Category: Chinese Dynasties

The Five Constant Relationships

The term Li (禮) was used in Confucian and post-Confucian philosophy to describe ‘the way things should be done’

In Li, one has to be mindful of how to behave and work within a society. You can cultivate your character in Li best by understanding what it entails. Li encompasses most importantly the Doctrine of the Mean and the Five Constant Relationships.

The Doctrine of the Mean is the way in which one should make decisions in life, in which the best decision is always the middle between unworkable extremes. Taking the middle road as Confucius said would guide one to the way things should be done.

The Five Constant Relationships outline how everyone should act in society, being the relationships between parent and child, husband and wife, older sibling and junior sibling, elder friend and junior friend, and ruler and subject. With these continuous rules for relationships, Li creates a hierarchy between the two parties and determines the accepted responses and acts between them.

1. A parent is to be loving, a child obedient.
2. An elder sibling is to be gentle, and younger siblings are respectful.
3. Husbands are to be good and fair, and wives understanding.
4. Older friends are to be considerate, younger friends reverential.
5. Rulers should be benevolent, and subjects loyal.

For dynasties that used Confucianism (not Legalism), the first noted person in the relationship was always superior and had to act as a guide and leader/role model to the second noted person, as the second person was to follow.

1. Nylan, Michael. (Article) “Li” from “The Encyclopedia of Confucianism” RoutledgeCurzon: 2003

China’s social structure has a long history beginning from Imperial China’s feudal society to the contemporary era.

The most important aspects of China’s social structure come from the cycles of dynastic rise and fall, sporadic hostility from northern invaders, a differing degree of tolerance to the outside world’s cultural influences, and social harmony dynamics.

I will discuss about the first and last four dynasties that ruled China and the various effects they had on the different social classes of people. These are the Shang Dynasty, the Zhou Dynasty, the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty, and then the Song Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty, and the Qing Dynasty.

The Chinese government divided Chinese people into four groups from the Qin Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty (221 B.C.-A.D. 1840): landlord, peasant craftsman, and merchant. The two main classes were landowners and peasants while merchants and craftsmen were grouped into the two smaller classes. In theory, nothing was hereditary except for the Emperor’s position.

There was a gradual revival of feudalism during the 361 years of civil war after the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.–220 A.D.), when wealthy and powerful families emerged with vast amounts of land and huge numbers of semi-serfs. They controlled the government’s powerful civil and military roles, making them available only to members of their own families and clans.

Let’s get into some details about the above dynasties.

1. Dr. Yi Li, ‘The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification’, University Press of America (January 2005),
2. Robert Mortimer Marsh, Mandarins: The Circulation of Elites in China, 1600-1900, Ayer (June 1980), hardcover, ISBN 0-405-12981-5
3. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 13, 30

2.1 Shang Dynasty

The Shang dynasty (商朝), was a Chinese dynasty that ruled in the Lower Yellow River Valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the semi-mythical Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals, and Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based on calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled from 1766 to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the ‘current text’ of Bamboo Annals, they ruled from 1556 to 1046 BC. The state-sponsored Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project dated them from c. 1600 to 1046 BC based on the carbon 14 dates of the Erligang site.

There were thirty kings and seven separate cities in the Shang empire.

The Shang people had worship-related bronze weapons and bronze vessels. They also grew grains like millet and some wheat harvested with the help of sickles.

One of the Shang people’s most important accomplishments was the invention of writing. The writings were discovered on oracle bones, which were obtained from a number of animals, and on bronze and stone.

The Shang people worshipped “Shang Ti”. A major aspect of the Shang religion was a sacrifice to the gods and the ancestors.

The capital was the center of the life of the court. Over time, court rituals developed to appease spirits, and the king would serve as the head of ancestor worship cult in addition to his secular duties. Often, the king would even perform oracle bone divinations himself, especially near the end of the dynasty. Proof from royal tomb excavations suggests that royalty were buried with valuable items, probably for afterlife use. Perhaps for the same cause, the royal corpse was buried with hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves.

A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled much of northern China, and Shang troops fought regular wars from the southern Asian steppes with nearby towns and nomadic herdsmen. Throughout his oracular divinations, the Shang King repeatedly expressed concern about the fang tribes, the barbarians living outside the civilized tu regions that formed the core of the Shang territory.

In addition to their position as commander-in-chief of the military, Shang kings also claimed their spiritual dominance by serving as the high priests of society and heading the ceremonies of divination.[56 ] As the oracle bone texts show, the Shang kings were seen as the best-qualified members of society to make sacrifices to their royal ancestors and the supreme god Di, who was responsible in their beliefs for the rain, wind, and thunder.

1. Sun, Yan (2006), ‘Colonizing China’s Northern Frontier: Yan and Her Neighbors During the Early Western Zhou Period’, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 10 (2): 159–177
2. ‘The Shang: China’s first historical dynasty, in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 232–291, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.

2.2 Zhou Dynasty

The Zhou dynasty (周) was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history (790 years).

During the Zhou empire, centralized power declined in the last two decades of the dynasty during the Spring and Autumn era until the Warring States period. The Zhou court had little control over its constituent states during this period, which were at war with each other until the Qin state consolidated power and formed the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. The Zhou dynasty had fallen formally only 35 years earlier, though at that stage the dynasty had only nominal power.

The Zhou Dynasty emerged as semi-nomadic tribes living west of the kingdom of Shang. They learned how to work with people from different cultures because of their roving ways, thus becoming stronger than the Shang and defeating them in a war in 1040 BC. They established their capital in Xi’an after that victory.

The Zhou adopted most of the Shang dynasty’s lifestyle patterns and used their craftsmen’s knowledge in a wide range of aspects.

The Zhou also adopted the same writing system patterns and administrative functions as the Shang people. The Zhou practiced heavenly cults and banned the sacrifice of man. They mostly worshiped the sun and the stars.

Western authors describe the Zhou period as ‘feudal’ because the Zhou’s fēngjiàn (封建) system encourages comparison with the medieval rule in Europe.

In inheritance matters, only patrilineal primogeniture was accepted by the Zhou dynasty as legal.

The system, also called ‘extensive stratified patrilineage’, was defined by the anthropologist Kwang-Chih Chang as ‘characterized by the fact that the eldest son of each generation formed the main of line descent and political authority, whereas the younger brothers were moved out to establish new lineages of lesser authority. The farther removed, the lesser the political authority. Ebrey defines the descent-line system as follows: ‘A great line (ta-Tsung) is the line of eldest sons continuing indefinitely from a founding ancestor. A lesser line is the line of younger sons going back no more than five generations. Great lines and lesser lines continually spin off new lesser lines, founded by younger sons’. K.E. Brashier writes in his book Ancestral Memory in Early China’ about the Tsung-fa system of patrilineal primogeniture: ‘The greater lineage, if it has survived, is the direct succession from father to the eldest son and is not defined via the collateral shifts of the lesser lineages. In discussions that demarcate between trunk and collateral lines, the former is called a zong and the latter a Zu, whereas the whole lineage is dubbed the shi. […] On one hand, every son who is not the eldest and hence not heir to the lineage territory has the potential of becoming a progenitor and fostering a new trunk lineage (Ideally he would strike out to cultivate a new lineage territory). […] According to the Zou commentary, the son of heaven divided the land among his feudal lords, his feudal lords divided the land among their dependent families, and so forth down the pecking order to the officers who had their dependent kin and the commoners who ‘each had his apportioned relations and all had their graded precedence”[27]

1. Brashier, K. E. (2011-01-01). Ancestral Memory in Early China
2. Ancestral Memory in Early China Written By K. E. Brashier

2.2.1 Fēngjiàn system and bureaucracy

There were five peerage ranks below the royal ranks, in order of importance with common English translations: gōng 公 ‘duke’, hóu 侯 ‘marquis’, bó 伯 ‘count’, zǐ 子 ‘viscount’, and nán 男 ‘baron’. A vigorous duke sometimes took power from his nobles and centralized the state. Centralization became more necessary as the states began to fight each other and decentralization promoted the further war. If a duke took power from his peers, appointed officials would have to administrate the government bureaucratically.

After these major classes lie the actual social hierarchy of ancient China that was based on the occupation of people.

Shi

The Shi held the Chinese social hierarchy’s highest status and wore silk robes as an identification of their rank. They had the right to ride in chariots, carry arms, and command battles. They were also well educated. They served as advisors, clerks, overseers, and scribes in various job roles. They also served in various administrative services. They performed different civil duties. The people of this group gave tests to get into different positions in the government. They entered into governments of various levels such as district, provincial and federal levels.

The Shi were the gentry scholars in the time of the ancient Zhou and Shang dynasties. Such were seen in the social structure as the low-level aristocratic lineage. They also had some advantages that other citizens were not granted as they were allowed to ride in chariots and order the battles from their mobile chariots. The members of this group were also appointed to the country’s civil services. Earlier these were the people who were known for their warrior skills and were recognized double-edged sword that was known as Jian, but later on the people started recognizing this knowledge, scholarship, and their administration abilities.

Nong

The Nong class was comprised by peasant farmers. Since the Neolithic age, Chinese agriculture has remained a key element of the whole civilization since the farmers produced food to sustain society as a whole. According with craftsmen and merchants, these were considered part of higher ranks. While they did not enjoy the rights granted to the Shi community, they were regarded as important members of society. These were landowners and were in charge of producing food and vegetables for themselves and society.

Gong

The Gong class is made up of artisans and craftsmen. These were considered labors according to Chinese understanding. They were like farmers but because they didn’t own any land on their own, they managed to grow products and crafts. This was also a wealthy class, but in the social structure, it was not considered a good class, and therefore privileges & rights were not granted in contrast with the higher classes.

Shang

The lower class in ancient China’s social hierarchy was the Shang class consisting of merchants and traders. Because these individuals were unable to achieve good status in society, they were put at the lower levels of the social structure. They had significant wealth, but they were not considered decent citizens in society because they indulged in selling and transporting goods that were made by the other men.

Despite all these similarities, there are a number of important differences from medieval Europe. One obvious difference is that rather than castles the Zhou ruled from walled cities. Another was China’s distinct class hierarchy without a structured clergy.

When a dukedom was centralized, these people would find employment as government officials or officers. These hereditary classes were comparable in rank and training to Western knights, but they were expected to be something of a scholar rather than a soldier like the Western clergy. They would switch from one country to another when they were selected. Some would travel from state to state peddling schemes of administrative or military reform. Many who were unable to find work would often end up teaching young men aspiring to official status.

2.3 Qin Dynasty

• The Qin dynasty came to power in 221 BC. They were one of the Western states that conquered the Warring States and unified China for the first time in ancient history.
• The Qin dynasty was the strongest dynasty militarily. For warfare, they used various new technologies They used cavalry for the most part.
• The Qin dynasty also made several changes aimed at unifying China and strengthening administrative procedures.
• The Emperor was the highest rank, and the commanderie leaders had to report in writing to the Emperor.

The Qin administration was extremely hierarchical, and a system of officials governed it, all representing the First Emperor. The Qin brought Han Feizi’s teachings into effect, allowing the First Emperor to command all his domains, including those newly conquered. All aspects of life were structured, from measurements and language to more practical details like chariot axle lengths.

Commoners and rural farmers who made up more than 90% of the population, very seldom left the villages or farms where they were raised. Common modes of work varied from region to region, but farming was common almost uniformly. Professions were hereditary; a father’s employment was passed to his eldest son after he died.

2.4 Han Dynasty

The period of the Han dynasty in ancient China hegemony began when Liu Bang, a Han prince conquered the Qin army in 206 BC.

He founded his new capital, Ch’ang-an, when Liu Bang invaded the Qin. The king retained the bulk of the rules and regulations similar to the Qin dynasty.

Like Qin, the main goal of the Han was also to unify China.

Education was an important aspect of the Han dynasty.

The emperor was at the center of Han society and government in the hierarchical social order. Nevertheless, the emperor was often a minor, governed by a regent like the empress dowager or one of her male relatives. The kings who belonged to the same Liu family clan were ranked directly below the emperor. The rest of society, including nobles below the kings and all commoners except slaves, belonged to one of twenty ranks.

Each successive rank granted greater retirement and legal privileges to their holder. The highest rank, of a full marquess, came with a state pension and a territorial fiefdom. Holders of the rank directly below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension but had no territorial rule. Officers serving in government belonged to the broader general class of society and were ranked in social prestige just below nobles. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses.

Contrary to popular belief, there have been an abundance of heroines throughout Ancient civilisation that have accompanied heroes in altering history, however, they are often forgotten in the history books. In most known Ancient civilisations, women led a traditional lifestyle that was expected of them by their society (History Hit, 10 Great Warrior Women of the Ancient World, 2018). However, there were numerous significant female figures that broke tradition in their respective cultures to become invaluable heroines in Ancient History. In order to discuss the extent to which the statement is true, the role of several heroines in the Ancient world, variables that led to the anonymity of heroines in Ancient history and the significance of the Trung Sisters and Theodora must be examined. In a time period dominated by men, women were only written as background characters in the pages of history, however, the real truth of history is that heroines existed, and they were powerful.

Ancient civilisation produced powerful females, who whether wore a crown on their heads or swung a sword in their hand, impacted their respective cultures and subsequently moulded the contemporary world. Heroines in Ancient History were not just confined to places that were well known for hosting heroes and conflicts such as Greece, Rome and Egypt, the expansion of significant heroines in Ancient History was global. The most well-known heroine in Ancient civilisation was Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra who was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty (National Geographic, Who Was the Most Powerful Woman in Ancient History?, 2018). While she is most famous for her beauty and powers of seduction including her romances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony (History.com, Cleopatra, 2009), she was much more than a pretty face. Cleopatra was quite intelligent and was able to communicate in numerous languages, thus aiding her to be the main ruler in all three of her co-regencies, her reign lasting for over three decades. Another heroine in Ancient times was Cynane (c. 358 – 323 BC) who was the half-sister of legendary hero Alexander the Great. She fought alongside her brother during his campaign and according to Polyaenus (2nd-century CE Macedonian author and historian) she once murdered an Illyrian queen (History Hit, 10 Great Warrior Women of the Ancient World, 2018). Tomyris was another hero that significantly influenced her culture. Tomyris (6th century BC) was the Queen of the Massaegetae which was a Scythian union of nomadic tribes in Central Asia (History Hit, 10 Great Warrior Women of the Ancient World, 2018). She is most famous for the war she led against Cyrus the Great (the Persian King) and is rumoured to have murdered him herself as told by Herodotus, I.214: “Search was made among the slain by order of the queen for the body of Cyrus, and when it was found she took a skin, and, filling it full of human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus in the gore saying, as she thus insulted the corpse, “I live and have conquered you in a fight”. Heroines were just as heroic than their hero counterparts, ruling not only in the royal court but on the battlefield.

Although there were numerous heroines in Ancient Civilisation who significantly impacted the world, there is little known about these figures. While reasons for the anonymity of female heroes in Ancient History differ from culture to culture, the general assumption to note is that in most cultures, females were considered less than males and were considered “not worthy enough” to write about. For the same reason, women were not able to participate in men’s activities such as fighting in a war, holding power or retaining a prestigious job, thus there generally lacked a reason for a woman to be written about. When a female heroes did arise, they were purposely left out of written historical sources as the power in charge (Monarchy, Government, etc) wanted to prevent a potential uprising of women demanding more equality. Despite the censorship and anonymity of heroines throughout Ancient civilisation, women made an invaluable contribution to their society.

Women in Asia during Ancient History lived a subservient lifestyle, according to the traditions of their respective cultures. However, the Trung Sisters broke that mould to become significant heroines in Vietnam. Trưng Trắc and her sister Trưng Nhị were key figures in the first Vietnamese independence movement, who led an uprising against the Chinese Han Dynasty conquerors to fleetingly form an autonomous society (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Trung Sisters Vietnamese Rebel Leaders, 2016). During the time period of the Trung Sisters, Vietnam was controlled by the Chinese Han Dynasty which conflicted with Vietnamese culture. Han China upheld a strict hierarchical and patriarchal system adopted by Confucius in contrast to the Vietnamese social structure which was more centred around equality. For example, women in Vietnam were able to obtain traditionally male jobs such as serving as a judge, becoming a soldier or being in a command position (ThoughtCo, Who Were the Trung Sisters of Ancient Vietnam? 2019). The Trung Sisters were born circa 12AD in Giao Chi (modern-day North Vietnam) (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). During their childhood, the Trung Sisters studied warfare, were taught valuable fighting skills and were highly skilled in martial arts (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). The Trung Sisters were unknowingly trained for their rebellion since they were children.

Thi Sách (the husband of Trưng Trắc) was the motivation behind the revolution led by the Trung Sisters. Thi Sách stood publicly against the Chinese command to oppose the increasing taxes. In order to regain control over the Vietnamese people and discipline Thi Sách, he was assassinated by a Chinese commander who also consequently raped Trưng Trắc (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). The tragedy Trưng Trắc had experienced drove her to rebellion, using her fighting skills learned as a child to avenge her husband’s death and lead a rebellion against the oppressive rule of the Han Dynasty. In 39 AD, the Trung Sisters along with other nobles of the community forced the Chinese commander to flee by marching on Lien Lau (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Trung Sisters Vietnamese Rebel Leaders, 2016). Approximately 80,000 men and women, 36 female generals, including their mother, overtook 65 northern citadels within the timespan of a year (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). The rebellion was successful at first and the Trung Sisters were able to proclaim themselves the rulers of an independent state which extended from southern China to Hue (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Trung Sisters Vietnamese Rebel Leaders, 2016). During their reign, they eliminated Chinese tax and implemented traditional Vietnamese values into their kingdom (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). However, in 43 AD, the Trung Sisters were defeated by General Ma Yuan. According to Vietnamese records, the sisters committed suicide, an Ancient Vietnamese tradition to maintain the honour, by drowning themselves in a river. However, Chinese records show that they were captured by Ma Yuan and beheaded (ThoughtCo, Who Were the Trung Sisters of Ancient Vietnam? 2019).

Although Chinese rule over Vietnam was implemented again after the Trung Sisters’ death, the Vietnamese people have immortalised the heroism of the sisters through literature, monuments and a national holiday and festival. Possibly the most famous piece of literature is an unnamed Vietnamese poem which echoes the sentiment that the sisters were more heroic than even the greatest heroes in Vietnam: ‘All the male heroes bowed their heads in submission; Only the two sisters proudly stood up to avenge the country” (Found at Women in world history, The Trung Sisters, unknown). The Trung Sisters are recognised physically through numerous temples dedicated to their honour such as the Hai Bà Trưng Temple (Hanoi), temples in Mê Linh District (Vĩnh Phúc Province), Phúc Thọ District (Hà Tây), Bình Thạnh District, Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam (Ancient Origins, Hell hath no fury like the Trung Sister freedom fighters, 2014). A festival to honour the Trung Sisters is held on the 3rd day to the 6th day of the second lunar month in their hometown of Me Linh commune, Me Linh District, Hanoi. This festival includes a procession of war elephants, and gifts taken to the Trung Sisters’ temple, along with music performed by the town’s most prestigious elders. (Vietnam Visa Easy, The Trung Sisters Festival, unknown). According to Viet touch, Trung Trac & Trung Nhi, unknown; soldiers carry photographs of the Trung Sisters with them into battle as a reminder of their fight for freedom. The Trung Sisters are relatively well known compared to other heroines, although, this was not always the case. The Vietnamese worshipped the sisters and praised them openly, however, the Chinese Dynasty who had conquered Vietnam thought of the sisters as outlaws as they were able to lead an uprising. Thus, the Chinese excluded the Trung Sisters from their history and when little mention was made, they were not written as heroes, but as villains. Despite the attempt by the Chinese Dynasty to silence and exclude the Trung Sisters, they have not only been a source of inspiration for suppressed women and soldiers but for the entirety of Vietnam.

Not all heroines in Ancient Civilisation came from prestigious, noble backgrounds. Theodora is an excellent example of this. Theodora was born in c. 497 CE and according to 6th century CE Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea in his text entitled ‘Secret History’, Theodora pursued a similar occupation as her mother, working in the Hippodrome as an actress, acrobat, dancer and stripper (Ancient History Encyclopedia, Empress Theodora, 2018). Procopius further explains that she became a prostitute at a young age and gave birth to at least one child before marriage. Attracted by the combination of her beauty and intelligence, Justinian pursued her. Due to her unconventional background, a law had to be passed legalising unions between actresses and men of senatorial rank or higher (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Theodora, 2016). The pair married in 525 and Justinian succeed the throne to the Byzantine empire in 527 and Theodora became the Empress. Theodora is considered to be one of the first rulers to advocate for women’s rights such as allowing women to inherit and own property (Ancient Origins, Theodora: How a Poverty Stricken Prostitute Became an Empress, 2018) and giving women more rights in divorce cases, passing laws to prohibit human trafficking of young girls (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Theodora, 2016) and instituted the death penalty for rape. It is important to understand that the knowledge available about Theodora comes from only male sources and during her time period in Byzantine, a woman living any other life than a submissive one was considered shameful and was highly disapproved of. Thus, this is one example of why Theodora is not widely known in the Contemporary world, this sentiment relating also to the anonymity of other heroines from her time period.

Theodora had a substantial influence on all aspects of Byzantium society and although she ceased to hold a position of direct or coregent power, the utilization of her intelligence and skills of persuasion along with her extensive knowledge on political issues plaguing the empire caused many to believe that she was in power rather than Justinian (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Theodora, 2016). Theodora is attributed with multiple amendments including achieving Monophysitism in Nubia circa 540 CE and is credited for her significant influence on social reforms and charitable work such as sponsoring institutions for the poor (orphanages, hospitals), especially funding a home for former prostitutes wanting to pursue a respectable career in society (Ancient History Encyclopedia, Empress Theodora, 2018). Perhaps the best example of Theodora’s influence on the Byzantium state is her impact on the Nika riots. The Nika riots was a revolt against Justinian by supporters of popular chariot racing factions the Greens and the Blues (Ancient Origins, Theodora: How a Poverty Stricken Prostitute Became an Empress, 2018). Associates of Justinian began to flee and advised the Emperor to follow suit, however, Theodora convinced Justinian and the remaining advisors to stay. According to Procopius, she told her husband, ‘… the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it brings safety … For one who has been an emperor, it is unendurable to be a fugitive … consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve of a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud” (Thought Co, Overview of the Nika Revolt, 2019). Theodora can be attributed with the continuation of the Byzantium empire, thus she can also be attributed with its subsequent success.

Theodora succumbed to illness in 548 AD, her exact cause of death is unknown, however, it was most likely due to cancer or gangrene. The Empress was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles located in Constantinople and along with her husband, is noted as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church (Ancient Origins, Theodora: How a Poverty Stricken Prostitute Became an Empress, 2018). Theodora is remembered annually on her feast day, the 14th of November and therefore, her reforms that benefited the women of Ancient civilisation and paved the way for feminism throughout periods of history are continuously commemorated.

In conclusion, it is evident that the extent in which the statement “There was no such thing as a heroine in Ancient History, only a hero” is true is to no extent at all. Heroines existed and played a significant role in both their respective cultures and the broader world. “Given the same honour and dignity as men, women can build a much better and more harmonious world.” – Abhijit Naskar, The Bengal Tigress: A Treatise on Gender Equality. Although the tales of female heroes throughout history has not been told as much as their male counterparts, they are the reason that women today in most countries do not live a subvierent lifestyle and are instead independent. Subsequently, the gap between the quantity of male heroes compared to heroines is significantly closer to that of Ancient civilisations.

Ancient Chinese dynasties often includes sons who fights for the throne of their father and they would do anything just to get it. In the film “The Curse of the Golden Flower” which was made in 2006. Emperor Ping (Chow Yun-fat), Empress Phoenix (Gong Li), Crown Prince Wan (Liu Ye), Prince Jai (Jay Chow), and Prince Yu (Qin Junjie) are the main characters of the film. The film covers the Chinese culture of the Tang dynasty movie and it was directed by Zhang Yimou. Who is an award-winning director and has directed multiple Chinese films mostly about intimate oppressions meaning most of his works include people that are treated as slaves by someone who is more superior. He has a lot of awards namely The Golden Lion, Bear, Rooster silver lion, and a lot more. He has a total of twenty-one awards and he has been winning this awards since 1985 to 2018. The film: The Curse of the Golden Flower) earned a total of $78,568,977 but it is one of the less-earning movies he had made and the most earning movie is the “Great Wall.” The scope and limitation that we would focus more on under the cinematic aspect are the lightings and the sound effect. Under the dramatic aspect would be the shots of the camera and the acting of the actors and actresses. Under the literary aspect would be the symbolism and the characters of the film.

We argue that the women characters are bound by the power of the Emperor and are his slaves.

Characters:

1. Emperor Ping: The Emperor who is the most superior being in the film. He has all the power that he can use to control the other characters.
2. Empress Phoenix: The Empress and the wife of the Emperor. She is the mother of Prince Jai and Prince Yu. She has sickness anemia which is the reason of her shaking.
3. Crown Prince Wan: The eldest son of the Emperor and he is the only son that the Emperor had with his first partner. He and Empress Phoenix has a secret relationship which the Emperor later knew and is the reason for the poisoning of the Empress.
4. Prince Jai: The Middle son of the Emperor. He is the leader of the 10,000 golden army which was later defeated by the Emperor’s army.
5. Prince Yu: The youngest son of the Emperor. He always knew that he was the least favorite son and he receives minimal attention from the family mainly the Emperor. In the end, He wanted the throne of the father so he had his own squad of the army and was later defeated by the ninjas hired by the father. He was later seen laying in the floor while his father was slapping his back.

Cinematic effects

The director manipulates the characters with numerous stares and wild, sound effects. The vibrant rainbow color of the walls makes the interior of the palace more unique and relaxing and the open field that has several golden flowers (chrysanthemum) filling the entire courtyard is really unique. The main eye-catching color in this film is the brightness of the pure gold between the Emperor and the Empress making it shiny for the eyes of the audience. The colors of the dress of both the emperor and the empress balance the color of the palace in which it makes the film more beautiful. The majority of the film is focused on the palace that is composed of mostly gold and red. The director Zhang Yimou, uses the primary colors red and yellow throughout the film to portray the intensity of the characters. Throughout the film, gold was the most common color that was used. Each color has its own meaning, red symbolizes good fortune, power, danger, and blood/war while yellow symbolizes loyalty, honor, and happiness and gold symbolizes love and wisdom. These symbolisms are based on the beliefs of the Chinese people which makes the film more believable. The genre of the movie is action in which the movie has a lot of actions that took place and war is under the action genre in which it was evident in the last part of the movie in which the army of the son fought with the army of the father.

The sound effects that were used in the film was very thrilling especially when the empress was about to drink the medicine in every two hours. The sound perfectly matches the acting and the movements of the actors. The dialogue that was used was Chinese because the actors came from different places that has the language Chinese being the mutual language between them. In the film, it might be a bit hard for audience that came from foreign countries to understand the dialogue but they added subtitles to the film helping the audience from foreign countries to understand the film and helping them know the culture and the history of ancient Chinese dynasties so overall watching the movie does not need the knowledge of knowing Chinese language and knowledge of ancient Chinese history. There were not many conversations in the film in which it can give you a longer time between lines if you’re learning Chinese. Due to this aspect of the film, it can also be the right material for the audience to learn Chinese. The lighting was also perfect because it showcased all the scenes in which the audience watched with extra care. It showed everything ranging from the facial expressions of the characters to the small details in the palace.

Dramatic effects

To achieve the shot when the armies was facing each other, Zhang Yimou used a long shot that captures long distances. The size of the courtyard is the same size of a football field which meant it was difficult to frame the shots without using the long shot style. The camera used was strapped to a small remote-controlled helicopter so it captured the full field. He also used the close shot in which it captured the facial expressions of the characters. The director did not showed the audience on how big the palace is straight away but he showed it by using another way by opening three huge doors to tell the audience that the palace was huge. The acting of the characters was well thought off. The actors are well known making their acting very good and smooth and it did not disappoint the audience.

In China, chrysanthemums are often given to elders for longer life, and based on the movie the chrysanthemum festival was at the 9th day of the 9th month in the lunar calendar. In the film, the chrysanthemum that the Empress was knitting in the cloth symbolizes the rebellion in which it is the sign of the army of the second son (Prince Jai). The chrysanthemum often symbolizes good luck in the place but in the film, it portrays the betrayal of the Empress towards the Emperor and it was the main place where the son’s army and the Emperor’s army fought. Another symbol is the gold coin of the emperor in which it symbolizes the payment of the emperor to the soldiers to kill his former partner, her husband, and her daughter because they were the reason that the Empress knew that she was being poisoned by the Emperor and one more was the suit of the emperor symbolizing his power because he is the only person who has this armor while his son has a silver suit symbolizing the son’s power which is less/inferior compared to the more/superior power of the father in which at the end he wore a gold suit too like the father symbolizing his power in the new rebellion.

Symbolisms:

1. The chrysanthemum sign that the Empress made
2. The chrysanthemum sign that the Empress made is the sign of the army that the son lead. The mission was to kill the father because the Empress and the son knew that the Emperor was poisoning her.
3. The golden suit that the father had the silver suit the son had while practicing with the father
4. The son with the golden suit during the war he had with the Emperor’s army.

These pictures show the different suits of the Emperor and the second son (Prince Jai) during their practice fight Prince Jai was wearing a silver suit because his father has the greater power and during the final war scene, he was wearing a gold suit meaning he has the same or more power than the Emperor.

The gold coin represents the payment of the Emperor to assassinate the imperial doctor’s family because they told the Empress about the poison. It is a sign of betrayal because the father wanted the Imperial doctor and his family dead.

The ninjas were attacking the village of the imperial doctor and his family because the Emperor paid them to do so because the former partner and current wife of the Imperial doctor told the Empress about the poison that the Emperor was inserting inside the medicine. The doctor died while fighting the ninjas while the mother and the daughter died at the palace shortly after.

The film shows the inferiority of the female characters compared to the Emperor. The female characters include the workers and even the Empress in which she can decide on anything on her own but was eventually defeated by the Emperor when her army which was led by her son Prince Jai was defeated by the Emperor’s army. The Emperor is the one who is always right even if the Empress does not agree with his decision. She is a slave of the Emperor because she always follows the Emperor may it be drinking the medicine of the emperor or where they would meet and they always follow him. The workers are mostly composed of females and are under the control of the royal family which is Zhang Yimou’s specialty. The workers have different assignments like making the medicine of the Empress and giving the medicine to the Empress. There are a lot of workers but the ones inside the house were mainly females while the armies and the ones who cleaned the field after the war were males. The Emperor has the power to control everyone including his wife and the workers who work in the palace. One part of the film showed the former partner and the birth mother of Crown Prince Wan who had a logo on her face because the Emperor was in love with Phoenix that he took his current partner and her family to jail and she escaped but was branded by the Emperor. This shows the audience that the Emperor has a lot of power and he used it with his former partner and she suffered because of that. That is why the female characters of the film was treated as slaves because of the power that the Emperor has. It was sad seeing people being controlled by someone who has more power than them. People should have equal power because everyone was made equal. Being in the royal family does not mean that he should be the one ruling the people.

The Empress was forced by the Emperor to drink the medicine even though the liquid was only a few drops. The sons eventually persuaded the Empress on drinking the medicine.

Female workers following the empress who has more power than them and they are all under the control of the Emperor.

This is a picture of the former partner of the Emperor in which he had complete power over her. She later talked to the Emperor about their past and the Emperor asked her why did she marry the imperial doctor and not him. She said that when the Emperor was just a low-ranking member of the dynasty he asked the soldiers to put her family and her in jail because the Emperor had a crush on the current Empress Phoenix which led to her family being killed and she being branded by the Emperor.

In conclusion, the power of the Emperor should not be used to make the female characters become slaves of the Emperor but overall the movie was pretty good and the actors were pretty good too. Watching the movie can help the audience to know the power that a leader holds that he/she can use against other people. It also shows the culture of the ancient Chinese people in which it shows the different beliefs of Chinese people regarding the different colors. I would recommend this movie because it was nicely directed by the director but the clothes of the Empress and the workers are too short to be formal and it is not appropriate.

Some conquerors ruled justly, some were terrors, and according to most of Western history, all were men. Few women throughout history have been bestowed the title, and their accomplishments are often marginalized in favor of the men around them. One such woman was Empress Wu Zetian, who schemed her way out of her position as a low-ranked concubine to becoming Empress of China. Though her methods were underhanded and often terrifying, she created a lasting impact that permeated throughout Chinese culture, even as her successors attempted to erase her. As a conqueror, Empress Wu not only expanded the boundaries of China and established a period of great prosperity within its borders, but she ultimately undermined the stronghold of Confucian patriarchy, becoming a successful conqueror of not only the land but of her society as well.

Wu Zetian’s reign began long before she declared herself Empress. Her husband, Emperor Gaozong, suffered from vertigo and spent most of his days so dizzy that he could not bear to open his eyes and read the documents presented by his advisors. He turned to Empress Wu for help and allowed her to not only read the documents but to give her advice on what actions he needed to take. The most notable of her decisions enacted military forces to invade the Korean Peninsula in 668, effectively expanding Chinese territory further east, and giving her immeasurable political knowledge. However, her influence within the court was openly derided in an era that confined women to domesticity, and she was judged harshly for her actions after the death of the Emperor in 683. While she initially went along with imperial tradition and installed her eldest son as emperor, she found his wife’s nepotism unbecoming and deposed them in favor of her youngest son, who she soon regarded as incompetent, and imprisoned him within the palace. In 690, she declared herself Empress and immediately declared her reign as the Zhou Dynasty, named for an ancestral Chinese dynasty that she claimed descendency from. Despite contention surrounding her rise to power, she slowly gained acceptance as she brought both prosperity and peace to the empire. Her most notable act was the creation of the first social welfare programs in China. Prior to her reign, monks were responsible for the impoverished and the elderly, but “the almshouse as a public institution seems to have emerged only in the last years of the reign of the strongly pro-Buddhist Empress Wu.”

Though she succeeded in both social and militaristic realms, her greatest achievement was conquering the Confucian patriarchy. She plotted her way to the top and disrupted the norms of yin and yang by ruling an empire, a position women were never supposed to hold in Chinese society. She consciously revered pre-Confucian female mythological figures, choosing words and imagery throughout her dynasty that evoked them, and her choice in women “served to validate her person and her unique role as female emperor; their presence provided a sense that they always had been and always would be politically eminent.” Furthermore, she removed the ban on women showing their faces in public, refused to conduct her affairs behind a screen as she did while being Empress Dowager, and bestowed the title of “Emperor Wu Zhao” upon herself, further blurring the binary of yin and yang so deeply entrenched in Chinese culture. Her achievements were ultimately so polarizing that her successors erased the Zhou Dynasty from records, and women also endured harsher restrictions on their rights, in an attempt to prevent similarly ambitious women from rising to power.

Though emperors after her death in 705 attempted to erase her legacy by refusing to acknowledge the validity of both her rule and her dynasty, Empress Wu Zetian had a lasting impact on Chinese culture that extended well into the 20th century, where she was presented as a strong female figure during the rise of communism. Her political prowess guided by abject ruthlessness allowed her to make strides in both the political and social realms of the Chinese Empire. While many conquerors are defined by the land they acquired or the kingdoms they established, few have been such fervent challengers of the status quo, making Empress Wu Zetian one of the most successful (yet unknown) conquerors of antiquity.

Bibliography

1. Dien, Dora Shu-Fang. Empress Wu Zetian in Fiction and in History: Female Defiance in Confucian China. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2004. Digital file.
2. McMahon, Keith. ‘Women Rulers in Imperial China.’ Nan Nu 15, no. 2 (2013): 179-218.
3. Rothschild, Norman H. Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2015. Digital file.
4. Song, Xianlin. ‘Re-gendering Chinese History: Zhao Mei’s Emperor Wu Zetian.’ East Asia, no. 27 (2010): 361-79. Accessed February 12, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140-010-9122-z.
5. Woo, X. L. Empress Wu the Great: Tang Dynasty China. New York: Algora Pub., 2008. Digital file.

After the Han Dynasty fell, there was a period of shifting rule which made life in China very chaotic. This is known as the “period of disunion.” When this was happening, the Sui Dynasty took over. The Sui Dynasty flourished at the start but near the end of their time (618 AD) their ruler only wanted power to benefit himself. Many rebellions were happening and a short civil war took place, and the emperor of the Sui Dynasty was assassinated. Eventually, Li Yuan and the Duke of Tang formed a rebellion against the Sui. The leader of the rebellion (Li Yuan) claimed that the Mandate of Heaven was passed down to him. As a result, he became the first emperor of the Tang Dynasty. He is now known as Emperor Gaozu and he had the title from 618 AD-626 AD. His son, Li Shimin, had come and forced the power from his father. Emperor Gaozu allowed his son to take the throne. Li Shimin was then given the title of Emperor Taizong. He is known to be a phenomenal ruler and was very sagacious. During the beginning of the Tang Empire’s existence, multiple emperors arose after another, including a woman. The height of the Tang Empire now transpired. 

The Tang Empire government was very organized. The system they used was a monarchy. The first emperor or founder of the Tang was Emperor Gaozu, and his son came next. The most influential emperors of this time were Emperor Taizong, Emperor Xuan-Zong, and Empress Wu Zetian. Zetian was the only female ruler of the Tang dynasty, and in ancient times that was not very common. The other part of the government the Tang had were the three departments that created laws operated by six ministries. Government officials who were a part of these ministries and departments are chosen through Civil Service Exams. Their places in government depended on their scores on these exams. An educated society was extremely important to the Tang, so they had a system of government-run schools where people would take on the study of Confucianism. These students will also be led to take the Civil Service Exams. The Tang Empire was able to hold together very well over a long period of time. This is because along with society being so educated, they also had a code of laws that were put to use. This in-depth code of laws showed people what they could and could not do, and punishments for their crimes. The government of the Tang Empire created a stable, flourishing empire.

Though the empire did not have a Caste System, it still had a social structure. The Tang social structure consists of eight classes. At the top was the emperor and his family, secondly was the aristocracy, next was the bureaucracy (which was divided into two separate parts), then the eunuchs, and lastly the slaves. Slaves arrived in China through trade and they were called the Kunlun. To some people of the Tang Dynasty, slaves were not the ideal people. They thought of them as hazardous and unknowledgeable. But on the other hand, some thought of them as mighty and wondrous. Slaves in the empire worked for the higher classes or were artists. In slight contrast, women were very well respected in the Tang Dynasty. Since the Tang people were accepting of many views and ideas, women could do almost everything men could. They could own property and businesses, have an education, learn about politics and the military, and have fair marriages. There was also an Empress who ruled over the Tang for over fifty years. “Women of the Tang Dynasty were fortunate” (Writers of All-China Women’s Federation) to live during such a time.

Introduction

The river dynasties in ancient China played a significant role in shaping the country’s political, social, and economic landscape. This essay aims to critically analyze the impact of river dynasties, specifically the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, on the development and governance of ancient China. By examining the strengths and weaknesses of these dynasties, we can gain insights into their contributions and shortcomings in shaping Chinese history.

The Yellow River Civilization: Strengths and Weaknesses

The Yellow River, also known as the “Mother River,” was the cradle of Chinese civilization. It provided fertile soil for agriculture and facilitated transportation, trade, and communication. The strength of the Yellow River civilization lay in its agricultural productivity, which supported the growth of prosperous societies. The early dynasties, such as the Xia and Shang, relied heavily on the Yellow River for irrigation and cultivated a sophisticated agricultural system.

However, the Yellow River’s propensity for devastating floods posed a significant challenge to the stability and development of these river dynasties. The unpredictability of the river led to frequent flooding, causing destruction, loss of life, and displacement of communities. The inability to effectively manage and control the Yellow River’s flooding often resulted in social unrest and political instability. Despite its agricultural advantages, the Yellow River civilization struggled to find long-term solutions to mitigate the destructive impact of floods.

The Yangtze River Civilization: Achievements and Limitations

The Yangtze River civilization, centered around the Yangtze River basin, was another influential river dynasty in ancient China. It spanned several dynasties, including the Zhou, Qin, and Han. The Yangtze River, with its vast resources and navigable waters, facilitated economic development, trade, and cultural exchange. It served as a vital transportation route, connecting different regions and promoting economic prosperity.

One of the notable achievements of the Yangtze River civilization was the establishment of a centralized bureaucracy and a unified system of governance. The Zhou Dynasty, for instance, implemented the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” to justify its rule and maintain social order. This system provided a sense of legitimacy and stability to the dynasty.

However, the Yangtze River civilization faced challenges of its own. Similar to the Yellow River, the Yangtze River experienced flooding, although less frequent and severe. Additionally, the vastness of the territory and diverse ethnic groups posed difficulties in maintaining political unity and cultural assimilation. The Han Dynasty, for example, struggled to govern its vast empire and faced internal conflicts and external invasions.

Conclusion

The river dynasties in ancient China, particularly the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, played crucial roles in shaping the country’s history. While these river systems provided fertile lands, facilitated trade and communication, and served as centers of cultural development, they also presented challenges that affected the stability and governance of the dynasties.

The strengths of the river dynasties lay in their agricultural productivity, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements. However, their weaknesses, such as the recurring floods and difficulties in managing vast territories, resulted in social unrest, political instability, and occasional collapses of dynasties.

Critical analysis of the river dynasties in China allows us to appreciate the complexities of ancient Chinese civilization. It highlights the need for effective governance, sustainable agricultural practices, and innovative solutions to mitigate the challenges posed by natural forces.

By critically examining the successes and failures of the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, we can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics that shaped ancient China and draw lessons applicable to contemporary challenges in resource management and governance.

Introduction

The river dynasties in ancient China played a significant role in shaping the country’s political, social, and economic landscape. This essay aims to critically analyze the impact of river dynasties, specifically the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, on the development and governance of ancient China. By examining the strengths and weaknesses of these dynasties, we can gain insights into their contributions and shortcomings in shaping Chinese history.

The Yellow River Civilization: Strengths and Weaknesses

The Yellow River, also known as the “Mother River,” was the cradle of Chinese civilization. It provided fertile soil for agriculture and facilitated transportation, trade, and communication. The strength of the Yellow River civilization lay in its agricultural productivity, which supported the growth of prosperous societies. The early dynasties, such as the Xia and Shang, relied heavily on the Yellow River for irrigation and cultivated a sophisticated agricultural system.

However, the Yellow River’s propensity for devastating floods posed a significant challenge to the stability and development of these river dynasties. The unpredictability of the river led to frequent flooding, causing destruction, loss of life, and displacement of communities. The inability to effectively manage and control the Yellow River’s flooding often resulted in social unrest and political instability. Despite its agricultural advantages, the Yellow River civilization struggled to find long-term solutions to mitigate the destructive impact of floods.

The Yangtze River Civilization: Achievements and Limitations

The Yangtze River civilization, centered around the Yangtze River basin, was another influential river dynasty in ancient China. It spanned several dynasties, including the Zhou, Qin, and Han. The Yangtze River, with its vast resources and navigable waters, facilitated economic development, trade, and cultural exchange. It served as a vital transportation route, connecting different regions and promoting economic prosperity.

One of the notable achievements of the Yangtze River civilization was the establishment of a centralized bureaucracy and a unified system of governance. The Zhou Dynasty, for instance, implemented the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” to justify its rule and maintain social order. This system provided a sense of legitimacy and stability to the dynasty.

However, the Yangtze River civilization faced challenges of its own. Similar to the Yellow River, the Yangtze River experienced flooding, although less frequent and severe. Additionally, the vastness of the territory and diverse ethnic groups posed difficulties in maintaining political unity and cultural assimilation. The Han Dynasty, for example, struggled to govern its vast empire and faced internal conflicts and external invasions.

Conclusion

The river dynasties in ancient China, particularly the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, played crucial roles in shaping the country’s history. While these river systems provided fertile lands, facilitated trade and communication, and served as centers of cultural development, they also presented challenges that affected the stability and governance of the dynasties.

The strengths of the river dynasties lay in their agricultural productivity, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements. However, their weaknesses, such as the recurring floods and difficulties in managing vast territories, resulted in social unrest, political instability, and occasional collapses of dynasties.

Critical analysis of the river dynasties in China allows us to appreciate the complexities of ancient Chinese civilization. It highlights the need for effective governance, sustainable agricultural practices, and innovative solutions to mitigate the challenges posed by natural forces.

By critically examining the successes and failures of the Yellow River and Yangtze River civilizations, we can gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics that shaped ancient China and draw lessons applicable to contemporary challenges in resource management and governance.