Category: Chinua Achebe

Chinua Achebe was born in Ogidi (Nigeria) in 1930, where he grew up and was educated. He graduated in English Literature in London and moved to the US where he wrote and published Things Fall Apart in 1958. The novel helped create the Nigerian literary renaissance of the 1960s and provided a real vision of what Europe had openly ignored. “The African people have varying behaviours, mannerisms, beliefs, thought patterns and way of interaction and all of these differences formed their culture and impacted their way of life. However, with the coming of the Europeans to Africa came cultural infiltration, pollution as well as alteration” (Tobalase Adegbite O. in “Review Masculinity and cultural conflict in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart”). Chinua Achebe was able to show the Ibo society and the effects of European colonization.

The African clan of Umuofia in Things Fall Apart is clearly divided by gender. Men and women had strictly different roles. In the Ibo society, men can have as many wives as they can afford to keep. “His development as a successful and powerful person of the clan and his fall as a man covers all patterns of gender discrimination. A successful and powerful person must have more than one wife. This is the symbol of power, prestige and after all success.” (Gatta G. Sawant in “Patriarchy in Things Fall Apart: A Study of Gender Discrimination”.)

There are many tasks men do not do. For example: making dinner. Women are supposed to make dinner for their husbands and their children, usually at a certain time. When this task is not succesfully accomplished in the novel, it creates tension between Okonkwo and one of his wives, Ojiugo. Although it was the Week of Peace, when any kind of fighting is forbidden, Okonkwo beat her. As as consequence for his offense, he must make sacrifices and offerings to the Earth Goddess. Women discrimination is well portrayed by Chinua Achebe. “The female gender is often presented in literature as the sexually domesticated being; a weak vessel whose duties are to produce children and prepare food for the family. A man who fails to fulfil his roles in society is usually referred to as a woman, which demonstrates the underlying attitudes towards women.” (U. Ijem & Isaiah I. Agbo in “Language and Gender Representation in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart”).

Men also have set roles in everyday life. They are in charge of laws, except when punishment is ordered by the Earth God through his messenger, Chielo. They are warriors, protectors and providers. Agriculture dictated Ibo society. They depend on the weather. If a man is not capable of providing enough food for his family with his farms, he is seen as not a man. Okonkwo’s father could not support his family, what made him less of a man. He was in debt and a coward. That is why Okonkwo’s biggest fear is becoming his father. Therefore he acts strictly even around his family. Despite men and women both take care of crops, they grow different ones. Women are in charge of “women’s crops” such as beans, cassava and melons. They also take care of the farm animals like goats and chickens. Meanwhile men do “men’s crops” like yams.

Regarding inheritance, only the sons inherit from their fathers. They are also the only ones who help their fathers in their farming work. The daughters cannot inherit and do not help their fathers in the farms. In the novel, Ezinma is Okonkwo’s favourite child, but she is a girl. Consequently, she cannot inherit from her father. She wants to help his father but Okonkwo does not let her. Okonkwo laments that Enzinma was not born a boy.

The art of conversation is important for the Ibo culture and Chinua Achebe portrays this with the use of proverbs in the novel. For instance: “Looking at a king’s mouth, one would think he never sucked at his mother’s breast” (chapter 4). There is a ritual in which the visitor is always the first to drink. Then the men and at last the women. Unlike in Europe, there exists a bride-price ritual in which the future wife’s parents have to pay a dowry to marry their daughter. The ritual was performed with broomsticks, taking and discussing the amount of cowries the broom family will take. No money matters are mentioned.

Regarding religion, they are polytheistic. They adore several gods instead of just one like other Asian and Western cultures. These gods control their lives and world. Every god has his or her own ritual and custom. For instance, the Week of Peace is celebrated in order to honor the goddess Ani. They adore her so she will bless their crops. Furthermore, there also oracles that represent the gods on Earth. The are possessed by the gods from time to time and they tell humans what they ought to do.Another sad convention of the Ibo society was the consequences of twins being born. Both babies were put into pots and thrown away in the forest because they were seen as evil spirits.

The Ibo language is also an important part of their culture. Although the novel is written in English, Chinua Achebe introduces many Ibo words into his story. For instance: “egwugwu”, spirits who wander the Earth; ”nso-ani” which is the ending of the Week of Peace and “ilo” which is the village playground. The European missionaries spoke English and needed the help of interpreters, which gave them a bad impression. The missionaries that could speak Ibo language were better received. Not speaking the language is the most dividing thing there can be between two cultures.

Things Fall Apart is a 1958 novel written by Nigerian author Chinua Achebe. The first book in a trilogy, Things Fall Apart is Chinua Achebe’s magnus opus and is regarded as one of the greatest works of modern African literature. It is a staple of school curriculums throughout Africa and is studied extensively in many English-speaking countries. Set initially in pre-colonial Nigeria, Things Fall Apart tells the story of an Igbo man named Okonkwo, a member of the fictional clan of Umuofia in the south-east of Nigeria. The novel consists of three parts, with the first following Okonkwo’s rise through the ranks of his clan as well as detailing his family history and the various traditions and beliefs of the Igbo society. The latter two parts deal with the arrival of the Europeans and Christian missionaries in Africa and the effects they had on the traditional ways of Igbo community’s life along with the changes in Okonkwo’s life.

Chinua Achebe portrays Okonkwo as a prideful, abusive and misogynistic man. Okonkwo was overambitious and resorted to violence any time his patience was tested. However, Achebe also puts Okonkwo’s behaviour in context by describing the traditional culture and beliefs of the Igbo clan at the time. In the Igbo community any outward display of affection was considered feminine and weak. A man’s success within the clan was judged by his harvest and how well he controled his wives. However, as Achebe highlights, Okonkwo’s behaviour was often driven by societal pressure and norms. He was constantly scared of turning into his father who was considered an “efulefu” (worthless man) of the clan and he was obsessed with being strong and worthy of the titles being bestowed upon him by his clan. Okonkwo’s rise through the ranks of Umuofia may have easily been hampered by any sign of weakness. Achebe uses the instance of Okonkwo killing his surrogate son Ikemefuna, who was surrendered to Umuofia by another clan in order to settle a dispute, to stress Okonkwo’s obsession with displaying strength. In part one of the book, Achebe also manages to paint a broad and vibrant picture of precolonial Igbo culture. Igbo culture in the precolonial era is revealed to be deeply religious yet rife with superstitious beliefs. The people are greatly concerned about angering their Gods and often performed sacrifices to appease Them. Moreover, anything that was considered unnatural by the clan, such as twins, were immediately discarded to avoid angering the Gods. However, despite their antiquated practices, the Igbo community was very tight-knit and the societal rules helped everything run smoothly. Igbo’s outdated practices come to the fore when Okonkwo was banished from his clan for seven years after accidentally killing someone at an elder’s funeral. Accidental crimes were considered “feminine” by the clan and thus Okonkwo and his family were exiled to his mother’s clan, Mbanta, with his huts and livestock in Umuofia destroyed. Achebe’s takes great effort in portraying how deeply emasculated Okonkwo felt by his exile even though he was happily accepted by his mother’s clan. Chinua Achebe, an Igbo man himself, takes a very neutral approach when telling Okonkwo’s story; highlighting all the negative aspects of precolonial Igbo community such as its treatment of women and superstitious beliefs but also emphasizes on their traditions and societal rules.

Achebe also succeeds in drawing parallels between the changes in Okonkwo’s life in and the turmoil in Africa’s socio-political scene as Christian missionaries began infiltrating parts of Nigeria, including Umuofia and Mbanta. Moreover, Achebe presents a great juxtaposition between the spiritual and superstitious religious beliefs of the local clans and the strict, monotheistic beliefs of the Europeans.

While the locals were initially amused by the arrival of the white men, they are soon dismayed by the disruptions the Europeans were causing in their traditional way of life. These changes enraged Okonkwo and his anger was deepened when his son, Nwoye, abandoned his Igbo beliefs to join the Christian missionaries. Okonkwo ended up disowning his son as he considered it a great insult and damage to his patriarchal line.

Through Okonkwo’s experiences, Achebe exhibits the growing divisions in the Igbo clans as well as the change in attitude the locals had towards the Europeans. Upon their arrival in Nigeria, the Christian missionaries began to appeal to the locals, especially the younger ones and the “osu” (outcasts). As people inside the clan started to convert to Christianity, the ties within the clan that had ensured its survival so far also began to weaken. The view the leaders held towards Christian missionaries is best represented by a quote friend Obierika, who was a friend of Okonkwa: ‘The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers and our clan can no longer act like one.’

In the third part of Things Fall Apart, the British start increasing their presence in Umuofia and establish their own rule of law, no longer just focusing on spreading Christianity. Local clansmen found in violation of British laws were routinely humiliated and punished. An example of this was seen when the clan leaders were locked up and beaten after the “egwugwu” (masqueraders impersonating ancestral spirits of the village) destroyed the local church. It was following this event that Okonkwo realized that his clan had no intention of fighting the British and after having killed a messenger who worked for the colonialists, committed suicide. The suicide marked Okonkwo’s final act of humiliation as suicide is against the traditions of the Igbo and it meant that Okonkwo is stripped of all his titles and denied a proper burial.

Achebe through Things Fall Apart dispels the Western notion that Africans were uncivilized and in need of western intervention before the colonial era. In fact, Achebe presents a well-functioning society, with its own set of rules and traditions. However, once the Europeans arrived, African people, who were accustomed to their way of living and had had the same values for generations, were suddenly forced to conform to the standards set by the colonialists, which ultimately stripped them of their identity.

Defined as conflict between two or more opposing groups within a society in efforts to attain irreconcilable goals and prevent the advancement of an opponent, social conflict is a theme that is at the forefront of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun, and their respective historical settings, with Things Fall Apart set in pre-colonial Nigeria and Half of a Yellow Sun in post-colonial Nigeria. Both authors consider this theme in broader senses, such as the clash of European and traditional tribal institutions, the incompatibility of a modernised culture with its origins and the conflict between perspectives and accounts of a country’s story. In doing so, Adichie and Achebe present a commentary on cultural growth and provide a view of Nigeria as multi-faceted and developed, contrasting with what Adichie describes as the patronising ‘single story of Africa’ of poverty and despair that has too often been presented by Western literature.

As noted by Buakei Jabbi, the primary theme of Things Fall Apart can be seen as the ‘friction with new sets of values and institutional structures’, a theme typically interpreted as referring to the conflict between established Igbo society and institutions, and the imposition of European structures and ideals. Achebe’s consideration of justice systems within British and Igbo cultures in Things Fall Apart is an obvious reflection of this. For example, Samuel B Olorounto has observed how the use of the masked men or egwugwus and the judgement of the trial of Uzowulu and Mgbafo indicate how the Igbo system is one of justice and equality, one in which there are no ‘losers’, as shown in the penalties ruled being mutually beneficial. The offending Uzowulu is ordered to ‘go to [his] in-laws with a pot of wine and beg [his] wife to return to [him]. It is not bravery when a man fights with a woman’. Not only does this judgement illustrate the sophistication of Igbo society but the penalty itself is an action evoking a sense of community and togetherness, highlighting the significance of being a collective. The judicial system itself, being officiated by ancestral spirits, emphasises the strong ties of cultural identity in all aspects of life and demonstrates the strength of Igbo social identity. This established system of justice and equality contrasts directly with that which Okonkwo and the other men are subjected to at the hands the District Commissioner, who represents the European colonial forces. On tricking the men into visiting him and having them arrested, the District Commissioner states, ‘We have brought a peaceful administration to you and your people so that you may be happy’. The contrast between the first person plural pronoun ‘we’, to refer to the British, and the impersonal second person plural pronoun ‘you’, to refer to the people of Umofia, asserts the British as those in a position of power and superiority, and implies that they are in possession of far more “civilised” institutions than the Igbo. The use of the term ‘peaceful’ to describe the British system is not only ironic, given the aggressive and violent ways imperial forces are known to have treated indigenous communities in the colonial-era, as recounted in the novel’s latter half, but also insinuates that any system that the Igbo have is barbaric and wild, reflecting the widespread contemporary European idea of African peoples as “savages”. The District Commissioner’s claim that this system is being imposed ‘so that you may be happy’ demonstrates his ignorance of the culture he seems so intent on erasing, as it again suggests a lack of any such system within their culture, and carries a patronising tone that contributes to the “othering’ of the Igbo. This “othering” is referred to in a wider sense by Achebe in his response to Heart of Darkness’ portrayal of indigenous African communities, in which he argues that Western perspectives such as those expressed in Heart of Darkness, ‘[project] the image of Africa as ‘the other world,’ the antithesis of Europe and therefore of civilisation’. This perspective can be clearly linked to Things Fall Apart, where the Igbo judicial system is seen by the British as the ‘antithesis’ of their own, thereby making it illegitimate. Therefore, in writing Things Fall Apart and comparing these conflicting societies and cultures, Achebe can be seen to be deliberately subverting these ideas of Africa as primitive and, instead, presenting an account of Nigeria in which traditional culture is shown to be nuanced, complex and developed and that of the British as brutal and cold.

Clashes between ancestral culture and one that closely mirrors European ideals and institutions are also present in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun. Characters such as, Odenigbo, Olanna, Kainene and their family can be considered to reflect the assimilation of indigenous culture into that imposed by the British during the colonial era, which, as observed by Kwame Anthony Appiah, has resulted in Olanna and Odenigbo representing “a relatively small, Western-style, Western-trained group of writers and thinkers’. This is shown in the novel’s opening chapter, where Odenigbo’s intellect is emphasised in Adichie’s description of his books being ‘crammed’, ’piled’ and ‘stacked’ all over the house – terms which imply a sense of excess and disorder. However, Adichie deliberately includes the titles of some of these books, including ‘The Great Chain of Being’ and ‘The Norman Impact Upon England’ – books with a evident focus on British history and concepts – perhaps to comment on the nature of Odenigbo’s intellect and qualifications as being a product of Eurocentrism, born of the lasting impact of colonial occupation. Adichie further stresses the significance of English and Western education in the novel’s structure. For example, the opening chapter, written from Ugwu’s perspective, introduces Olanna not by her physical appearance, but by the sound of her voice and the way in which she speaks English. In prioritising these two qualities over Olanna’s physicality, or any other trait, Adichie calls the reader’s attention to the high value and importance that Nigerian society, even when free from imperial rule, placed upon the ability to speak English or to have links to the Western world through language, work or education as a way of signifying status and success. This cultural supremacy and subsequent rejection of indigenous Nigerian tribal languages and cultures clearly reflect a conflict within Nigerian society regarding the preference given to European culture and the rejection of their own.

Ugwu’s perspective in the opening chapter continues to convey a sense of intense admiration of anything vaguely British, which he views as ‘superior’, as illustrated again in his perception of Odenigbo and Olanna’s fluency in English. Achebe writes of how, to Ugwu, ‘Master’s English was music, but what Ugwu was hearing now, from this woman was magic. Here was a superior tongue, a luminous language, the kind of English he heard on Master’s radio, rolling to with clipped precision. It reminded him of slicing a yam with a newly sharpened knife, the easy perfection in every slice’. The use of the metaphor of Olanna’s English ‘remind[ing] him of slicing a yam with a newly sharpened knife’ is an especially important representation of the conflict between the merged European and traditional Igbo cultures. In Things Fall Apart, yams are mentioned repeatedly and described in reverential terms such as ‘the king of crops’, with a festival held in their honour, and are also used as an indicator of wealth, as shown in Achebe repeatedly mentioning how ‘Okonkwo was clearly cut out for great things. … He was a wealthy farmer and had two barns full of yams’, illustrating the yam’s great significance in pre-colonial Igbo culture. The use of this item, that has been viewed as having such great value, to describe the ability to speak English can be viewed as an almost ironic comment by Adichie on the way that long-established values have been warped and contorted so as to praise a culture said values have historically been disregarded and destroyed by. It can also be seen to stress the respect and esteem the skill was given in post-colonial Nigeria. The nouns ‘precision’, ‘perfection’, and ‘magic’, along with alliterated ‘luminous language’ further develop this sense of English’s elevated status, highlighting its ‘superior’ status in comparison to Igbo. Adichie’s presentation of this inequality between Nigeria’s native languages, which are regarded as inferior, and the language of imperialists, English, is indicative of the wider conflict between European and Igbo culture, reflecting the way in which its effects carry through generations – from that of Things Fall Apart’ s setting to the modern day.

As well as considering social conflict in relation to clashes between the diverging cultures of European colonisers and the native Igbo people, Achebe’s Things Fall Apart also contemplates the conflicts that occur within cultures. Samuel B Olorounto has noted how, when discussing the conflicts between old and new that arise in the novel, ’it has never been made clear … whether the “new” refers only to the incursions of imperialism or whether it should also include the new elements in the Igbo culture itself’, referring to how cultural developments can be just as contentious and incompatible with a culture’s roots as those imposed by the British. This conflict within society is best demonstrated in Nwoye’s gradual distancing of himself from Igbo customs, as shown in his response to the killing of twins. Achebe recounts Nwoye’s experience during the last harvest season when he and other members of the community were returning from a yam farm ‘when they heard the voice of an infant crying in the thick forest. Nwoye had heard that twins were put in earthenware pots and thrown away in the forest… A vague chill had descended on him and his head had seemed to swell… Then something had given way inside him’. Achebe has stated that one of his aims in writing Things Fall Apart was to allow Nigerians to learn of their heritage and history, much of which has been erased, and to educate international audiences about said heritage, and so this description of the typical practice of discarding of twins as a result of Igbo culture being highly superstitious can be viewed as a way for Achebe to achieve this. The ‘vague chill’ and feeling that ‘his head had seemed to swell’, coupled with the feeling of having something ‘giv[e] way inside him’ presents as physically repulsed and impacted by such actions, resulting in his determination to reject them. Achebe further develops this sense of Nwoye being physically aversion to adhering to tradition in his reaction to the death of Ikemefuna. Having forged a brotherly bond with him, in the wake of his death, Nwoye retreats into himself, describing again how he felt something ‘give way inside him, like the snapping of a tightened bow’ on sensing his loss. Nwoye’s repeated sense of having something ‘break’ or ‘give way’ internally, in instances where tradition contradicts his morals, emphasises his resistance to customs and the way this reluctance arises from his very core. The simile of a something ‘snapping like tightened bow’ internally implies that was a result of a prolonged build-up of tension, potentially arising from Nwoye’s constant unease and conflict with the practices of his father and community. The use of this image of a tool customarily used in Umofia reflects how, whilst he is still casting aside this culture whose practices he finds so morally compromising, they will still be a part of him.

Just as in Things Fall Apart, in Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun, the theme of social conflict that occurs within a society is explored in relation to twins, in other words, in Olanna and Kainene’s very existence. Frances E. White observes how ‘readers of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart may remember that twins, among pre-colonial and colonial Igbo-speaking peoples, were seen as abominations. … Surely it is no accident that Olanna and Kainene are twins’, implying that the inclusion of the two twins in her novel, was a deliberate decision by Adichie’s to illustrate cultural growth and the vast difference in traditional beliefs and contemporary values. This is certainly true in the very fact that the twins survived their infancy, unlike those mentioned in Things Fall Apart. Olanna and Kainene also see their twin-hood as a means of uniting them. Adichie writes from Olanna’s perspective of how Kainene calling her ‘ejima m’ (‘twin’ in Igbo) ‘warmed her’, a verb that connoting comfort and affection, a stark contrast to the attitude presented in Things Fall Apart where twins are explicitly considered ‘abominations’. Whilst antiquated ideas are still present, as illustrated by Chief Okonji telling Olanna and Kaienene’s parents that ‘whoever said [they] lost out by having twin daughters is a liar’, their very being is a rejection of a central practice of pre-colonial Nigeria, reflecting not only social growth and.development, but also the conflict between old and new values. Furthermore, Adichie’s presentation of Odenigbo’s mother as traditionalist whose identity is shaped by adhering to feminine norms contributes to the theme of conflict within a culture. When talking to Olanna early in the novel, she demonstrates how abiding by said norms give her a sense of authority, in that one of her initial remarks to Olanna is, ‘I hear you did not suck your mother’s breasts’. This statement is repeated, emphasising the sense of superiority having breastfed gives her as a way of adhering to cultural ideas of femininity and the role of women being primarily as mothers and caregivers, and, although these ideas were gradually declining in significance by the late 1960s when Half of a Yellow Sun is set, they maintained a degree of continuity from those present in the Umofia of in Things Fall Apart, set years before. These old ideas of womanhood, embodied by Odenigbo’s mother, conflict with modern views that are less focused on motherhood and nurturing and, by the novel’s end, Olanna and Kainene’s identities are based on a rejection of such norms. They both discard submission and passivity, taking agency over their own lives, a quality present in Kainene’ from her first introduction to the novel, in her independence in running her family’s business. However, Olanna’s develops throughout the hardships she experiences which force her to take control and responsibility in the absence of Odenigbo’s emotional strength. Adichie’s development of these characters, not only as twins but as women, is a clear indicator of how social development within a culture places tradition in direct conflict with modernity.

In this essay I am going to analyse the tragic role of the central character from the novel “Things Fall Apart” written by the Nigerian author Chinua Achebe in 1958, Okonkwo, who goes from having a good life and power within his clan to being a man driven to death by his misery and his misfortune. I will use the guidelines provided by Aristotle in order to demonstrate that Okonkwo falls within the tragic hero profile established by the Greek philosopher.

Aristotle defined the tragic hero archetype describing his characteristics. The philosopher suggested in his manuscript entitled “Poetics” that the hero of a tragedy should experience:

• Hamartia: The tragic flaw or error that causes the fall of the hero.
• Peripeteia: The change of fortune caused by the hero’s hamartia. It is the trigger for the action of the tragic story. In Aristotle’s words, hamartia is defined as “reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers round to its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity” (20).
• Anagnorisis: The crucial moment of dramatic revelation in which the hero discovers that the peripeteia is the result of his actions. Aristotle defines it as ‘a change from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune’ (20).
• Katharsis: It is the feeling of compassion or fear that the public experiences in an emphatic way towards the hero after his tragic fate.

The tragic protagonist of this African novel is a tough, self-made and respected man among the Igbo clan of Umofia.

Okonkwo’s hamartia lies in his fear of becoming his father as we can infer in this fragment: “But his whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and of weakness. It was deeper and more intimate than the fear of evil and capricious gods and of magic, the fear of the forest, and of the forces of nature, malevolent, red in tooth and claw. Okonkwo’s fear was greater than these. It was not external but lay deep within himself. It was the fear of himself, lest he should be found to resemble his father. Even as a little boy he had resented his father’s failure and weakness, and even now he still remembered how he had suffered when a playmate had told him that his father was agbala. That was how Okonkwo first came to know that agbala was not only another name for a woman, it could also mean a man who had taken no title. And so Okonkwo was ruled by one passion – to hate everything that his father Unoka had loved. One of those things was gentleness and another was idleness.” (Achebe 9,10).

Okonkwo remembers Unoka as a bad head of the family, being an unproductive man, with aversion to violence and passion for music, an activity described as ‘effeminate’ in the eyes of his son and Igbo society. Unoka died as an indebted man with bad reputation within the clan. Fact that causes Okonkwo a deep embarrassment towards his father and an obsession with hard work.

Another consequence of this fear of weakness that characterized his father, according to Okonkwo, is wanting to maintain his manhood at any cost, making him behave in a violent and impulsive way with his family and repressing all emotion generated in him. This aggressive behaviour of Okonkwo, the abusive attitude he has towards his family and the murder of Ikemefuna originates the peripeteia: when the missionaries spread the Christian religion in Umofia, his son Nyowe embraces the new religion, finding in Christianity an escape route from the brutality and repression of his father regarding the sensitive and peaceful personality that Nyowe has, due to the fact that Okonkwo considers him ‘effeminate’ for having those traits.

After being in exile, Okonkwo discovers this new situation in his land where everything has changed radically. The religion of the newcomers has imposed on the now obsolete beliefs of the Igbo, and those ‘weak’ traits that he detested are now praised. Then Okonkwo realizes he cannot do anything to avoid the invasion of the white men and the huge impact they have on the clan since very few men of the tribe are ready for a rebellion, which produces in him the moment of anagnorisis:

“The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers, and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart.” (Achebe 124).

So, devoid of all hope and having nothing left to live for or, better said, fight Okonkwo, the last bulwark of the almost eradicated pre-colonial culture of the Igbo clan, hangs himself on a tree, which is ironic because for him and for Igbo, suicide is described as an ‘effeminate’ act and is a great crime for their deities and ancestors:

“It is against our custom, It is an abomination for a man to take his own life. It is an offense against the Earth, and a man who commits it will not be buried by his clansmen. His body is evil, and only strangers may touch it” (Achebe 147).

As this passage illustrates, Igbo tradition dictates that whoever commits suicide will not have the right to an honourable funeral. The irony is that Okonkwo’s lifelong endeavour to avoid becoming his father, who was considered an ‘effeminate’ man, is cut short by this tragic outcome, but in this way he retains his dignity and pride by choosing death instead of kneeling to the colonizers and their new ideals thus giving a feeling of katharsis to the reader.

In conclusion, we can see how Achebe perfectly portrays Okonkwo as a tragic Aristotelian hero. Due to him fulfils the requirements written by Aristotle. Okonkwo was a man who despite having suffered his rise and fall, he always had his ideals rooted in his guts until everything fell apart for him.

In the novel, Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, gender stereotypes profoundly influence the entire village, the Ibo society has a strict system of behavioral customs that are assigned by gender. They have restricted the freedom of Ibo women to present that Ibo men are superior to women and gender plays a large role in the novel as it is structured around gender roles, masculinity and femininity.

The roles of male and female have been controversial since the beginning of time. As the significance of one’s culture has affected gender roles and allowed society to determine an individual lifestyle. Essentially all of Igbo life is gendered, from the crops that men and women grow, to characterization of crimes. An example of gender roles is the way that Ibo crops are being separated for both genders, an example from the book would be: “ his mother and sisters worked hard enough, but they grew women’s crops like coco-yams, beans and cassava. Yam, the king of crops was a man’s crop” as women are not supposed to plant the men’s groups because it was for the “kings” only and women are not “kings”. In this book, crimes were also characterized; “The crime was of two kinds, male and female. Okonkwo committed the female, because it had been inadvertent. He could not return to the clan after seven years.”, the crime was described in female terms since Agbala was referred to as a god before, Agbala is a woman and the earth was called a “goddess”, to wrap it all up together, the earth’s goddess is a female and Okonkwo has committed a crime against it; he has “committed the female”.

Reading the book in western culture can be seen that Things Fall Apart goes against the premises of feminist beliefs. Many stereotypes were mentioned in the book such as Women being portrayed as weak, uneducated and are usually caregivers. They also have certain roles that are worshiped and respected such as the role of priests “the priests had now reached Okonkwo’s compound and was talking to him outside his hut. She was saying again and again that Agbala wanted to see his daughter, Enzima… the priests screamed. Beware Okonkwo! Beware of exchanging words with Agbala. Does a man speak when a god speaks? Beware!” in which they have identified that woman as a “god” and the priests were referred to as someone with a very high significance.

Another example would be the concept of mother is supreme because “a man belongs to his fatherland and not his motherland. And yet Nneka- ’mother is supreme’. It’s true that a child belongs to his father. But when a Father beats his child, it seeks sympathy in its mother’s hut. A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness he finds refuge in his motherland. Your mother is there to protect you.” which is a very straightforward quote, if a man has good news, he would speak to his father about it, if he has bad news then his mother comes in role because the motherland is where comfort exists. However, since Okonkwo was a very strong man, his wives feared him yet his wife Ekwefi was not intimidated by him as proved in the quote: “Okonkwo turned on his side and went back to sleep. He was always roused in the morning by someone banging on his door. Who is that? he growled. He knew it must be Ekwefi. Of his three wives, Ekwefi was the only one who would have the audacity to bang on his door.” even though Okonkwo has beat Ekwefi badly before and even threatened to kill her with his gun, she still does not leave her “women’s rights” behind and acts courageous.

Okonkwo never showed any emotion openly, unless it was the emotion of anger. To show affection was a sign of weakness; the only thing worth demonstrating was strength. He mistakes bravado for bravery and anger for leadership. A great example of showing anger is when he started drinking lots of alcohol while killing his son Ikemfun to hide the fact that he felt miserable on the inside. “He drank palm-wine from morning till night, and his eyes were red and fierce like the eyes of a rat when it was caught by the tail and dashed against the floor.” Okonkwo shows his inability to deal with tragedy and covers it with anger.The imagery of “a rat caught by the tail and dashed against the floor” features Okonkwo’s inability to escape sad events. Ultimately, in the igbo world, men are dominant and they rule over their families such that “Okonkwo ruled his household with a heavy hand. His wives, especially the youngest one lived in perpetual fear of his fiery temper.”, his masculinity lead him to being the wife’s main fear, so quick temper with his family was never portrayed as admirable, he unquestionably had the right to be aggressive at home and be the “king” since he is a man.

Stereotypes have always been present, whether it happened 20 years ago or right now; that is why it takes a huge role in the novel “Things Fall Apart”, most interactions were affected by masculinity, feminism and gender roles. Connecting that to real life, gender roles are used in advertisements, clothing shops or even tv shows; so a great example used to represent that idea is the way “Mr Clean” advertises its product, its Super Bowl commercial was titled “Cleaner of Your Dreams” because “Mr Clean” is actually a man. As men barely ever clean since it is a “woman’s job to clean the house”, the word “dreams” over exaggerates the whole sentence because apparently “men never clean”. Now in this advertisement, gender was used to categorize women in the role of being responsible for the household chores since early age. This connects to the novel, as women and young females are both described as the less “educated” ones in a way that they are not allowed to interfere with a man’s job; a great example is the way women are forced to stay housewives in “Things Fall Apart” and recently, the advertisement presented gender roles by stating that women should get back to the job that really matters (cleaning) on Mother’s Day by expressing it through a quote “This Mother’s Day, Get Back To The Job That Really Matters.”.

There are some expectations that grow familiar as time passes by, and those are called gender roles. Through my own experience; I was always told to do chores while my brother went out with his friends and that was the first thing that has shown me that genders are not always equal. However, that did not seem right to me, so I do not agree with gender roles because being a female does not define who I am, everyone has their own personality, ideas, thoughts and actions; and that is exactly what describes us as “people”. Moreover, gender roles for men and women have changed dramatically, men are no longer expected to do all the work and women are not expected to do the gatherings although that is exactly how things still work in some societies. To sum everything up, different environments mean different cultures and different gender roles.

INTRODUCTION

Things Fall Apart is an African novel written by famous Nigerian author Chinua Achebe. The novel chronicles the life of Okonkwo, the leader (chief) of an Igbo community. It follows the events leading up to his banishment from the community for accidentally killing a clansman, through the seven years of his exile, to his return. It also addresses problems of emergent Africa—following the intrusion in the 1890s of white missionaries and colonial government into tribal Igbo society. The novel, which is traditionally structured and peppered with Igbo proverbs, describes the simultaneous disintegration of its protagonist Okonkwo and of his village. This essay looks at the various literary styles employed by Chinua in Things Fall Apart.

Literary devices are tools that help convey the author’s ideas and points, and just as you use them in your stories, authors use them in their novels. One novel where we can see many different types of literary devices is in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart.

METAPHORS

Metaphors are figures of speech that make an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.

Chinua uses metaphors in Things Fall Apart to describe the Igbo people, their lifestyle, and the work they do. Achebe wants the audience to see and feel the images he creates. For instance, Okonkwo, spends a lot of time in his fields working to feed his people. He understands the need for yams. He knows that the Igbo people depend on the yam as their main source of food. They use the rainy season for growing their yams. The yam is considered the king of all foods. It is a food for men; the coco-yam is a woman’s crop. ‘His mother and sisters worked hard enough, but they grew women’s crops, like coco-yams, beans, and cassava. Yam, the king of crops, was a man’s crop.’ In many ways, Okonkwo’s sense of self is tied up in his ability to grow what is needed for the tribe. He is proud of the hard work he has put into his farming and the success he has made of it. He is well thought of in his community. Here, the yam is a metaphor for masculinity and power.

“Living fire begets cold, impotent ash (Achebe 153).”

This quote is a metaphor for Okonkwo’s and Nwoye’s relationship. Okonkwo is often called “Roaring Flame” and is ferocious and aggressive while his son is placid and quiet. Here Okonkwo is wracking his brain as to why he has such a womanly son who went off to join the Christians. He finally realizes everything as he stares into the fire and sees that the flames leave ash behind. The flame is Okonkwo and the ash is his son Nwoye.

SYMBOLISM

Symbolism entails the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities.

“When he was a child his mother had told him a story about it. But it was as silly as all women’s stories (Achebe 75).”

This quote is an example of symbolism because Okonkwo thinks stories and folktales display womanliness. He thinks they are only for women and children while war tales are for men. Contrary to the mothers’ beliefs, he finds the stories to have little importance or valuable morals. Enzima and other females still often tell these tales and Nwoye, Okonkwo’s son, enjoys them. This upsets Okonkwo greatly because Nwoye seems weak and feminine to him because of his delight in hearing stories.

“’That is the money from your yams,’ he said. ‘I sold…and gave out others to sharecroppers…I thought you would need the money now and so I brought it (Achebe 142).”

This quote, when Obierika helps Okonkwo during his time in exile, is an example of another symbol. Yams are extremely important to the Umuofia clan not only for food and survival. They are only farmed by men while women attend to less labor-intensive crops. A man’s yam field and harvest is his pride and shows how much he is dedicated to work and how much he is willing to support his family. The yams and their farming are a symbol of manliness.

“The last big rains of the year were falling.” (Achebe 162)

Achebe uses symbolism, by bringing up the rains here. The rains are a symbol of the washing away of the seven years of exile. They are symbolizing Okonkwo’s rebirth and new begging as him and his family return Umuofia after being banished for so long.

FORESHADOWING IN THINGS FALL APART

This refers to a case where a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Often it appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story.

“During the last planting season a white man had appeared in their clan.’ ‘An albino,’ suggested Okonkwo. ‘He was not an albino. He was quite different…he was riding an iron horse…The elders consulted their Oracle and it told them that the strange man would break their clan and spread destruction among them.’”

This quote is foreshadowing the Europeans coming to Okonkwo’s village and bringing their strange customs with them. The Oracle tells the people that destruction and change will come with the white men and this is clearly telling that Okonkwo’s clan will come into contact with the Europeans in the near future. Previously there had also been foreshadowing with the mention of the man with leprosy and the absurdity of a person being white, but now the foreshadowing is becoming more and more obvious as the story moves along.

FLASHBACK

These are interruptions that writers do to insert past events, in order to provide background or context to the current events of a narrative

“But there was a young lad who had been captivated. His name was Nwoye, Okonkwo’s first son. It was not the mad logic of the Trinity that captivated him…it was the poetry of the new religion… something felt… and in fear seemed to answer a vague and persistent question that haunted his young soul-the question of the twins crying in the bush and the question of Ikemefuna who was killed (Achebe 147).”

This quote is part of a flashback that explains why Nwoye joined the missionaries and left his father Okonkwo. Achebe uses flashbacks to give more detail about certain circumstances, especially if the story moves between villages. Flashbacks explain more about a character and their decisions in the story. Achebe sometimes uses them to explain why Okonkwo is overly manly and why Ekwefi is extremely protective of Enzima.

IRONY

This refers to incongruity between expectations for a situation and the reality of that situation.

“They want a piece of land to build their shrine,’ said Uchendu to his peers when they consulted among themselves. ‘We shall give them a piece of land.’ He paused, and there was a murmur of surprise and disagreement. ‘Let us give them a portion of the Evil Forest. They boast about victory over death. Let us give them a real battlefield in which to show their victory.” (Achebe 149)

This quote shows the use of plain irony in the novel. The Christians are given a plot of land in the Evil Forest because the Igbo people believed that if they gave them land in the evil forest they would die and their clan could go back to their previous way of life. In the Igbo culture it was known among the people that no one lived longer than seven market days in the evil forest because of the spirits and darkness that dwell there. But, the Christians did not die after seven market days and the Ibo people were shocked when they continued to prosper and built up their church, so needless to say their plan hadn’t worked.

Another example of irony is Okonkwo’s suicide at the end of novel. Okonkwo is a proud and important man, so you might not expect him to commit suicide. His death is especially ironic when you consider what he regularly said after the terrible harvest year: ”Since I survived that year,’ he always said, ‘I shall survive anything.’ He put it down to his inflexible will.’

After saying he could survive anything, you would obviously not expect him to commit suicide. Yet, in the end, it is his inflexible will that causes his suicide because he cannot deal with the change brought by the missionaries. So his death is even more ironic because the very thing that he says can get him through anything–his will–is what causes him to kill himself.

SIMILES

This is a figure of speech that draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as.”

“He felt a relief within as the hymn poured into his parched soul. The words of the hymn were like the drops of frozen rain melting on the dry palate of the panting earth.” (Achebe 147)

More than any other literary devices the author makes use of similes to enhance his writing. Achebe uses similes to illustrate Umuofia and represent the lifestyle of the community. In this case the words of the hymn offer a much needed relief to Okonkwo’s oldest son who felt out of place in the Igbo society.

“Okonkwo was as slippery as a fish in water,” (Achebe 1).

This simile is used to compare him to the man he was wrestling with. It describes his character trait of being a good wrestler.

“He threw himself into it like one possessed,” (Achebe 19).

This is used to describe Okonkwo’s character trait of always being hard-working. It describes him as having the urge to work, and makes it seem, as if he can hardly make himself not work.

PERSONIFICATION

This is a figure of speech in which a thing such as an idea or an animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings.

“Okonkwo was choked with hate.” (Achebe 195)

This is an example of personification as clearly anger cannot actually choke someone as it is an emotion and not a physical force. It shows the intensity of the hatred and anger that Okonkwo has towards the white men. He has gotten to such a point where his dislike for them is so much that it makes it hard for him to breath.

‘He heard the ogene of the town crier piercing the still night air,” (Achebe 9).

This is another example of personification. It exaggerates the characteristics of the crier’s voice. The author uses it to create a feeling of urgency.

“… the huts, which formed a half moon behind the obi,” (Achebe 14).

This is an example of personification. It is describing the shape of the huts, which couldn’t actually form a half-moon. He uses it to describe the setting.

ALLUSION

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers.

How does Achebe Employ Allusion?

In this novel, Achebe used biblical allusions to foreshadow the arrival of Christian missionaries and to give context to their theology. For instance, the plague of locusts that occurs in chapter 7 alludes to the plague of locusts that blights Egypt in the book of Exodus. This allusion can be seen as a foreshadowing of the missionaries’ disruptive arrival.This is fulfilled In chapter 15, where Obierika tells Okonkwo of the destruction of Abame village. After the first white missionary arrived, the local Oracle called the white men locusts and claimed that more of them would come and destroy the town. That prophecy proved true as Abame was later massacred by white men.

Secondly, the character Enoch, in Things Fall Apart refers to a recent convert to Christianity. Enoch becomes zealous about the Christian faith and disrupts the spiritual traditions of Umuofia. In the Old Testament of the Bible, Enoch, the grandfather of Noah, is known for his devotion and service to God.

PROVERBS

Proverbs are short pithy sayings that usually state a general truth or pieces of advice. In the Umuofian society, proverbs are used very often in conversations and help people to understand things better. The following are examples of proverbs used in Things Fall Apart:

‘A man who pays respect to the great paves the way for his own greatness.’ (Chapter 3) this proverb simply means, if you respect greatness, you will become great yourself.

‘An old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb.’

This proverb means that someone is uneasy if something is said that affects them personally; whether it is a joke or not – they cannot laugh about it.

‘The lizard that jumped from high iroko tree to the ground said he would praise himself if no one else did.’

This is a simple proverb teaching people to learn to appreciate themselves even if other people do not appreciate them.

REFERENCES

1. Achebe, C. (1958) Things Fall Apart.Ibadan: Heinemann.
2. Alimi, A. S. “A Study ofthe use of proverbs as a literary device in Achebe’s things fall Apart and arrow of God.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 2/3 (2012):121. Web. 31 Dec. 2012.

The ‘Human Condition’ is used to reference the qualities that comprise the imperatives of human existence. Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart,” is one of literary merit, attracting readers worldwide for its use of universal themes. “Things Fall Apart” takes readers into Umuofian society, where Okonkwo is initially regarded as a warrior of the clan. As the story develops forward and into the changes that meet the traditionalistic clanspeople, Okonkwo is proved to be comprised of many fatal flaws, creating a tragic hero in the making.

Okonkwo is a man of toxic disposition with an endeavor to be a person unlike his father. Unoka was an alcoholic, acquiring debts but never relieving them. Considered irresponsible and cowardly for effeminate standards, Okonkwo deemed him unmanly. With constant efforts from Okonkwo to be oppugnant to his father, Okonkwo takes on characteristics in opposition to that of Unoka’s, becoming a temperamental man known for violence. Okonkwo is collated to fire, “Okonkwo’s fame had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan,” (1). Like a bush-fire, Okonkwo rapidly gained nobility, conquering others as he climbed the social hierarchy, constant victories earning him a name among his people. Achebe continues to utilize literary tools: “He trembled with the desire to conquer and subdue” (42). Okonkwo is filled with fire, motivated by inner desires to “conquer and subdue.” With this begins his conquest into obtaining the highest status among the Umuofians.

The narrative expands and Okonkwo remains firm on his views, pursuing masculinity as he avoids femininity. Achebe relentlessly relates Okonkwo to fire, giving way to deeper insight into Okonkwo’s character. Okonkwo is brutal and wounds anything in his vicinity. His relationship with Nwoye provides clarity on the fatality of his flaw, as he reprimands his son with petty reason, beaten for displaying remote effeminacy- listening to stories and assisting with chores. His constant state of burning ultimately instigates Okonkwo’s plummet as he, like any fire, burns out.

Although this aspect of Okonkwo’s character drives him to success, it results in his suicide as well. Tival of the Church brought the slow descent of the clan and despite best efforts to resist, the foreigners take over Umuofian land. Ironically, once the Europeans conquered their government, Okonkwo burns out as a victim to his own method. Incapable to deal with the new reality, he commits suicide.

Achebe’s work reaches borders all across with discussion of the human condition and the relatability of it at its very core. Okonkwo his fatal flaws of ignorance and obsession with success all tell of what it means to be human. His exploration of change, cultural clash, and the power character holds all compile together in a profound work of human evaluation.

Thesis

Things Fall Apart focuses and analyses Igbo society as shown in the novel, before and after arrival of missionaries to Umuofia, which led to clash of cultures. It also incorporates critical theory to analyze the novel. It is based on post-colonial criticism, as it is relevant to Achebe’s writings in Things Fall Apart. For example, post-colonial criticism chiefly deals with literature critiques from countries subjected to colonial rule. As Achebe hailed from Nigeria, a colony of Britain, some elements of writings in the story are influenced by this such as style.

Main Body

The different features of identity represented by the views of Okonkwo, a main character in the novel, about what it is to be a man and to be an African. When the colonizing forces of white Christians invade the village, he considers this a threat to his people’s and his own way of life and to their identity of being Africans. The English also bring a new language, religion and forms of governments, which is a threat to their pre-existing culture which Okonkwo and others in the village resist the change finally became accustomed to, as they mostly saw these changes as a threat to their identity that makes them what they are as Africans. (Achebe, 2014) states, “The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won our brothers, and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart.” The character of Okonkwo in the novel, Things Fall Apart is presented as honorable and determined person whose major flaws catch up with him. Okonkwo was infatuated with the notions of attaining same characters as his father. This is the major flaw of Okonkwo, which gets him exiled and makes it difficult for him to accept the changes taking place in the village. In many ways, Okonkwo is shown as a respectable individual and thus was famous person in the village and surrounding villages. His successes were due to his personal achievements (Jeyifo, 1993). The current paper explores the character of Okonkwo considering his cultural perspectives.

We can learn from statements of Achebe that his main theme was about Igbo society’s complexity prior to arrival of Europeans. Descriptions of justice system and trial procedures, family and social customs, marriage rituals and processes of food preparations, shared leadership in the community, religious practices and opportunities available to all to succeed in the clan by one’s own efforts (Ikuenobe, 2006).

Critical Analysis Demonstrating the interpretation

Things Fall Apart deals collapse, chaos and confusion of Igbo culture, which suffered at white man’s entry in Umuofia, bringing their religion. The views of white men and that of Igbo about life are very different. The things which are deemed to be acceptable in Igbo culture are not so to white missionaries. They wanted to change some such elements in Igbo culture that they found unacceptable and inappropriate. While doing so, they failed to see that these elements of Igbo culture had kept the Igbo together and live peacefully with one another.

For example, it was held in Igbo culture that a “real” man would have two or more wives. “The world is large, I have even heard that in some tribes a man’s children belong to his wife and her family” (Achebe, 2014). This quote illustrates that women in the clan have also accepted this tradition and sometimes, the first wife may even ask his man to get younger wife. The younger ones are required to respect the older wives. The women live peacefully with their husband and help one another in doing household chores and taking care of children. The white missionaries oppose polygamous marriages as such act is forbidden for Christians in New Testament. Much of writings in Things Fall Apart feature the explanation of Igbo myths and proverbs unacceptable to the Europeans. Achebe shrewdly uses the characters by speaking proverbs in conversations. Using proverbs in conversations is important to Igbo, as they think that it shows wisdom and respect.

From the beginning of the novel, Achebe introduces importance of proverbs in Igbo conversation. When Unuoka is met by Okoye to settle the debt, Okoye does not show anger, though Unuoka was late in payment. Instead, the neighbors offer kola nut, thank the ancestors and then discuss debt with reference to proverbs. This creates goof relations though while discussing such issue capable of creating conflicts. Achebe’s novel is different from other colonial novels is that in this novel Igbo society is thoroughly examined including undesirable aspects of Igbo culture. Achebe also predicts the culture’s future and where it leads if white missionaries take control of Umuofia.

By using English language, Achebe successfully details life of Okonkwo, who is shown in the beginning as a famous young person among nine villages in Umuofia. “Perhaps down in his heart Okonkwo was not a cruel man. But his whole life was dominated by fear, the fear of failure and of weakness” (Achebe, 2014). This shows the deeper details of Okonkwo illustrated by Achebe. As the novel develops and after arrival of white missionaries in Umuofia, with their institutions and government, Okonkwo tries to oppose the changed and is buried in the end with no dignity or respect and his fame is forgotten soon as taking one’s own life is considered greatest sin in Igbo culture.

Clash of Cultures

In contrast to theme of cultural complexity of Igbo, his theme focused on clash of the cultures. This occurs both at community and individual levels and there is cultural misunderstanding on both sides similar to views of Reverend Smith on Africans as “heathens” and criticism of Christians as “foolish”. According to Achebe, the West about Africans should realign misperceptions of Africans about Europeans and themselves the same ways as about misperceptions. Presenting the view of an African who is “Europeanized”, Things Fall Apart is an act of atonement and homage to the culture by its prodigal son. Setting an example, he encouraged others, especially those having Western education to understand that they may be misrepresenting their culture (Osei-Nyame, 1999).

One of the factors that hastened the decline of Igbo society was their tradition of marginalizing some members of their clan, and creating the existence of an outcast group, and making their women subordinated in the households and in community involvement and considering them as their property and acceptance of their physical abuse as normal. When some representatives of foreign culture, starting with Christian missionaries, enter the territory of Igbo clan, and accepted such marginalized groups, including twins, by giving them full human value, the shared traditional leadership of Igbo found itself not able to control the whole population. The absence of a clear and sustaining central authority in the Igbo community may be a quality that Achebe referred to for his title from the poem by Yeats, “The Second Coming”. The recurring phrase in the poem is Things Fall Apart, the center cannot hold” (Quayson, 1994).

These cultural themes have an underlying theme of destiny or fate. The theme plays out both at the societal and individual levels and the readers are often reminded about the theme while referring to Chi, the personal god of the individual and his ultimate destiny and capability. At his best, Okonkwo believes that his chi to achieve his ambitions supports him by stating “When a man says yes, the Chi also says yes”. Okonkwo at his worst thinks that his chi has not supported him and that his Chi was not destined to achieve great things. For, a man cannot rise over the destiny of his Chi. He thought that his chi said No, in spite of his affirmation. At the level of society, the lack of Igbos to have a unifying image and central authority and their weaknesses shown in the treatment of few of their own members, which are previously discussed, show the unavoidable fate of being victim of the colonization by the powers greedy to exploit the resources (Rhoads, 1993).

An attentive reader may be able to identify yet other theme apart from the three themes in the novel that are of universal nature, human motives and emotions. Besides these three themes discussed, a through reader will also be able to recognize other themes such as emotions across different cultures and eras and the need to balance between the needs of the individuals and community.

Languages as Sign of Cultural Difference.

In Things Fall Apart, language is a recurring important theme on different levels. While showing the imaginative and formal language of Igbo, the writer emphasized that Africa is not incomprehensible continent as portrayed in “Heart of Darkness”. In fact, he laces the language with Igbo language, which is very complex to present direct English translation. Likewise, it is not possible to understand Igbo culture in European framework of colonial thinking. Achebe also shows that there are several languages in Africa; for example, Umuofia’s villagers make fun of translator of Mr. Brown, as their language is somewhat different from their own (Jeyifo, 1993).

The stresses regarding whether the change should predominate over the tradition usually involves the question of individual status. For example, Okonkwo resists new religious and political order as he feels that they are not considered manly and he will not be considered manly if he joins them or even if he tolerates them. To an extent, the resistance to cultural change by Okonkwo is due to his own fear that he may lose societal status. His sense of self-value depends on the conventional standards over which the society judges him (Whittaker & Msiska, 2007). The system to evaluate the self has inspired many of outcasts of the clan to accept Christianity. They were long scorned, and thus they found in the Christian system, a refuge from Igbo culture which placed them below others. In the new community, these converted enjoyed a more honored status.

The villagers face the dilemma of choosing resistance or embracing the change and have to find how best to adapt to the change. Many are excited about new techniques and opportunities offered by the missionaries. This influence can end the need to master traditional ways of farming, building and cooking. They were crucial for survival once and now are dispensable to some degree. Achebe shows how traditions depend on language and storytelling, which are now eradicated by abandonment of Igbo language in favor of English language. Another related theme in cultural clash is regarding the rigidity or flexibility of characters (both of Igbo and British) define their destiny (Rhoads, 1993). Due to inflexible character of Okonkwo, it appears that he was destined for his own self-destruction, much before arrival of colonizers from Europe. Their arrival simply hastened his tragic fate.

In Things Fall Apart, language is an important theme. By showing the formal and imaginative language of Igbo, the author points out that Africa is not incomprehensible as made out by books like Heart of Darkness. By filling the book with Igbo words, he shows that the language is highly complex to be translated. In addition, that Igbo culture may not be understood on platform of colonial values. He shows Africa has many languages: Umuofia villagers make fun of translators of Mr. Brown, as their language is different (Osei-Nyame, 1999).

For Achebe to write Things Fall Apart in English is very significant as he wanted it to be read by Westerners as much as Nigerians. He wanted to analyze the portrayal of Africa, which was painted by many writers during colonial period that he felt required to be interpreted in the English language. By including folktales, proverbs and songs of Igbo language, he managed to convey the structure, rhythm and beauty of Igbo language.

Discussion. Fall of the Igbo culture and that of Okonkwo is not to be attributed to the strong belief system rooted in their culture. The book explores the imperfections in the Igbo culture and the strengths. Achebe depicts the imperfections that contribute to their culture’s destruction. However, the main reason is due to their reluctance and inability to learn English as they felt that they would never use the language in everyday lives. As the missionaries, because of advancement in education and modern life, were stronger than Igbo, they exerted stronger influence and had power to control Igbos and their land. They showed hostile approach for taking over Igbo lands by use of their influence in spreading the gospel and abolished the traditional routines and beliefs of Igbo. In this way, missionaries were superior to Igbo as explained by the writer.

The white missionaries viewed Igbo as uncivilized who needed their help desperately. Though their motive of the white missionaries to Umuofia was to establish their rule over the people, they must have also seen as a method of cultural exchange between these two cultures, as both missionaries and Igbo had never known each other’s culture until now.The analysis illustrates that cultural exchange might have benefitted the Igbo people more as they did not shown any interest in knowing about the world that existed outside of Umuofia. If the white missionaries had not at all arrived to their land, they would be completely ignorant about existence of civilizations elsewhere. Without a doubt, the white missionaries assumed themselves superior to the Igbo and because of this; some of the converts to Christianity were to the messengers of missionaries. It was the perception of the white people that the Igbo were a burden, as they were required to take their care by educating and informing Igbo of the things, which they had no knowledge of.

As the white men believed that their culture was morally superior to that of Igbo, this caused conflict between these two cultures. Though these problems appear to be resolved in the current period, they still exist and are cause for clash between these two cultures. It is very important to understand the benefits and the challenges resulting from European colonialism on the Igbo society. Igbo society had highly benefitted from the schools and education in the society, which reduced the illiteracy rate in the village. Due to this development, most Igbos is educated today, has expanded the knowledge, and become more enlightened. The Europeans taught their culture also to Igbo, though they found it to be a challenge to make the transition from their culture to that of strangers, yet they could learn some new aspects from it.

Conclusion

Things Fall Apart focuses and analyses Igbo society as shown in the novel, before and after arrival of missionaries to Umuofia, which led to clash of cultures. It also incorporates critical theory to analyze the novel. It is based on post-colonial criticism, as it is relevant to Achebe’s writings in Things Fall Apart. Post-colonial criticism dealt with literature critiques from countries subjected to colonial rule. As Achebe hailed from Nigeria, a colony of Britain, some elements of writings in the story are influenced by this such as style. The message given by the British was that their own society was much superior and the conversion of locals should not only be from their religion but in the entire way of life that was intermingled with it. This resulted in their endeavor to change every aspect about Igbo culture. By the adaption of the English culture and their religion, many aspects of Igbo culture were sacrificed by their discarding their cultural heritage and division between the clansmen who adapted to new culture and those continued with the traditional ways (Jeyifo, 1993). Firsthand experience of Achebe of such attack on his identity as presented with the character Okonkwo, showed the inability to adapt to the new environment. The aim of white missionaries for coming to Umuofia was to rule over it and as Igbo people were compassionate, and thus were unsuspecting of their intentions they welcomed white missionaries to their land and gave their land with no idea that these people will become cause for their culture to collapse. In the absence of culture, the Igbo society is coming to an end which depicts the significance of Okonkwo falling apart that led to his suicide.

References

1. Achebe, C. (2014). Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe. New York, NY: Spark Publishing.
2. Ikuenobe, P. (2006). The Idea of Personhood in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. Philosophia Africana, 9(2), 117–131. doi: 10.5840/philafricana2006924
3. Jeyifo, B. (1993). Okonkwo and His Mother: Things Fall Apart and Issues of Gender in the Constitution of African Postcolonial Discourse. Callaloo, 16(4), 847. doi: 10.2307/2932213
4. Osei-Nyame, G. K. (1999). Chinua Achebe Writing Culture: Representations of Gender and Tradition in Things Fall Apart. Research in African Literatures, 30(2), 148–164. doi: 10.1353/ral.2005.0076
5. Rhoads, D. A. (1993). Culture in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. African Studies Review, 36(2), 61. doi: 10.2307/524733
6. Whittaker, D. (2007). Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. doi: 10.4324/9780203496404

Whether a reader notices it or not, every form of literature has some form of organization. The elements that are organized that make a story great are, but not limited to, plot, setting, and characters. But of course, authors don’t have to have these elements in sequential order all of the time, nor do they have to use all of them. Because of this organization, the reader can be left either feeling satisfied or unsatisfied with the piece of work. To illustrate, William Shakespeare’s use of climax in his plays set the stage for the rest of the work and leaves the reader satisfied. Unique forms of story-telling can be seen in Michael Ondaatje’s Running in the Family published in 1982 and Abdul Rahman Munif’s Cities of Salt published in 1984. Running in the Family was created from anecdotes from people that the author talked to get a sense of what his father was like as a person as well as what occurred during Ceylon at the time and because of this, the reader can be left confused due to its repetition and no sense of sequential events. With Cities of Salt, the issue at hand is easier to grasp similar to Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and it’s story is told through the transformation of the environment as a whole rather from the perception of a main character.

In Running in the Family, Michael Ondaatje is the narrator and he goes back to his homeland of Ceylon, now known as Sri Lanka in the late 1970s in two separate visits. The focus of this book was Ondaatje asking the native people and his other family members if they knew anything about his father, Mervyn Ondaatje. Because of this, the book itself is created by many anecdotes that describe the setting as well as his father’s characteristics and personality through both his interpretation and others. But of course, Ondaatje also informs the reader about other characters like his grandmother Lalla and mother Doris, as well as the yearly events going on such as experiences occurring in Kegalle and the monsoons. Because the story is made up through anecdotes, there’s a question that arises where if the people that gave Ondaatje this information are even correct in the first place. Of course, Ondaatje knows this and doesn’t expect everyone to know exactly what he’s asking them for, so he tends to exaggerate certain stories to make the story more interesting.

In Cities of Salt, the story is set in an unnamed location somewhat similar to Saudi Arabia which describes the Wadi Al-Uyuon, or the Cities of Salt, being a area of “…a phenomenon, something of a miracle, unbelievable to those who saw it for the first time and unforgettable forever after.” (Munif, pg. 2) As the quote states, the people who say this are generally people seeing it for the very first time, thus the people of the wadi do not see it as an amazing sight because they’re already used to it. Throughout the course of the book, the wadi is transformed into this land that’s not recognizable anymore as the outsiders, or the American people, come and modernize the place and take the oil under the oasis. This plot is very similar to Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart where the white men come and modernize the village Umuofia. To add, another similarity can be seen between the two where the indigenous people aren’t against outsiders coming into their land and changing their societies. The “emir” or local ruler in Cities of Salt allowed the Americans to dig up their land to take the oil as well as modernize the place while the tribe leaders in Things Fall Apart let the while folk also modernize their society and convert them to Christianity.

The story-telling in Running in the Family can be seen as a interesting adventure for the reader from the various anecdotes written by Ondaatje explaining the culture of the society. Although this is true, unlike most written pieces of literature, this novel seems to fail in having a plot explicitly seen or mentioned. After reading the book for a good amount, the reader can start to see that Ondaatje talks about his father a lot, so it can be assumed that the purpose of the book was that he wanted to know more about him, and wanted to share his journey in discovering this information with us, but there isn’t any confirmation on that. To add, the anecdotes aren’t formatted in order so there’s noticeable signs of going back and forth between the two trips Ondaatje took to Sri Lanka and is overall inconsistent. For example, the chapter “Monsoon Notebook (ii)” talks about how animals such as bats and snakes would come into his home and how he recorded the sounds of a peacock. The next chapter is “How I was Bathed” and it was about how his sister Gillian talked about a time when Ondaatje was 5 years old and got bathed and cleaned in a very exaggerated but humorous way. Weirdly enough, the next chapter “Willpattu” talks about them having encounters with animals like cheetahs, deers, and boars. The abrupt shift in one topic to something completely different can really throw off the reader and wonder how it got to this point.

The story-telling in Cities of Salt can be seen as a way of the reader watching something grow or change over time, similar to the concept of a parent watching their offspring grow into an adult. In this interpretation, the second emir can be seen as the parents and the wadi can be seen as the child. To add, the second emir can be seen as irresponsible and neglectful who failed to steer their “child”, or the wadi, into the right direction. Because of this neglection, the “child” has become a much worse outcome, entirely because of “hanging with the wrong group of people”, in this case the Americans, and are delusional to where they can’t see that these people are ruining the persona of the “child.” Generally speaking, a person’s behavior and actions can be constructed based on the people they hang out with. Going back to Cities of Salt, the pure environment of the wadi has essentially become a polar opposite by the end with constantly interacting with the Americans and the emir not straying them away and defending their land. Because of this analogy being some so commonly seen in real life, the reader won’t have a hard time understanding, even if they haven’t started a family themselves. As stated before, this story-telling is very identical to Things Fall Apart and thus the same analogy can apply to this novel as well.

Something also important to note is the way of narration that these two novels take. Running in the Family is a first person perspective from Ondaatje himself but once again, not all of the information he’s saying is coming directly from him and he does mention this at the very end of the book where he thanks all of the people who’ve worked with him. It states, “And this book could not have been imagined, let alone conceived, without the help of many people.” (Ondaatje, pg. 205) Compared to Willa Cather’s “My Ántonia”, the main character Jim Burden doesn’t mention that the information that he’s gotten was not all from his personal account, something that’s caused some degree of controversy with the novel. Cities of Salt doesn’t necessarily have an actual character that the story takes place around, but instead “…the book does not offer a main character around whose fate the plot revolves. Instead, the life of the place, the setting, the changes and so forth, are the main elements of the book.” (Martin, Charles. “Comparative Literature102W On-line 09 Cities of Salt 1.” Received by Daljit Liyal, 06 October. 2020.) This makes sense since the novel talks about the negative transformation of an oasis from an outside force and thus has a stronger connection with the analogy of a parent being neglectful towards their child.

Story-telling can be extremely important when writing a story. It’s something that can quickly make the reader stay interested or completely walk away from it. Running in the Family has a first person account from the author himself however the novel was strongly dependent on other people’s accounts and thus exaggerated and imagined certain things to fill in the holes of the stories. But due to his inconsistent placement with these small stories, the novel seems to take the reader into various turns and can quickly get confusing to how they ended up on a certain point. On the contrary, Cities of Salt does an unusual move and has the story revolving around no actual person, instead the main character being the environment and the changes it faces. Despite doing this, Munif makes it clear as to what changes are occurring and makes sure that the environment is the thing that the reader should be focusing on, rather than seeing it as something in the background.

Works Cited

1. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Penguin Books, 2010.
2. Martin, Charles. “Comparative Literature102W On-line 09 Cities of Salt 1.” Received by Daljit Liyal, 06 October. 2020.
3. Martin, Charles. “Comparative Literature102W On-line 10 Cities of Salt 2.” Received by Daljit Liyal, 08 October. 2020.
4. Martin, Charles. “Comparative Literature 102W On-line 18. Running in the Family, 1.” Received by Daljit Liyal, 05 November. 2020.
5. Munīf ʻAbd al-Raḥmān, and Peter Theroux. Cities of Salt. Vintage, 1984. Pg 2.
6. Ondaatje, Michael. Running in the Family. Vintage International, 1982. Pg 205.

The excerpt from Nectar in a Sieve and “Marriage Is a Private Affair” demonstrate the negative and the positive influences of modern ideas and modern ways on traditional cultures. To begin with, one of the pronounced positive influences of modern ways on traditional cultures in the excerpt from Nectar in a Sieve is the medical expertise that is more advanced and effective than the traditional method of seeking aid by prayers which was demonstrated unsuccessful by Rukmani herself. Kenny, an accomplished western doctor, treated Rukmani to bear sons, who are important members of the most traditional family since sons are the chief inheritor of family assets and of the key workers in the family, indicating how modernity and traditions can survive collectively and still be positive. In addition, the construction of the tannery in a rural village in India is the embodiment of how modernity can be complex in terms of being a positive and negative influence on traditional ways of life. Rukmani acknowledges that despite the ability to sell her vegetables at a higher price with the increased demand from well-off western workers, her financial struggle remains unchanged. Other characters recognize the benefits of the modernization that accompanies the construction. Tannery, representing an expansion of the modern system, can improve lifestyle with an emergence of new manufacturing occupation opportunities that develops an economic system not just solely based on agriculture.

Furthermore, “Marriage Is a Private Affair” demonstrates how modern ideas can challenge traditional viewpoints and convictions regarding marriage and gender roles. Nnaemeka, the protagonist, is engaged with Nene, a teacher in the modern city of Lagos, which is beyond the traditional marriage custom that he was raised in back in the village. Disclosing the engagement to his traditionalist father, Okeke, Nnaemeka found him to be unsupportive. Okeke including others expressed their disapproval of the modern marriage Naemeka has self-imposed, demonstrating how many view modernization with prejudice. There were proposals from the people of Ibo that he must take herbs called Amalie from the native doctor to restore his “diseased” mind that has deviated from the traditional customs of marrying another Ibo woman. Even the women in the modern city of Lagos had ostracized and discriminated against Nene. Okeke has completely estranged himself from the two including his unsuspecting grandsons. However, the conflict between modernity and tradition was not futile since more people began to recognize it… including Okeke who realized his missed opportunities with his grandsons. This change illustrates that beyond the influence of modernization—negative and positive —and the stark differences between modern and traditional culture, it can still bring mutual understanding and acceptance. Moreover, the traditional gender roles depicted in the story are confronted when modern ideas are introduced to strong believers of traditional cultures. In the last scene, Okeke was conflicted since to accept the grandsons, which further signifies his acceptance toward the wife who does not act in accordance with the traditional gender role by being a teacher as Okeke protested previously, “…no Christian woman should teach…women should keep silence,” (Achebe, 156). However, there was an unforeseen change of attitude that led to him regretting his continuous sternness, depicting how modernization can affect gender roles to great extent in traditional cultures.