end of the fourth century, Evagrius Ponticus started to speculate on the religious awakening of the Desert Fathers, outlining the fundamental steps of the Hesychast philosophy in a comprehensive way. According to Ponticus, the first step to Hesychasm is physical asceticism, in which the practitioner fasts and remains vigilant (Miu, 2018). Another phase in spiritual asceticism, or the control of ones emotions, is a phase in which the battle against ego, rage, jealousy, and others is fought. The last stage is focused on pure praying, implying the subconscious communication with God, a level in which the mind may go beyond the self, to the Master, and speak with Him, without anyone mediation (Miu, 2018, p.45). As a result, this century can be remembered as the cornerstone of Hesychast philosophy.

The Messalian heresy gained traction in the fifth century, reaching the Empires eastern regions (Miu, 2018). Their theory eliminated the Holy Mysteries and the ecclesial existence because they claimed that Holy Baptism, like other Mysteries, was ineffective since it just washed away the sins, not the source of them (Reid, 1997). According to them, following Adams fall, all humans have been afflicted by a devil who compels them to commit evil.

At this point, they believed that only continuous prayer, combined with asceticism, had the strength to eliminate the forces of the evil spirit and bring the Holy Spirit into the inner self. This could allow a person to experience clarity and richness (Nasr, 1986). It could also help a person acquire the ability to distinguish spirits, the blessing of prophecy, revelations, the ability to see evil forces, and the quiet reflection of the Holy Trinity (Miu, 2018). As a result, such ideology made members follow their own objectives.

Simultaneously, the followers were claiming that the Holy Eucharist was ineffective, which led to the conclusion that they were also disputing the genuine presence of the Lord in the Eucharist (Miu, 2018). The Messalian movement was then condemned by the Council of Ephesus (Miu, 2018). This resulted in the decreased scope of spread of Hesychasm in the Byzantine Empire, with people who did not yet distinguish between the radicalism of the Messalian notion and the Hesychast philosophy viewing continuous prayer with skepticism.

In the tenth century, Saint Symeon, the New Theologian, who lived in Constantinople, revived the main Hesychast ideas and incorporated them within the context of the monastic lifestyle (Miu, 2018). In practice, he is the one who unified the monastic life of the community with internal praying (Miu, 2018). He claimed that there is no hindrance to exercising thoughtful and continuous prayer in the monasteries, with the reward being a conscious and bright presence of the Holy Spirit.

Following its triumphant restoration owing to Saint Symeon, the New Theologian, Hesychasm saw a new phase of decline due to the religious formalism that followed the Empires geopolitical peak. It witnessed a rebirth in the 13th century, only after the enormous hardships faced by the Byzantines between the years 1204 and 1261 when Byzantium was seized by the Crusaders and stayed under Roman control (Miu, 2018). Saint Nicephorus the Hesychast, a Mount Athos monk, was among the responsible for this revival since he was one of those who urged people who follow heart prayer to do so by linking it with breathing.

As mentioned before, the first skeptic of Hesychasm was the Calabrian monk Barlaam. He criticized Hesychasts corporeal techniques and suspected them of undermining Gods unity by differentiating between His unfathomable essence and identifiable energies, thereby establishing, in a somewhat Arian manner, two gods, one sublime and one immanent (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Since Barlaam was not as spiritual as the Hesychasts, he was more of a Platonist (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Gregory Palamas responded to Barlaams allegation of separation by claiming that God is innately split and dividedly unified (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Therefore, the dispute between Palamas and Barlaam was incredibly intense.

According to Hesychasm theologian Gregory Palamas, the actual hermitage is in our own heart. Palamas, being a crucial figure in the history of Hesychasm, therefore said: We work with the body and pray with the mind (Marina-Fi, 2018, p. 206). Additionally, the theologian believed our outer man to fulfill his fleshly obligations; the inner man must be totally devoted to the ministry of God, never to let this exercise of mental prayer [&] (Marina-Fi, 2018, p.206). Palamas viewed the human body as the chamber of the soul, and five senses were considered as doors (Marina-Fi, 2018, p.206). While Barlaam refused to accept the ideology of Hesychasm, the practice only gained more influence with time and dissemination of it.

Beyond the Church, the Hesychasts did not express the mysticism of the Jesus Prayer, only within the confines of an ecclesiastical tradition, which was always their foremost focus (Sekulovski, 2010). The goal of Hesychasm, according to Palamas, was unity with God and with humanity (Sekulovski, 2010). Redemption is neither an individual matter, nor a basic representation of Christian life, or a unique experience. In his opinion, there is no distinction between monastic philosophy and the Gospel teaching, which involves devotion to God and love for the neighbor (Sekulovski, 2010). Monastic community life, according to Palamas, was essential for the structuring of human society (Sekulovski, 2010). People in the community experience the feeling of existence in Communion, forming fundamental social interactions through joining together and experiencing uniqueness as a result of their shared life.

In 1341 the argument between Barlaam and Saint Gregory Palamas grew in scale, prompting the convening of a council in Constantinople, within which theologians evaluated and voted in favor of Hesychasm (Miu, 2018). Dissatisfied, Barlaam converted to Catholicism and intensified his criticism of the Hesychastic idea (Hisamatsu, 2006). In 1531, in another council convened in Constantinople, Hesychasm was declared as Eastern Church teaching (Miu, 2018). Later in this teaching, Barlaam was condemned together with other opponents of the Hesychast philosophy (Miu, 2018).

Following a significant establishment on Mount Athos between the 12th and 14th centuries, Hesychasm spread to Bulgarian, Serbian, Romanian, and Russian monasteries (Petcu, 2016). It had a significant impact on religious and monastic life since it was not detached from liturgical or holy spiritual practice (Miu, 2018). Even though the Hesychast writings were intended for monks and implemented greatest in their environment, Nicodemus of Mount Athos asserted otherwise. A connoisseur of such scriptures said that the prayer of the heart could be encountered by both religious practitioners and ordinary people since there are no two primary forms of religious adherence in Orthodoxy (Miu, 2018).

As a result, it can be seen that Hesychasm was not as endorsed in the beginning as it is now. Hesychasm started as an ascetic tradition for religious followers and involved an emphasis on heart, humanity, and unceasing praying. With development on the lands of Byzantium, it later became as Eastern Orthodox teaching, focusing on monks, religious followers, and the laity.

Implications of Hesychasm

Beyond the Hesychastic philosophy, Orthodoxy is impossible and unattainable. Hesychasm is the core of Orthodox history since it is linked to all that the name Orthodoxy reflects and symbolizes (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Furthermore, Hesychasm is the philosophers stone by which one may distinguish the authentic Christian picture. The unity with holy forces is earned in the Orthodox faith via fasting, vigils, and praying. It should also be noted that Hesychasm is considered first and foremost as the path to deification, union with God, and the perception of deification, and only secondarily as a doctrinal account of this manner of experiences.

While particular monastic groups maintained the practice alive for millennia after settling on Mount Athos and up to modern times, the monastic community as a whole has seen phases of decline and revival (Ware, 1986). The present time is unquestionably a period of rebirth since the Jesus Prayer in one of its many forms is vital to the prayer life in the majority of Orthodox monasteries worldwide (Ware, 1986). Through the history of Hesychasm, the influence of the practice can be seen and regarded as immeasurable since it stretches through the nations.

To begin with, one of the most apparent examples, the Jesus Prayer and Hesychasm, are immensely popular today among Orthodox Church-affiliated organizations and people (Loba-Mkole, 2014). Despite changes in the practices prevalence, the routines of Hesychasm have played a major role in the history of the Orthodox Church and carry on playing a significant role in the lives of many people who follow this tradition (Johnson, 2010). The Jesus Prayer and Hesychasm have a rich history in the Orthodox Church, as evidenced by earlier monastic literature (Johnson, 2010). The prayer and the practice themselves were not always as widespread in the laity and monastic environments as they are now.

Beginning as an ascetic ritual of purification and closeness with God, Hesychasm became an integral part of current Orthodox monastic practices. Despite its fluctuating reputation throughout its history, the overall degree of involvement in this practice and such praying today is likely most profound in the Orthodox culture (Loba-Mkole, 2014). With the help of the Hesychast tradition, Eastern Orthodox religious rituals, followed not only by religious followers but also by the laity, shifted to a set of exercises (Every, 1979). They were designed to cleanse Orthodox Church members and prepare them for an experience with Father that comes to them in circumstances and times He desires, through Divine mercy. Therefore, the mission of this practice became to get the Holy Spirit and redemption via cleansing and Mercy.

Another one of Hesychasms implications is a theological representation that shifted from oral to written form. The prayer grew from a predominantly oral monastic practice to a more general literary tradition, and as a result, it has become more widely recognized and used by the laity (Johnson, 2010). Orthodox thinkers depend on the Hesychastic legacy and its writings for inspiration and claim the heritage as their own (Johnson, 2010). However, many writers also stress that the Jesus Prayer and Hesychasm play a critical role in all parts of their own lives and the history and future of their church (Johnson, 2010). Generally, Orthodox writers connection to the Jesus Prayer is not purely literary but rather a part of their everyday lives, as seen by the prayers presence in numerous daily prayer books and the extensive usage of prayer ropes.

The monasteries of Bulgaria, such as those of Paroreio and Kilifarevo, are two key locations where Hesychastic literature was meticulously cultivated (Petcu, 2016). Essentially this was a consequence of the last Bulgarian Patriarch, Evtimiy of Tarnovos reforming Slavic literature (Petcu, 2016). This Hesychastic writing also extended to the northern Danube, particularly in Moldovas Monasteries (Petcu, 2016). This happened either through Bulgaria monasteries to the south of the Danube or straight from Constantinople via the Studion Monastery, an influential Hesychastic location (Petcu, 2016). As a result, with the help of Hesychasm writings, Orthodox countries and their monasteries underwent the immense influence of the practice.

Aside from the powerful restoration of the monastic spiritual life, Hesychasm brought a remarkable renaissance in artwork, literature, and philosophic-theological thinking. This was reflected in the blossoming of painting and writing of the periods of Hesychasm development (Petcu, 2016). Traditional Byzantine religious thought, which had begun to establish itself after the schism, found its most enduring incarnation in this era (Petcu, 2016). The process happened via the form of power and acceptance of the Hesychastic movement.

Additionally, it is worth mentioning that the tenacity in a Hesychast culture characterized the standpoints against the Christian, but no longer Orthodox, West (Ignat, 2019). The standpoints were also against prehistoric Hellenism, or, more accurately, against the disturbing phenomena observed in the monastic switch towards ancient times, disguised as worship of old Greek tenets (Ignat, 2019). By contrasting eastern and western traditions, it became clear that the Western regions were not only any longer in agreement with the East but had already become dangerous to the basic historical survival of the East.

The first significant clash between East and West occurred in the 14th century, in the realm of ecclesiastical-theological heritage (Miu, 2018). For the first time, an authentic western theologian, a carrier of Augustinian religious legacy and technique, had shown himself in the East to establish the extreme separation and absence of congruence between East and West (Miu, 2018). It became clear that another type of Christianity had developed in the Western regions, viewed as a nation opposite to the Roman East. The mindset supported by Barlaam later reached its zenith with the English historian Gibbon, who conveyed the Wests perspective of the Roman East in a traditional way, and who, along with the rationalist ecclesiastic scholar Mosheim, presented Adamantios Korais appropriately as the spiritual leader of Westernizers (Miu, 2018).

According to Gibbon, the divine light of the Hesychasts was the outcome of an obstinacy that is in questionable taste; it is the fruit of an empty stomach and a void head. Hesychasm, in his opinion, was the pinnacle of Greek religious folly (Miu, 2018). These preconceptions, ingrained in the Western collective consciousness via education, have shaped the Western position toward the Orthodox East, particularly Hellenism, even to the present day. As a result, western leaders bewilderment at Greece and the Balkan countries, in particular, demonstrates, among other factors, their misunderstanding of the past.

Through centuries, Hesychasm proved to be a path to restoring the serenity of the Spirit, a spiritual journey that culminates in close connection with God. The practice and unceasing prayer helped a man to transform and cleanse in the spiritual or physical way, attaining the phase of a new man who has regained the serenity of Spirit. Hesychasm today provides guidance on achieving success in recapturing and amplifying Gods grace through a way of life that the laity vaguely understands these days. This happens as communities undergo the striking variations caused by secularization, and man seeks kinds of spiritual practices capable of providing him with fast harmony and emotional wellbeing,

Hence, Hesychasm is an Eastern Orthodox religious practice in which believers seek spiritual quietness via continual prayer and reverence of God. Having been established by monks on Mount Athos in the fourth century, Hesychasm has been spreading for centuries, encountering various pitfalls. Hesychasm was first developed as an ascetic lifestyle that was supposed to bring the follower closer to God. However, later Hesychasm influenced Orthodox traditions, implying that a specific Jesus Prayer in its many forms contributes to soul-cleansing, redemption and, as a result, prepares a member for an encounter with Father.

References

Every, G. (1979). The study of Eastern Orthodoxy: Hesychasm. Religion, 9(1), 73-91.

Hisamatsu, E. (2006). The significance of the transfiguration for Hesychasm. Kobe Kaisei Review, 44, 129-140.

Ignat, A. (2019). Byzantine Hesychasm in the life of the Orthodox church. International Journal of Theology, Philosophy and Science, 3(5), 42-52.

Johnson, C. D. (2010). The globalization of Hesychasm and the Jesus prayer: Contesting contemplation. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Loba-Mkole, J. C. (2014). Beyond just wages: An intercultural analysis of Matthew 20: 116. Journal of Early Christian History, 4(1), 112-134.

Marina-Fi, L. O. (2018). The hesychasm movement and the franciscan spirituality. Altarul Reîntregirii, 23(3), 187-211.

Miu, T. A. (2018). Hesychasmthe return to the peace of the Spirit. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Scientific Research, 4(7), 43-50.

Nasr, S. H. (1986). The prayer of the heart in Hesychasm and Sufism. Greek Orthodox Theological Review, 31(1-2), 195-203.

Petcu, L. (2016). The reception of Hesychasm in the Romanian culture. International Journal of Orthodox Theology, 7(1), 62-83.

Reid, D. (1997). Hesychasm and theological method in fourteenth century Byzantium. Ostkirchliche Studien, 46(1), 15-24.

Sekulovski, G. (2010). The social aspects of fourteenth-century Hesychasm. Studia Patristica, 48, 373-377.

Ware, K. (1986). The power of the name: The Jesus prayer in Orthodox spirituality. SLG Press.

The question of spirituality and relationship of a man and God should be topical today taking into consideration the present cultural and ethical situation in contemporary society. Nowadays mankind is lead by and inspired by material values, the main characteristic of our life and lifestyle is their being mercenary. The aims of people are very often reduced to achievement of a certain level of financial stability and to satisfaction of down-to-earth aspirations. The concept of harmony and happiness is distorted nowadays due to mercenary perception of life. However, New Testament says: be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess; but be filled with the Spirit. Thus, the Holy Bible teaches humanity how to become harmonious with the world that surrounds us. In order to become an organic element of the Universe, a man should possess not only physical harmony, but spiritual unity with everything around him. Thus, spirituality is the quality necessary for healthy existence of a man and for the development of the whole mankind as well. The idea of Holt who says that Christian spirituality is historical and global. The analysis of the concept of Christian spirituality should be exercised with the help of historical perspective; that means that the comparative analysis of Christian spirituality in the course of history and the contemporary state of spirituality should be analyzed in order to draw useful lessons from history, which may be applied in the present situation.

First of all, it is necessary to define the notion Christian spirituality, which will be the basis of further study. Bradley P. Holt suggests a somewhat metaphorical explanation of the connection of spirituality as the thirst. It is not the physical thirst everyone has experienced many times in life; it is inner thirst for the living water of God, the thirst for love. The complexity of the notion of Christian spirituality may be shown by the idea of its being oxymoronic. However, the falsity of this idea may be explained by misapprehension of the ties between Christianity and spirituality as mutually exclusive. In fact, spirituality is the necessary part of any religion, it cannot be restricted to Christianity only but it does not mean that they are incompatible. On the contrary, spirituality is the engine of the development of any religion. Variety of possible interpretations of spirituality inspired by the understanding of Spirit by Christians, or Catholic determination of spiritual theology is the evidence of the complexity of the notion. However, let us be guided by the understanding of spirituality as suggested by Holt, as experience, relationship, and practice.

Spirituality, strange as it may seem, still, may be structured in order to understand its essence better. Holt defines four categories of spirituality: the relationship to God, to self, to people, and, finally, to creation. The relationship with God may be defined as emotional (prayers) and intellectual (the view of God as presented in doctrines). As we have already defined the spiritual relationship as the relationship of search for love and granting love, the spiritual relationship to oneself also means relationship built on the basis of love. This love to oneself is not synonymic to egoism or self-centeredness; it means the means the maintenance of the unity of body, soul, mind, and heart. As for the spiritual relations with other people, they may have different forms: they may be in the form of hospitality extended to those who need it, special attention to family and spiritual mentors are also emphasized by Holt. Finally, love from and to creation means that it should be extended over everything existing, the natural world, in particular.

If it is necessary to consider the history of Christian spirituality in its relation to the present situation, then it is necessary to start with the Holy Scriptures that present the embodiment of Christian spirituality, the basis of the its main principles, and the source of information. The importance of Jesus Christ as the grant of the formation of spirituality is evident. The Holy Bible presents Jesus as a human being; this is the most important assumption for Christians. It does not matter how wide the temporal, cultural, and ethnic gap between us is, the Bible presents the attitude towards Jesus that was characteristic of the time of its creation. This attitude presents great importance for us because it is the model of perception of the figure of Jesus Christ as the way to God. Christ as presented in the Bible is the unity of all aspects of spirituality because he manifests love for God, he is a human being himself, God is treated by him as the Father, and, finally, Christs self-sacrifice is the eloquent evidence of his love of humanity and creation.

The period of the beginning of global community is significant for the present understanding of spirituality due to the fact that it was the time when certain themes, which retain importance nowadays, appeared. These themes include worship and sacraments, charisms, witness unto death, spiritual disciplines, monasticism, and mysticism. Let us consider the example of martyrs in their relation to present spirituality. Nowadays this word is characterized by negative shades of meaning that is inspired by radical Muslims who are capable of murdering innocent people or organizing such atrocities as suicide-bombing in the name of their faith. However, the original interpretation of the notion martyr may be found in the early ages of Christianity. In the past, martyrs were people who followed the example of Jesus Christ and sacrificed their lives in the name of their faith. The examples of such martyrs as Ignatius of Antioch and Perpetua prove that martyrdom should be treated as the test of spirituality that is, by all means, relevant for contemporary Christian spirituality.

As for the European Era, which is also characterized by Holt in the book Thirsty for God: A Brief History of Christian Spirituality, one of the significant questions relating to spirituality as practice is also tackled by the author, it is the appearance of icons, part and parcel of religious practice that is observed nowadays as well. Icons began to appear after the time of Constantine, when the churches acquired stability of existence, large buildings, and considerable financial support. The period is important for the present study because icons are related to categories of spirituality: they serve as the medium of human communication with God, they allot supernatural power to physical objects, what is more, once and for all they claim that the nature of Jesus is human and prove the goodness of creation.

During the period of Reformation, one of the most significant figures was that of Martin Luther. His was remarkable for the changes of the doctrine he provided. However, one of the significant concepts that need mentioning is his key concept of vocation. Vocation should not be interpreted in the modern sense of this word, for Luther it encompassed the whole life, it was Gods call to be a disciple of Jesus. Vocation is the synonymous to spirituality, it means that we should fulfill our roles in family, establish healthy relationship with surrounding people, and it also concerns our professional duty. Thus, it is evident that the concept of Luther is topical nowadays as well.

On considering the history of Christian spirituality, it is possible to analyze the present situation. It is impossible to understand the nuance of contemporary spirituality if we do not take into account the historical peculiarity of the twenty-first century. It is commonly known that it is marked by such important events as two wars, Great Depression, genocide, etc. Humanity may be characterized by being disillusioned, and this is one of the sources of atheism. Taking into account this situation, it is possible to state that the study of history of spiritual tradition is one of the ways to restore spirituality in modern society. However, Holt offers reliable evidence of the development of spirituality in the twenty-first century. The examples illustrate personalities and movements that focus on particular category of spirituality, but sometimes several categories are employed by them.

Drawing a conclusion, it should be stated that the Christian spirituality is shown as multidimensional phenomenon. The historical analysis of its development creates the possibility of explanation of its essence. The formation and improvement of modern concept of spirituality is possible if its historical development is understood by humanity of the present. Historical study illustrates and proves the reliability of four concepts of spirituality: relationship to God, self, other people, and creation.

The Christian doctrine of humanity teaches that a human was created in the image of God. The monistic view is that all humans are a unit of body and soul. There are three substances created by God according to the doctrine, which is the human body, mind, and soul. Monist theory from the doctrine of humanity sees the human body together with a human body and soul as a whole. The doctrine of the church is also related to the human body and binds it to God through the church. According to the doctrine, the human soul is in unity with the church. The two mentioned ideas taken from two doctrines have in common the idea of wholeness and the relation of the human body and soul to God or the church.

In the doctrine of the church, the image of the body is used to show unity with Christ. In theology, unity with a God serves as a mutual idea for different doctrines (McGrath, 2012, p. 30). The doctrine contrasts the human body, which is united despite its large number of members, with the church, which is one body despite having as many members as the human body. Christians create a community of believers where one can not live isolated from others (Gonzalez, 2013, p. 4). When church members become part of Christ, they join the Holy Spirit according to the doctrine.

The main idea of the doctrine of salvation is based on the removal of the dangers and sufferings of ones life. Christian salvation explains that humans are saved from wrath, that is, Gods judgment of sin. The doctrine of humanity also approaches sin when it mentions the history of Adams sin. According to the doctrine of salvation, sin has separated humans from God, and the result of ones sin is death. Bible salvation involves the eradication of sin, as it concerns salvation from its consequences. In conclusion, even though the three doctrines are from different fields, such as anthropology, soteriology, and ecclesiology, they have some commonalities and intersecting ideas about the image of the human body and soul, their relation to God and church, and the meaning of sin.

References

Gonzalez, J. (2013) The Story of Christianity, Volume 2, Part 2: Orthodoxy, Rationalism, and Pietism. HarperOne.

McGrath, A. (2012) Historical Theology, Part 4: The Modern Period. Wiley-Blackwell.

Muslim concept of God

Muslims are monotheistic, they believe in one God whom they refer to as Allah. Allah is an Arabic name for God; he is One and unique in everything he had created. Allah has no gender. He is self-sufficient as His existence is not determined by anything. Muslims adore using the name of Allah is referring to God because it portrays the unique qualities of God.

Everything on earth was created and is sustained by God. He created everything with some purpose. God has also the power to destroy what He had created. In other words, God is responsible for everything that occurs on the surface of the earth. He wanted man to adore Him (11:16). To achieve this, God sent messengers to enlighten people. Among the messengers sent by God were Adam, Moses, and Mohammed. Noah, Abraham, and Jesus were also sent as messengers by God to fulfill the purpose for His creation of man. All the messengers preached the same message, they all affirmed that God was the creator and urged people to worship only Him. In chapter 112 of the Quran, Muhammad describes God as One God and the only God that is revealed to him directly by God. The Muslims believe that Muhammads prophesy cleansed all the wrong relations that existed between God and people. According to Muslims, Muhammad is responsible for the practice of monotheism religion.

Muslims believe that God is loving and merciful, which is clearly portrayed in chapter 114 of the Quran. In this chapter, the Muslims do not compare the love of God with anything; they believe that the love of God is more than the love a mother can give to her own child.

The Muslims believe that God is just. According to them, sinners must face the wrath of God, they have to be punished. The element of God as merciful affirms His quality of justice. The Muslims believe that the righteous people get different treatment from those involved in wrongs from God. They believe that those involved in the hardening of lives on the earth are entitled to punishment from God. According to the Muslims, a six-day creation is irreverent.

Muslims also believe that God is an absolute creature; they know and regard Him as an everlasting God. This is evident from chapter 23 of the Quran. This chapter explains that God exists by Himself only, He has no associate. The oneness of God is evidenced in chapter 13 of the Quran. According to this chapter, the false gods have no power of unveiling good or harm of any kind. This chapter also criticizes the worship of heavenly creatures.

For one to become a Muslim, he or she is supposed to believe in the existence of only one God that is the creator and sustainer of the whole universe. In addition, one should agree with the fact that it is only God who is supposed to be worshipped and refrain from worshipping all other types of gods. A true Muslim should not allow his or her belief to be altered by anything, one is supposed to constantly have faith in God.

Hindus concept of God

Hindus are polytheistic, they worship many gods. Some Hindus believe in the existence of three gods whereas others believe in the existence of more than a thousand gods. Surprisingly, some Hindus believe in 300 million gods. Conversely, well-versed Hindus believe in the existence of only one God. Such Hindus consider God as a Supreme Being that should be worshipped.

Hindus and Muslims possess one great difference in terms of the way they perceive God. Unlike the Muslims, the Hindus observe the philosophy of Pantheism which advocates for the worship of both the living and the non-living. Thus, the Hindus regard everything they see as God. On the other hand, Muslims believe in the existence of only one God. According to the Muslims, the worshipping of many Gods is ungodly.

Hindu scriptures provide diverse types of gods, for instance, chapter 7 of Bhagavad Gita expounds on the materialistic practices of people who worship demigods. Some Hindus refer to God as nirguNa Brahman. Such Hindus believe that God has no specific physical appearance; this is evident from Upanishads scriptures. Upanishads scriptures explain how it is impossible for a common human being to visualize the appearance of God. They also believe that God has no specific name to be referred to. However, some Hindus also believe that God can take a variety of shapes, depending on the perception of the human beings, which is considered as saguNa brahman. The forms in which God exists arrays from cool to vicious and yogic. Each form of God has got its importance.

The Hindus believe that human society is split into classes. Each class represents the people who came into being from Brahman. According to Hindus, Brahman came into being from the head of the Almighty, whereas Sudra had its origin from the Almightys feet.

Hindus also believe that people are reincarnated after death. According to them, the soul of the deceased (Atman) is reborn again and again. They argue that the rebirth of good people takes place among higher-class people whereas those of evil take place among lower-class people.

According to the beliefs of Hindus, reincarnation and rebirths lead to new souls reuniting with Brahman in a process, which is called Moksha. The reuniting of Atman with Brahman leads to a man changing into God.

In regards to Hindu beliefs, there is a god responsible for creation (Brahma), a god responsible for preservation (Vishnu), and a god responsible for destruction (Siva). Of the three gods, Vishnu is the most common one. Vishnu is associated with human beings at some time in the human life span in a process known as Sanskrit avatar.

Hindus have also a belief that twenty percent of human beings are part of God. They believe that the difference between God and human beings is only at the surface appearance.

Christian concept of God

The Christian concept of God is described in the Bible. Their concept is known as classical theism. Christians consider God as Supreme Being. The study of theism originated from the Western World. According to Christians, God has no physical parts that can be touched and felt. Christians also believe that God is the creator and sustainer of everything that dwells on earth. They believe that He is the one who created both the living and the non-living things that exist on earth. He has got power over everything. No creature can compete with Him in terms of it.

Christians also term God as omniscient; God has the knowledge of everything that coexists on earth. God exists everywhere on earth and beyond earth. He is above the earth and at the same time, He is with us. According to Christians, God does not undergo any change, He is immutable. He has maintained his appearance; He will remain to be the same now and forever. Christians also believe that God is the only God to be worshipped. They believe that He is the one who listens to and answers human prayers and supports in difficult life situations.

According to theists, God is an individual being who has all the qualities of a perfect person. For instance, in the book of Genesis chapter 17 verse 11, God is described as a self-conscious God. He is a God of love and He created the best things for His creatures. God also communicates directly with his creatures; He unites with human beings via prayers. God knows everything, Christians seek knowledge from God. God is also spiritual in nature. God is not like human beings who have one body. He has diverse appearances. In the book of John chapter 4 verse 24, God is described as a Spirit.

God is the creator and protector of all living and non-living things. According to theists, all living things coexist because of the power of God. He is the one who decides on the life span of organisms. All living things continue to exist because of Gods command. God cannot be compared with the ancient gods. He created the earth and everything on it from nothing. On the other hand, according to ancient beliefs, the gods created the universe from the preexisting elements. In addition, all living things on earth depend on the mercies of God. This is evidenced in the book of Acts chapter 17 verse 25 and Hebrews chapter 11 verse 3.

God is omnipotent. He has the power of controlling everything on earth. He has the power of controlling all living things that coexist on the earth. In the book of Isaiah chapter 46, verse 10, God is portrayed as a God of keeping promises. In addition, Jesus Christ who is portrayed as a son of God and who is also powerful, says that everything is possible if we seek His support. Although God has the power of doing everything, He cannot lie or lead His creatures into problems.

God is omnipresent, He is everywhere at any time. There is no place an individual can hide because God resides everywhere. God coexists as a spirit hence enhancing His presence everywhere. In the Bible, He provided support to the prophets in terms of spirit. God also appeared to Moses in form of light on their way to Canaan, hence He is everywhere.

God is omniscient, He knows everything. He is the creator of the universe and He is aware of all that happens. There is nothing that can be hidden from Him because He already has insight into all that exists. He knows about everyone on earth even before they are born. He has plans for everything and designed everything in His own way. This means He has a count of all because all belongs to Him and that nothing can be hidden from Him. This is evident in the book of Genesis. He confirmed to Jeremiah during his call that He was aware of his existence even before his conception.

Works cited

Koslowski, Paul. The concept of God, the origin of the world, and the image of the human in the world religions. New York: Springer, 2001. Print.

Piamenta, Moshe. The Muslim Conception of God and Human Welfare: A Reflected in Every Day Speech. New York: Brill Archive, 1983. Print.

Raven, Charles. Evolution and the Christian Concept of God: Delivered Before the University of Durham at Armstong College. New Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, November 1935. New York: Oxford University Press, 1936. Print.

Introduction

Modernism and postmodernism belong to the same movement. Both are based on changes in cultural, economic, and social movements. However, the two movements differ when it comes to the way of thinking. This essay will explore which world view, the modernity or the postmodernity, is more conducive to Christian beliefs. I think that modernism is more conducive to Christian beliefs because Christian beliefs are based on faith.

Differences

Modernism is objective. Thinkers who belonged in this movement tried to search for the real meaning of life; in other words, the inner truths. On the other hand, thinkers in postmodernism believe that life is meaningless. Modernism began around the year eighteen ninety and lasted till the year nineteen forty-five, and this was at the end of Second World War Two. Postmodernism is said to have begun after the Second World War. This is because this period is characterized by complex developments in economic, cultural, and social sectors.

Thinkers and artists in modernism are considered to be rational thinkers. This is because they believe in science and technology, and they advocated for logical thinking. On the other hand, postmodernism is irrational. This is because it does not advocate for logical thinking, rather they advocate for antiscientific thinking (Loyola College 1).

Discussion

Modernism advocates for learning from experiences. Christians learn a lot from past experiences that were encountered by the apostles. A good example in the bible is when Daniel (6:1-28) was thrown in a den of lions after failing to pray to other gods. From this story, we learn that the God of Daniel rescued him from the lions. This is a great encouragement to Christians since from this story they learn that if one serves God with truth and honesty, then God will send his angels to protect him/her from enemies (The Holy Bible 621).

Modernism is more optimistic compared to postmodernism. The reason why I say so is that modernist thinkers see life as purposeful while postmodernism thinkers see life as meaningless. According to the Bible, in the book of Jeremiah, the Lord says of Jeremiah that he knew him, set him apart and appointed him even before he was formed in his mothers womb.

This means that he was born for a purpose, as indicated in Jeremiah 1: 5 (The Holy Bible 525). Christians, therefore, believe that everyone was born with a purpose. However, Solomon, in the same Bible, states, in Ecclesiastes ch.1, 2 & 3, that life is meaningless (The Holy Bible 464 and 465).

Modernism values original arts and literature, while postmodernism sees no truths in original work. Literature in the bible was written many years back, but this literature is still of great importance up to date. Generations to generations have been using this book, and they believe in it.

Conclusion

I believe that artists and thinkers who belong to modernism are in a better position to understand and appreciate life. Though points have been forwarded by proponents of postmodern, they should disregard them to make life simple and worth living.

Works Cited

Loyola College. Modernism and Post Modernism. Loyola College. Web.

The Holy Bible. The Holy Bible. New International Version, 1984. Colorado: Zondervan. Print.

The article How should Christians interact with psychology does not reject the compatibility of psychology and region outright but does relay that the interplay of both fields is complex. It explains that both contradictions and agreements are shared between the two practices. In fact, because We are from God, and whoever knows God listens to us; but whoever is not from God does not listen to us. This is how we recognize the Spirit of truth and the spirit of falsehood, a dialogue can take place in relation to the two fields, namely, faith and science (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, 1 John 4:6). The diverse worldviews within Christian communities also work to blur the lines between what can be perceived as the ultimate truth within the field of psychology. From a religious standpoint, one may interpret Biblical scriptures differently from what they intend to portray. Scripture also provides Christians and psychologists with an illustration of the essence of the human condition, an aspect that creates a link between the two fields.

The conclusion the article draws can be summarized by the fact that the truth through the Bible is authoritative in an approach that psychological studies cannot be. I agree with this deduction, as both Biblical texts and practices depict much more rigidity and self-certainty than any psychological principles, even those supported by physiological findings and evidence (Black, 2020). As a result, the two perspectives provide diverse approaches to individual mental well-being and behavioral explanations. The Bible may vary in specific explanations but relies on many principles, such as the will of God and related concepts, to explain an individuals state. Psychology lacks absolute and certain explanations for such phenomena and allows for multiple interpretations and reasons for the occurrence of all types of physiological and psychological events. My understanding of integration shapes my overview of physiological psychology based on the idea that religion has been shown to have a more rigid approach. Thus, while physiological psychology may be influential in determining the problem, faith can have the potential to assist in treatment.

References

Black, J. (2020). How should Christians interact with psychology? Cairn University. Web.

English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online.

Introduction

The gospel claims The poor you will always have with you in Mark 14:7. Christian circles have varying responses to poverty based on ones decision to focus on the physical, emotional, spiritual, and economic aspects connected to being poor. Christianity emphasizes being rich in spirit. I believe ones perception of reality affects their spiritual richness. They are unlikely to tend to spiritual nourishment if they have not endured hardships. But this term is relative as everyone experiences hardships, whether rich or poor. Poverty is not associated with Godliness (Singh, 2018). However, the poor are Gods children and are entitled to His kingdom as their wealthy counterparts. Nonetheless, they suffer through hardships that may impede their faith. Some people lose faith in God as they perceive life difficult. People frequently question why God allows them to go through hardships. This is true for poor people as well since they face more tremendous hardships than others. Christians perceive poverty differently than people without faith, noting the necessity for integrated support to help those in need.

Poverty in Christianity

Christians have a responsibility to take care of the poor in society. Alleviating some aspects that trouble the poor enables them to focus on other factions of life. Interacting with the less fortunate in society helps Christians empathize with them. American children may find it difficult to imagine that their agemates in less developed countries are happy. They are unlikely to accept that one could enjoy their time without money-bought items. However, interacting with the poor provides an accurate notion of the issue. Poor people are more likely to be grateful for little pleasures that wealthier individuals would find familiar (Eitzen et al., 2018). People are less likely to appreciate what they consider normal. This is a luxury poor people do not have. Christians learn to appreciate the smallest things in life, taking into account the plight of poor people and how lucky they are to find themselves in a better position. This is different solution from other perspectives as it requires being grateful for ones fortune.

Christian faith helps look at poverty from a different perspective than a selfish outlook. While some poor people may have played a part in losing wealth, some individuals did not cause their suffering. However, whichever the case, Christians should not base their willingness to help the poor on a reason. Helping others is a central tenet of Christianity that makes solutions plausible. Including Christ in this choice means helping others even if they are responsible for being poor. We should endeavor to use His teachings and help the poor in society, emulating Him by improving the lives of the less fortunate among us.

The Bible indicates the relevance of focusing on ones relationship with God before focusing on worldly definitions of wealth. Christians do not consider wealth solely as property and understand that helping others and achieving enlightenment is more important than worldly gains. However, it is naïve to assume that living in a world without money is helpful to others. A Christian with riches would significantly impact the poor more than a poor one. In this way, Christians must work hard and hope they are lucky to get worldly wealth (Eitzen et al., 2018). For instance, Christians working in a soup kitchen rely on goodwill to gain food supplies and other amenities provided to the poor. Nonetheless, one should consider that wealthier people donate these items and would be incapable of doing so if they could not take care of themselves. Therefore, wealth is not inherently wrong but should be channeled to helping others attain good living standards such as what we are privy to.

Christ commanded the church to care for the poor, spiritually and physically. Many rich people worldwide can effect significant changes and eliminate poverty. However, they do not make these decisions but focus on gaining more wealth. People fight for resources and have segregated themselves based on artificial constructs, poor vs. wealthy, upper class vs. lower class. Nonetheless, the only actual separation between people is their spiritual connection to God and others (Singh, 2018). Ones actions are all that remain after one dies. Therefore, we should carefully consider what others perceive of us based on the impact we have on society. Poor people are among the neediest groups in society and need the rest of us to put aside our differences to improve their lives. It is prudent to note that helping the poor alleviate their condition would reduce the burden on others.

Christs teachings have aided me in developing an accurate understanding of what it means to be spiritually rich. People should take care of each other worldwide as it is our true purpose. People in less developed countries experiencing poverty discern that while they are alone in suffering, working together with others helps reduce the feeling of hopelessness. They further note the importance of social responsibility, helping each other grow and face adversities (Singh, 2018). This enables them to remain hopeful and content despite being poor. Interestingly, many wealthy people are stressed by things that some poor individuals do not consider relevant. The poor know that one could have less and learn to appreciate what they have. Ironically, the poor can teach us how to be grateful for what we have despite having less than we do.

I ascertained that learning about the varying ways that poverty affects society and what we should do as Christians to alleviate the suffering of others helps a person develop a deeper understanding of the world. While people in first-world economies are more likely to feel pity for their less-developed counterparts, they may be incapable of realizing that happiness is one choice (Browder, 2021). You do not need riches to be happy. However, rich people can help the poor solve their problems while becoming spiritually richer. Eliminating poverty should be societys main concern as it allows people to focus on other problems facing society. It makes societies more equitable and adheres to Christs teachings concerning how people interact with each other. Society should look after every member and not use excuses to divide them into groups. People can work together and continue growing rather than assuming life is a zero-sum game. One does not have to be rich to be happy, physically or spiritually.

Conclusion

In conclusion, poverty does not apply solely to physically poor people and may refer to spiritual inferiority. Christians have a moral duty to help the poor in society as Christ demands action based on His example. A person with more resources should use them to uplift the lives of those around them for a better world. This action makes them more spiritually rich while reducing physical poverty among those in society.

References

Browder, K. (2021). Opinion: Christians should be helping the poor and needy, not the Government. The Liberty Champion. Web.

Eitzen, D., Zinn, M., & Smith, K. (2018). Social problems (14th ed.). Pearson.

Singh, S. (2018). A Christian response to poverty aims for long-term restoration. Institute For Faith, Work & Economics. Web.