Category: Children

Oral language is one of the key components of literacy, it is intertwined closely with reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar. Children learn language competency through repeated exposure to increasingly complex words via conversations they have with the adults around them as well as through specific language instruction provided by the teacher. Picture books provide the opportunity to develop the students’ knowledge of language and vocabulary further. The implications surrounding poor language knowledge are expansive and also indirectly affect the other components of literacy. It is important that language development is given special consideration so that children are able to communicate effectively and efficiently.

What is oral language?

Oral language is made up of three different components: The phonological component, The semantic component, and the syntactic component (Lindfors, 1987). The phonological component involves the study of sound patterns and their meanings, both within and across languages. An example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come together to form speech and words. Phonology also relates to being able to name letters, matching rhyming words and looking at middle and end sounds of words. The sematic component is made up of morphemes, the small units of meaning that may be combined with each other to make up words, such as adding -s to the end of a word to change the meaning or joining two words together to create a different word, such as ‘rain’ and ‘drop’ being added together to make the word ‘raindrop’. The syntactic component consists of the rules that enable humans to combine morphemes into sentences. As a child develops so does the complexity of their language, eventually creating questions, statements and learning to combine two ideas into one complex statement.

It is believed that there are three dimensions when it comes to developing language comprehension; the physical component, the environmental dimension and the social dimension. The physical dimension refers to the rate at which a child’s brain is developing in correlation with their age. The environmental dimension includes where the child is living; is it remote or inner-city, what is the child’s parent’s socioeconomic status, and to what degree the child’s parents were educated. Lastly, the social dimension refers to how frequently they are seeing people of different age brackets, as a child is more likely to gain greater vocabulary knowledge via talking to an adult as opposed to another child.

B. F. Skinner theorised that children’s language development could be explained by environmental learning. He believed that using a behaviourist approach to model behaviour along with positive reinforcements over time a child would develop a vocabulary. For example, providing parent approval as a positive reinforcement when a child correctly pronounces a word or sentence. In contrast, Noam Chomsky’s believed that all humans are born with an innate mechanism to enable them to learn language. He believed this was possible by a child listening to other humans talk, hence why their understanding of grammar develops so readily. Thus, starting the controversial debate of Nature Vs. Nurture. Ewing, Callow & Rushton (2016) discuss a case from the 1970’s which is focused around a thirteen-year-old girl whom had been confined to a room for most of her life, often tied to a chair and was severely malnourished. She had been isolated and abused by her parents her whole life. Researchers used her to test the Nature Vs. Nurture theory, while they found initially the girl was able to learn a number of words, she was unable to progress when it came to learning grammar. Thus, leading to a belief that there are critical phases for learning language and that interaction with one’s environment is crucial for the development of language. Children’s language development can also be stimulated through imaginative play with words. For example, children manipulating individual words, or coming up with rhymes and songs.

Language development is linked into so many other aspects of the child’s development, while abilities will always differ between the children it is important that they receive enough of the right stimulation from those in their immediate environment to have success. However, some children have less access to these opportunities of exposure which can then result in a slower development of language acquisition which then in turn affects other areas of literacy, for example, reading and writing. Oral language can have a severe impact on reading development as it is an essential skill children must have grasped of before they are able to read with comprehension. Research has identified that children with a poor history of oral language are five times more likely to struggle with reading comprehension as opposed to their peers (Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin, 2001).

How do children learn Oral language?

Grammar, syntax and semantics are just a few of the literacy skills that influence both language acquisition and reading competence. Children learn new words through incidental exposure or through elaborated exposure. Incidental exposure occurs when children informally experience unknown words in conversations with others; for example, listening to a television program (Justice and Pence, 2005). Elaborated exposure is a more intentional approach in which children encounter new words through reading a story book or conversations accompanied by meaning-focused explanations delivered by an adult (Justice and Pence, 2005). However, in order for a child to understand in depth the meaning of a word and the proper context the child must have repeated exposure to that word and then be provided the opportunity to use that word in conversation.

Instruction in Phonological awareness is also very important when it comes to language development. Phonological awareness involves activities focused around Rhyme, alliteration, blending and manipulating the word or syllable. An example of this may be asking the student to match rhyming words together or count how many syllables are in a word. Intensive instruction from the adult becomes more important as the student begins to get older and the sounds or words become more complex. An example of intensive instruction may be getting a student to blend to sounds together or asking the student to segment a word into sounds. Another important aspect of language development is vocabulary instruction, this involves providing children with opportunities to develop a deeper vocabulary through exposure to multiple contexts (Beck &McKeown, 2007). Vocabulary instruction should not only be measured on how many words a child knows but also their level of understanding of those words.

Literature for Oral language

Children’s literature plays a critical role in language development through play. For example, Ewing, Callow & Rushton (2016) discusses a case where a teacher read a book where the duck would quack in different ways to indicate its enjoyment or boredom when a teacher asked How is the work? The students then mirrored the language from the picture book and would quack when they were enjoying their classwork. Reading storybooks to children plays a vital part in developing language skills as they provide children with the opportunity for frequent language-rich interactions that can then be turned into conversations about the book. Asking questions so that the child has to actively respond about the meaning of the text and what connections they can make to it, whether that be to their environment or to themselves.

Concrete levels of conversation intertwined with children’s literature can help support the development of oral language. Van Kleeck (2003) states that the amount and quality of adult-child conversation is correlated with children’s levels of language and literacy development. The complexity of the conversation depends on the level of abstraction used in the conversation. Four levels have been identified, the first being the most concrete level, this level focuses on labelling, locating and noticing present objects. An example of this would be a teacher drawing attention to a picture in a storybook using comments such as “Look at the bird in that tree”. The second level expands on the concrete knowledge learnt in the first level by further describing characteristics of objects. For example, “Look at that blue bird in the green leafy tree”. Level three and four correspond to the more complex levels of language, they require children to think and reason beyond what is present. Level 3 requires students to summarise, infer provide questions by drawing on their own previous knowledge. Lastly, Level four children are required to reason, predict, problem solve and explain the story (Blank, Rose & Berlin, 1978). However, Blank, Rose and Berlin (1978) also state that it is important that a child has a concrete foundation of word knowledge prior to elaborating with abstract language.

Having a designated place for reading can be very beneficial to language development in a classroom setting. For example, a reading rug is an idea that all children sit on the rug and listen to a storybook while reading the teacher asks the children questions about what they are reading. This facilitates language development within the context of storybook reading and can be very beneficial to developing a child’s comprehensive language skills. It is called interactive reading which is viewed by experts as an ideal setting to provide a meaningful context for a child to learn language skills (Hogan et al. 2011). It provides the teacher with an opportunity to interact with their students about the text, as they are able to analyse a word’s meaning with the students or ask the child questions about the text or linking the text to the students own life to keep them engaged in their learning. Reading the text would be quite difficult for a child in their early years of primary school; thus, making the conversations facilitated by the teacher quite valuable to developing language acquisition. Using this method also helps to keep the students engaged and focused. Through reading and re-reading different texts it also provides students with the opportunity to become familiar with the complex words throughout the text and the teacher providing prompting questions provides the students with a situation in which they are able to use those words (McKeown and Beck, 2003).

There are many texts that are designed to be used to support language development in early primary school, with a big number of those being picture books. The Mouse board book series written by Laura Numeroff is the perfect example of literacy promoting language development. The book series uses repeated characters across all of the books and contains a little amount of text on each page which leaves plenty of room for the pictures. These pictures provide teachers with the opportunity to facilitate a conversation with the students. For example, ‘who’s birthday do you think it is?’ Or ‘Why do you think the big is wearing a dress?’.

Language competency is an important aspect to develop at the beginning of all literacy programs as it provides the concrete foundation for the other aspects of literacy. Children’s literature contains many opportunities to facilitate language development and it should be viewed as a sound resource to support development in all areas of literacy. By providing both implicit and explicit instruction allows the child to succeed when it comes to language development. It provides a language rich environment full of experiences and opportunities to give the child the foundations to support their future education.

References

1. Blank, M., Rose, S. A., & Berlin, L. J. (1978). The language of learning: The preschool years. New York: Grune and Stratton.
2. Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (2001). Estimating the risk of future reading difficulties in kindergarten children: A research-based model and its clinical implementation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
3. Ewing, R., Callow, J., & Rushton, K. (2016). Language & literacy development in early childhood. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
4. Hogan, T. P., Bridges, M. S., Justice, L. M., & Cain, K. (2011). Increasing higher level language skills to improve reading comprehension. Focus on Exceptional Children
5. Justice, L. M., & Pence, K. L. (2005). Scaffolding with storybooks: A guide for enhancing young children’s language and literacy achievement.
6. Lindfors, J.W. Children’s Language and Learning, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
7. McKeown, M. G., & Beck, I. L. (2003). Taking advantage of read-alouds to help children make sense of decontextualized language.
8. Numeroff, L. (2005). If you give a pig a party. HarperCollins.
9. Van Kleeck, A. (2003). “Research on book sharing: Another critical look”. In On reading books to children: Parents and teachers.

As technology becomes pervasive in our work and private lives our children are picking this up as well. Therefore, understanding how we interact with it is increasingly important. Addiction disorders associated with children’s interaction with games and the internet are increasing scientific research and is a big topic of discussion in this day and age. By calling it an addiction parents are communicating that there is an unhealthy problem as well as feeling like they are powerless to stop it. You’ve tried your best and no matter what you do your child’s favorite activity is to spend the day using technology. Like most parents out there the struggle is setting boundaries with technology that the family will respect. Technology is so deeply rooted in everything now, that children can develop a technology addiction without even noticing. Teaching children healthy habits like teaching boundaries and no screen time before bed are solutions that will help improve technology addiction in children. Unplugging from technology can bring many benefits by promoting family bonding time, improving mental health, and also promotes healthy sleeping habits.

The findings will help shape the way parents deal with changing technology at home in the future. In a report released by Common Sense Media said “children up to age 8 spend an average of 2 hours and 19 minutes every day on screen media. For 8 to 12-year-olds, the average time spent using screen media every day was 4 hours and 36 minutes. Teens spent an average of 4½ hours per day with screen media and 6 hours with all media, including reading and listening to music. With these stats it is no wonder parents are scared of calling it an addiction. When introducing technology devices to children parents have to be prepared to provide clear guidelines with regards to the use of technology. By providing a balance child will know there are rules and rules will teach them healthy concepts of technology use. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP 2013) has previously suggested 1–2 hours/night of non-school/work-related use of electronic devices. Not only do parents need to aim for balance but also lead by example. A study published in the journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics; it was observed that 73 percent of caregivers (such as parents) tend to use their devices during a meal.

Teaching children healthy habits like time limits on technology can go along way into this technology addiction that children all over the world are developing. Parents should start setting time limits on anything technology. Parents who possess to separate their children from their smartphone may be helping their kids brain power according to a new study. Children who use smartphones and other devices in their free time for less than two hours a day performed better on cognitive tests assessing their thinking, language and memory, according to a study published on September 2018 in the Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. Also, The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests “ZERO screen time until kids reach between 18 and 24 months of age.”

Sleeping is an essential part of children’s development and wellbeing. Sleeping is important for learning, memory, emotions, and behaviors. However, many children are receiving less and less sleep. There are potentially many reasons behind this trend but one thing that is emerging is that screen time may be playing a large role. The use of technology can lead to delays in the time that children and adolescents go to bed and consequently, shorter sleep. “Kids who use screens within an hour of bedtime and during the night experience jetlag-like symptoms that make it harder for them to fall asleep, stay asleep and wake refreshed in the morning. In general, kids shouldn’t use screens an hour before bed. And they shouldn’t have phones, tablets and computers in their bedrooms.” (Daily, 2019). A suggestion would be to have a charging zone where children can place all devices to charge at night that way it is removed from their bedroom. It is becoming clear that limiting screen time in the period leading up to bedtime is beneficial for sleep. Removing electronic devices from the bedroom provides a good sleep environment and promotes healthy sleeping habits.

While managing your own screen time is tough enough, overseeing your child’s use might be even more difficult. Teaching healthy habits and helping children find balance from technology addiction can be done but supervising every single second is impossible. This is why parental control tools can be helpful to parents by helping keep track of how much time is being spent online and allowing to set schedules for screen time. This leads to the question how much is too much time, what should be my set schedules? “The recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics is that children less than 18 years of age spend no more than two hours a day on screen time. Toddlers 2 years old and younger should not have any screen time at all.” (Maric, 2017) The use of technology has become a part of daily life. However, when it comes to children and technology addiction limiting screen time is proactive and something all parents should do. Some school aged kids may need technology as part of their school homework, research papers, or projects. However, screen time should be balanced with activities such as sleep, exercise, and family activities. How can one implement these things? By setting time limits, no screens at nighttime, and by setting parental controls.

Although one set of rules does not work for every child or family you must take into consideration child’s age, health, education, and entertainment needs. On October 21, 2016, the American Academy of Pediatrics announced new recommendations regarding the use of media for children: The AAP recommends that parents and caregivers develop a family media plan that takes into account the health, education and entertainment needs of each child as well as the whole family. A media plan is a schedule for screen time, media use and other activities. You begin by entering your child’s age and then add items such as screen-free zones and times, device curfews, and offline activities. The Family Media Plan allows you to customize different options for multiple children. Setting these limits will help children get into a routine as well as set the boundaries that the parents want to achieve. In general, kids shouldn’t use screens an hour before bed. And they shouldn’t have phones, tablets and computers in their bedrooms.” (Daily, 2019). A suggestion would be to have a charging zone where children can place all devices to charge at night that way it is removed from their bedroom.

You and your child may now understand that screen time limits are necessary, but it can be tough at times to enforce it. And that can apply to adults as well as children. So, here is another tool to help set and adhere to those limits. On both Windows and Mac computers, you can use the native parental controls to limit your child’s screen time. So, if you prefer to use these built-in tools rather than an application or browser extension, it is a good option. Keep in mind that this will limit their overall computer time and not just the internet. If your family uses Chrome or Firefox browsers, both offer helpful extensions for limiting online time. Goodnight Chrome is only available on Chrome. This cool tool lets you set the Unplug and Return times and the days of the week. There are also plenty of applications for free you can get installed in your devices like your phones and tablets. “The application Boomerang Parental Control is a unique piece of software that gives parents remote control of their non-iOS devices. This application is also available on the iOS platform however there are some limitations. Boomerang establishes screen time and boundaries for your child’s device. It also helps you start conversations with your child about their device usage, good apps, bad apps, web browsing, video viewing and more. Control your kid’s Android devices easily from your Android or iOS parent device.”

Technology addiction is epidemic in today’s society and is bad for physical and mental health especially in young children. Unplugging from technology can bring many benefits to children and too the family as a whole. By unplugging from technology, it promotes family bonding time, improved mental health, and also promotes healthy sleeping habits. Constantly being online robs precious moment that can be spend bonding with family. Scheduling periodic downtime on evenings and weekends give an opportunity to spend quality time with family. By being constantly on technology this can hurt the ability to concentrate on important task, as well as ability for the child to relax, and enjoy life and socialize with others. Unplugging periodically can help the child be more present and learn from others by observation. Parents who possess to separate their children from their smartphone may be helping their kids brain power according to a new study. Children who use smartphones and other devices in their free time for less than two hours a day performed better on cognitive tests assessing their thinking, language and memory, according to a study published on September 2018 in the Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. Also, The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests “ZERO screen time until kids reach between 18 and 24 months of age.”

The stress of online stimulation can strain the mind as well as nerves. Feeling fatigued, anxious, irritable or even aggressive are all feeling you can feel by that constant stimulation. Having too much screen time in young children comes with a price to pay. “For young children, the impact may be felt as screen time replaces time previously devoted to play, peer interaction and exploration, which are thought to foster empathy, problem-solving skills, curiosity, intelligence, and listening skills” says Catherine Steiner-Adair. Also, a recent study with Cincinnati Children’s Hospital showed that screen time and time spent reading showed different effects in the regions of the brain related to language and cognitive control. Overall technology addiction in children is growing and parents need to set limits so that this does not happen.

Another benefit to unplugging from technology is it will promote better sleeping habits in young children. Sleeping is an essential part of children’s development and wellbeing. Sleeping is important for learning, memory, emotions, and behaviors. However, many children are receiving less and less sleep. There are potentially many reasons behind this trend but one thing that is emerging is that screen time may be playing a large role. The use of technology can lead to delays in the time that children and adolescents go to bed and consequently, shorter sleep. “Kids who use screens within an hour of bedtime and during the night experience jetlag-like symptoms that make it harder for them to fall asleep, stay asleep and wake refreshed in the morning. In general, kids shouldn’t use screens an hour before bed. And they shouldn’t have phones, tablets and computers in their bedrooms.” (Daily, 2019). A suggestion would be to have a charging zone where children can place all devices to charge at night that way it is removed from their bedroom. It is becoming clear that limiting screen time in the period leading up to bedtime is beneficial for sleep. Removing electronic devices from the bedroom provides a good sleep environment and promotes healthy sleeping habits.

Overall parents everywhere are struggling with children being addicted to technology this paper will help you address these issuses and also find solutions to reduce technology use in children. By setting boundaries with technology that the family will respect as technology is so deeply rooted in everything now. Teaching children healthy habits like teaching boundaries and no screen time before bed are solutions that will help improve technology addiction in children. Unplugging from technology can bring many benefits by promoting family bonding time, improving mental health, and also promotes healthy sleeping habits.

Workcited

1. Bhattacharjee, Puja. “How Does Your Child’s Screen Time Measure up?” CNN, Cable News Network, 15 Nov. 2017, www.cnn.com/2017/11/15/health/screen-time-averages-parenting/index.html.
2. Hutton, John S. “Brain Connectivity in Children Is Increased by the Time They Spend Reading Books and Decreased by the Length of Exposure to Screen‐Based Media.” Wiley Online Library, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (10.1111), 27 Dec. 2017, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/apa.14176.
3. “How Technology Affects Child Development.” Florida Tech Online, 15 May 2019, www.floridatechonline.com/blog/psychology/how-technology-affects-child-development/.
4. Osuch, Michael. “Addiction to Modern Technology: What the Science Says.” Elsevier Connect, 7 Aug. 2017, www.elsevier.com/connect/addiction-to-modern-technology-what-the-science-says.
5. Radesky, Jenny S, et al. “Patterns of Mobile Device Use by Caregivers and Children during Meals in Fast Food Restaurants.” Pediatrics, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Apr. 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24616357.
6. Truitt, Jenifer. “7 Effects of Technology Addiction on Kids (and How to Overcome It).” Ziglar Family, 13 Sept. 2018, www.ziglarfamily.com/7-effects-of-technology-addiction-on-kids-and-how-to-overcome-it/.
7. Daily, F. (2019, January 5). Twelve ways to break your children’s screen addiction as tech disrupts sleep. Retrieved from https://www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/8123694/screen-addiction-children-parenting-advice/.
8. Maric, K. (2017, May 30). Do You Want Your Kids to Spend Less Technology Time? Retrieved from https://www.kidsinthehouse.com/blogs/katicamaric/do-you-want-your-kids-to-spend-less-technology-time.
9. Walsh, J. J. (2016). Correction to Lancet Child Adolesc Health 2019; published online Sept 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30273-1. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. doi: 10.1016/s2352-4642(19)30320-7
10. American Academy of Pediatrics Announces New Recommendations for Children’s Media Use. (2016, October 21). Retrieved from https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/American-Academy-of-Pediatrics-Announces-New-Recommendations-for-Childrens-Media-Use.aspx.
11. Rodden, J., Rodden, J., AdrianDozier, & AdrianDozier. (2019, October 18). Mo Devices Mo Problems: ADDitude’s Top 10 Parental Control Apps. Retrieved from https://www.additudemag.com/screen-time-parental-control-apps/.

In modern western society, individuals strive to achieve different things, e.g. wealth, social status etc. these are all known as commodities. Yet reality shows that these commodities are rarely distributed and are hard to achieve. (Stroud, 2011) In light with this, the ability or opportunity has to achieve these commodities are known as ‘life-chance’. The word life-chance was first introduced by Max Weber, he mentioned that ‘the wealthier you are, the higher your status and the greater your power, the better your life-chance is’, this shows that economic factor is key in influencing a person’s life-chances. Within the contemporary UK, life-chance has transformed as policy terms and developed as relatively idea of social mobility and equality of opportunities. There are various factors which can determine a child’s opportunity including genetic inheritance, family status and, education etc. In terms of children, they are usually regarded as innocent, which do not possess a high level of analytical skill, hence parents and family background are key in influencing a child’s life-chances.

Statistics show that there is a total of 679,106 live births in England and Wales in 2017. (Office for National Statistic, 2017) Yet, it is a doubt that these 679,106 babies would have the same life-chances. According to Plato’s theory, childhood is a matter of sociological lottery, located in class background, beliefs, values and, priorities of parents or careers they happen to have. Among all these factors, the class background is the main factor to determine a child’s life-chances. Nowadays, there appears to have a class system divided into three categories, including the upper class, middle class and, the working class. Instead, there is a saying about if a child is lucky enough to born within an upper-class family, he or she would have a higher possibility to own a better life-chances. Undoubtedly, the above saying exposed a cruel fact that the UK is still a long way from being a society of equal opportunity, yet the problem of inequality has rooted in the UK throughout its history, and have been recorded in many forms, while the biggest inequality that can be seen within the UK nowadays would be with income, which inaugurates the class differences in the UK and affect children’s life-chances. The following part of the essay will now investigate how the class background is as influential as ever on children’s life-chances.

Receives writes, life-chance could be broken down into both risk and resilience, there would be things which help to improve life-chance while others diminished. The following part of the essay will now investigate how class background triggers health inequalities and affect working-class children’s life-chances.

It has been told for a long time that individuals from the lower-class background are at a serious impediment on various fronts. Their impoverished status creates a brunch of extra problems for their families. Besides, there is constrained subsidizing and a decline in access to medical help whilst the health inequalities found in varying social classes are galactic. In fact, the research explores that individuals from the lower-class background are unmistakably vulnerable to an immense range of health maladies. Studies show that children born in poor families would have fewer chances of survival, grow up with poor health and may die at an early age. A reason which explain behind would be the National Health Service(NHS). The NHS is formed in 1948, which provides ‘free’ medical, optical and dental services, serving 54.3 m of the total entire population. But still, some people, especially the upper class are not enjoying the NHS service. Veritably, the social stratification endures a significant gap inside the health care system, this might be a direct result of the two-tier system in the NHS where individuals who can stand to get private medical treatments gives them benefits of no queues, implying that they would not need to be on waiting list whereas people from lower-class background, whose require health services the most, are the one least likely to get them. (Julian Tudor Harts, Inverse Care Law,1971) In the UK, the percentage of patients waiting for non-cute surgery for more than 4 months is 36%, which is 7 times more than the US. This reveals that the waiting time of NHS in the UK is desperate, leaving the upper class to search for private health care such as BUPA, which is only available to those with economic stand. Joyce Robins, from Patients Concern, comments ‘the situation in the UK is both worrying and desperate, the British have been giving money to the NHS for the rest of their lives yet when they are in need, they found no help but themselves.’ (Joyce Robins, 2017) The average cost for premium private health insurance is 1435 pounds per year. (ActiveQuote) which is not commodities working-class children could afford, while children from upper class could enjoy more efficient and better treatment, allows them to have a ‘choice’ where they can pick their own advisor and the place they would like to deal with. Taking BUPA as an example, the private insurance includes a health assessment which gives a picture of your health and helps to identify any further risk so that children from upper class could hip it in the bud, adopt preventive measures to avoid from dying. The above phenomenon reflects that one’s limited finances contribute to the inability to acquire proper medical care which affects their health status and further limited their life choice. Sadly, research and statistics support the fact that good health is the key requirement for career and financial success, class backgrounds remains influential in children’s health, as well as life-chances.

Apart from health inequalities, class differences in educational attainment were also a feature of the British society throughout the 20th century and have proceeded to the present day. Education has been much influence in determining a child’s life-chance as ever, although there has been evidence indicates a reduction as of late, the gap between middle class and working-class children are undeniably significant which determines child’s success. Literally, parents of upper or middle-class children posse higher earning than working class, they grab the ability to send their children to private schools, enjoying a higher quality of education which promised their road to success. Eton College ranked top the hardest to get in and has been referred as ‘chief nurse of England’s statesmen’, promised a ‘bright future’ for students who entered. Nevertheless, the annual tuition fee would be 37602 pounds while the median annual income in the UK is 27271 pounds (Office for National Statistics, 2014) sarcastically. This indicates that children from poor families are excluded to grab the ability to achieve these commodities. Other elite schools such as the Harrows school, Winchester School, are educating fewer than 300 boys each year and become the Academy of the ruling class. Today, only 7% of the population attend private school, yet these private school pupils represent 74% of senior judges with high earnings. This shows that once a child is born within a family with a better class background, he or she is more likely to secure a fulfilling future and career. In other words, upper-class children ‘lead the game right from the beginning’. In contrast, Leon Feinstein (2003) suggested that upper-class parents tend to place a higher value on education, as they are more willing to spend their time on their children’s education, emphasis on taking up opportunities with potential advantages, whilst they possess strong economic stand to help their children apply different extra-curricular class such as dance class, instruments class, which boost their CV and raises their possibility to enter a stupendous nursery or even primary schools. In Fact, a child who enters a stupendous nursery is more likely to be accepted by a higher league table secondary schools, this exposed a glaring disparity that poor children’s life chances are resolved in primary school or even nursery. The issue continues to be problematic even with the introduction of comprehensive schools, statistics show that in 2008, only 35% of pupils who are eligible for free school meals obtain five or more A* in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), compare to 63% of pupils from wealthier background. In light with this, the chief executive of children’s charity Barnardo’s expressed that, ‘Although there was progress in diminishing child poverty and have invested heavily in education, a child’s life-chance in Britain today remains strongly dependent on the background and earnings of its parents.’

In retrospect, children are normally associated with terms such as innocent, lack of agency and knowledge, they are being regarded as an inferior status compared to adults. Therefore, parenting style has a high degree in shaping a child’s life-chances also. Affluent parents who are delicately tuned to the child’s cognitive capacity could give an ideal environment which best suits the child for learning and further fuelled a child’s own inspiration which allows more self-directed learning and develops skills for white-collar jobs. In older stage, these parents are likewise to shape their children’s goals and inspiration by acting as a role model, setting an expectation for them, transmit the definition of ‘success’ and provide or choose ‘opportunities’ for their child. (Jodl et al., 2001). In light with this, some parents from upper class may adopt an ‘authoritative-parenting style'(Baumrind, 1991), they plan everything for their children and hope to confer advantages on their children while these commodities are build up by economic factors. Some extreme cases would be bequeathing property or arranging internships via personal contacts. Undeniably, is not the economic stand of parents accounted for working-class children starting race halfway around the track behind the middle class, instead, the social network of parents did. Sadly, people with higher class background are more likely to meet or make friends with individuals with professional occupations, this allows affluent parents to arrange internships for their children via personal contacts without competing with thousands of competitors, this illustrates the above saying, ‘life-chance could be broken down into both risk and resilience, there would be things which help to improve life-chance’, whereas the word resilience could be replaced by parents. In contrast, working-class children would struggle in repaying student loans, agonize about internships or even unemployment. Stuck in a vicious cycle with no ability to achieve commodities and success.

All in all, society has undergone a series of changes over the past 50 years, money plays a more important role in shaping the life-chances of a child. Using the money to purchase extra tuition, private health insurance could facilitate the opportunity of a child to achieve different commodities. Although there are various factors also shape, yet class background continues to be the key influencer and is as influential as ever. Sarcastically, the recent neo-libel agenda and government management prioritize the free will of individuals choice, yet, a child life-chance was significantly influenced by class-background but not the child himself. Class background hinders a child’s life-chances, limited working-class children from owning a healthy body, the schools they study or even their later life. Furthermore, there are extra goodies of documentation that infer individuals from the lower-class background are at a particular deprivation on their regions. This belief position admits that individuals in this group are unable to transcend because their opportunities are limited. Children from the working-class background are born with parents with lower sensitivity about conferring advantages on their children, less budget to provide private education and no natural spaces to truly work out the proper methods of good health. No matter which side of the coin we chose to associate ourselves with, the fact remains, children in prolonged financial destitution would have limited life-choice, probably not because they started out with less intelligence, but because they are trapped in the cycle with unhealthy body, fail in education attainment and ‘unwise’ parenting style due to lower-class background.

Sometimes, when a child keeps nagging at us, we find ourselves standing in front of a big decision. Sometimes, the decision of our life. Because we have small children the decision is hard. We think how will they behave to each other, would they not hurt each other (as I’m sure by now you already read all the horror stories where cats hurt a child or a child hurt a cat). On the other hand, we also read all the benefits and numerous happy stories about co-living of children and cats. Everything has its positives and negatives.

Ok. We decided it is a good idea to get a cat. However, now we have to make yet another decision. Are we going to get an older cat from a shelter (as shelters overflow with cats looking for new homes) or are we going to get a little kitten? If you have a baby or a toddler, you have to consider the growth rate of your kitten. A crawling baby or a toddler can become a very interesting toy for your teenage kitten and vice versa. In that case, you have to carefully watch both of them. Your baby and the cat.

Also, it is important to remember to consider any possible health risks, such as allergies. Sometimes, even after quite a long time, parents have to put their cat away, because of the allergy. And sometimes, the poor cat just becomes a burden to the family, they are unable to provide all the care and they don’t want to look after their cat any more. Sadly, a cat then travels to a shelter. Needless to say, the cat already became attached to their new home and family and another change can be very stressful.

If you already have an older cat and expecting a baby, many thoughts cross your mind. How would they get on? How would the cat take it? She lives with us for a while would it bother her? Yes, these questions mean we care. We want both sides to be happy. So firstly, we should teach our cat straight from the beginning. Put up a cot and don’t let the cat lay there (I can guarantee she will) but with consistency to get her out every single time with a simple strict NO she’ll soon learn that it is important to you for her not to go there. The cat will feel the changes and could be restless. When a baby is born, introduce the baby to your cat and carefully watch for any reactions. There shouldn’t be a problem, but sometimes a cat can become jealous. In that case, it is important to stay patient, give the cat a short time with the baby and slowly increase the intervals. The jealousy will disappear with time and cat will adjust to your new family routine. Some cats even take the baby as their own or belonging to the family straight away and our mission is accomplished. When I was in this situation, our Pixie was never bothered. She was a cat with a lovely, calm and loving personality. She wasn’t bothered when a child no 2, a new puppy, a parrot or child no 3 arrived. The only time she was bothered was when a new kitten arrived, but even then she soon learned to accept it.

As children grow it is important to pay attention and raise your watchfulness over your child. Children become more interested in their surroundings which could pose a threat to your cat and themselves. They will be intrigued by animals as they will see the cat as the centre of their attention. However, cats growing along with our children can adapt to it as it happens and mostly disappear in time before unwanted scratches. It can be worse if you get a new cat at this time as the new cat doesn’t know the situation. She will still be the centre of your toddlers of preschoolers attention, however, your child will not be able to follow your instructions nor would he be able to judge the cat’s reactions, because their need to explore will overweigh it. Although, nothing is lost. Again, with a bit of patience and education your child can soon learn not to put their face near a cat (as even the nicest cat can suddenly get scared or hurt and will unintentionally scratch your child).

But because many cats live in households because of childrens wishes the decision to get a cat has to be considered. All members of household have to agree, but also be prepared for all the joy and concerns. However, a growing up with a pet is always beneficial for your child’s social development. If you teach your child straight from the beginning that a cat is a live creature so she needs to be respected and behaved to accordingly. A cat is a playful kitten only for a short period of time, soon she becomes an adult cat which needs a different approach.

Because a cat is a live creature, even the smallest children need to respect the cat’s needs especially their sleep. All cats need a lot of sleep to be happy. If a cat will get constant disruption from her sleep, she could become aggressive or extremely shy. NEVER tolerate any cruelness toward your cat, it will benefit your child in their future life. If you remember all the rules your cat will develop a strong bond between herself and your child often lasting all cats lifetime.

Remember a cat is a big personality, she will behave the same way to you, you behave to her. You can not break her will as she’s still has a bit of a wild cat in her. You can never force a cat to love you or your child, you have to deserve it.

Have you ever ruminated about why your child lied about anything to you? Analogous to most other parents, does this continue bothering you a lot? Well, you just landed up at the perfect place to know what you can do about it by handling it properly. According to several kinds of research, children tend to commence lying at a tender age of around three. However, this trait peaks at an age ranging from six to ten. Your child might lie to you in order to accomplish a task, maybe he/she is an attention seeker, to observe your response and actions or some other reasons as well. Today, we are going to have a look at what parents can do about their children lying.

How to deal with lying in children. Here are a few things that you can try in order to solve this issue:

1. Focus on the solution rather than yelling. Many parents tend to scold their children and yell so much at them that they get encouraged to do this stuff again and again. Such parents fail to focus on the solution of the problem and rather tend to vent out their unnecessary emotions on their children. Try to stay as calm as possible and ensure that your child follows the solution that you have provided. Also, ensure that the child knows the consequences he/she will have to face if they fail to co-operate.
2. The role model theory. You must be a good role model for your child in terms of speaking the truth at all times. This is because children tend to follow their parents a lot while growing up. If your child catches you speaking lies, he/she is bound to repeat that no matter what. Help your child in identifying the perils of speaking lies. You can connect the dots with some favourite fictional characters of your child. For example- If your child loves Iron Man, convince him/her that he is a superhero only because he speaks the truth and if you do not follow him, you will be treated like a villain in everybody’s eyes. Children tend to emulate their favourite characters. Use this to your advantage.
3. Reward honesty. Help your child earn some rewards each time they speak the truth. For example- It can be a penny dropped into their piggy boxes or a favourite toffy which they earn after collecting a number of truths. You can also lure by saying that if you exceed let us say 1000 truths, we will buy you your favourite toy. But you must not lie otherwise there will be consequences that are pre-decided by you. Let your child understand the importance of honesty.
4. Engage your child in social activities. Many researchers observe that fussy toddlers lie just because they want some attention or are apparently low in self-esteem. They just want you to focus on them. If this is the case, be a keen observer and engage them in activities where they make a lot of new friends boosting their self-esteem and confidence. Also, by observing many strangers speaking the truth, they will want to follow them and garner more attention.

These are a few points you must keep in your mind while dealing with these things. Surely, you will see the change after some time.

According to Mollie Thompson of Duke University Law and a district attorney for undocumented immigrants in the US, the United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement has detained an estimated 40,500 immigrant children at the Mexican American border (Thompson 233). This influx of migrant families is due to increased rates of crime, gang activity, and poverty that occurs in Latin American countries. Thompson idealizes that America has only temporarily fixed this crisis with the introduction of border detention camps and minor policies regulating immigrants who come into the country illegally (Thompson 233). The significance of these immigrants is shared with children who are taken into custody by the government. In possession of the government, minors are taken into detainment where they may not receive proper care for childhood development, as described by Janet Welsh, an adolescent evolution researcher at the University of Cambridge. As such, the issue’s circumstances are directed to a question of whether the United States government can solidify legal rights and better the living conditions of Mexican children. The ongoing crisis proposes the major political concerns surrounding immigrant children including the separation of minors from legal guardians and forced residency into disoriented detention centers.

Family Separations

Immigrant children who cross over the border with their legal guardians are often subjected to separation upon arrival. The issue concerning this separation is that children may experience a loss of legal rights and individualized care from their usual caregivers. Judge Jennifer Blasco, a judge for the United States District of California and advocate for immigrant rights, describes that in the past, this tactic has been used with Native American families. The United states’ goal was to assimilate them into American society (Blasco 8). Native American children were removed from their homes and schools on official reservations, which made them “wards of the government” rather than extensions of their parents (Thompson 219). This use of separation has translated to current society where Mexican children are left unattended for periods their guardians have an official residency. Julia Ainsley and Jacob Soboroff, of Northwestern University and frequent columnists for NBC News, explain the phenomenon of 26,000 children being separated from their parents in order to stop the influx of Mexican immigrants. During this period the DHS, formally known as the Department of Homeland Security, makes efforts to reconnect children with their parents through data tracking systems (Ainsley, Soboroff 1). The DHS tracking systems have not been used successfully as they require an extensive process that government officials have not perfected yet. Ainsley and Soboroff argue that this contributes to the ongoing crisis of separated families by giving an expose on children who were left unattended by ICE agents. An experience is described where 37 migrant children were left in a vehicle for over 24 hours, due to the DHS tracking system failing to process the information and whereabouts of their parents (Ainsley, Soboroff 2). This can be identified as a form of mistreatment due to the lack of care administrated to the immigrant children. It can be inferred that this would not have occurred if they were with their respective parents. According to Carmen Monico and Jovani Mendez-Sanivol, of Elon University Department of Child and Women studies, the reunification process essentially violates the rights of immigrant children, as stated in DHS policy. Reunification is intended to reunite children to their parents with the help of data tracking systems that have guardian’s names, phone numbers, and residence in the United states (Mendez-Savinol, Monico 45). While this process is currently being vetted, undocumented separations continue and leave the immigrant children without their biological parents during their detainment in America. This is detrimental to childhood development as a chasm is created without the presence of a parental figure. Monico and Mendez-Savinol recognize this in their research and coin the term “De facto Adoption”, meaning that the state becomes the legal guardian of immigrant children, which limits their rights as aliens. To prevent a further injustice, children must be returned to their parents to reinstate familial relationships and legal responsibilities.

Border Detention Camps

Children in border detention camps often have traumatizing experiences due to the poor conditions that the government ignores. Immigration detention is “the practice of incarcerating immigrants while they await a determination of their immigration status or deportation”, as defined by Erika Voreh, of Emory Law International Review. While these facilities have been utilized to keep adults in holding, they may not cater to the proper development for young children. Children in these detention camps have been exposed to unsanitary sleeping quarters, lack of educational opportunities, innutritious diets, etc. (Vorhe 23). Immigrant minors who reside in these camps are essentially viewed as criminals by the government, which warrants the inhumane treatment. According to the active Secretary of Homeland Security of the United States, Elijah E. Cummings, border detention officers were not fluent in the languages that children spoke nor had the skills to administer care. Immigrants were given spoiled food and when ill, did not have access to medical professionals, (Cummings et al 45). Details of the circumstances in the camps, arise issues with the wellbeing of children. The camps lack basic necessities, which is meant to be offered to minors by the US. Without the proper foundation for development, children may not achieve citizenship. However, the DHS releases that the overcrowding of immigrants is causing these poor conditions. Until the rates of immigration decrease, the government chooses not to aid these children and leaves them virtually uncared for. This theory is described by Zolan Kanno-Youngs, a homeland security correspondent at the New York Times who primarily reports stories about HEY. These facilities created by the government were set in place to stabilize families before deporting them back to Latin American countries. As more children came over, the crisis became more severe and led to the poorly maintained camps. A study conducted by the Pew research organization, conduces that there are currently 200 border detention centers within US that house minors. Of these 200-detention centers, 43% have not been approved by government administrations. This statistic alludes to a disregarding of Mexican children, to the extent where they may not be living in a sustainable environment. With these poor living conditions in place, the welfare of immigrant minors could be compromised.

Conclusion

Although the government has made efforts to stop the influx of illegal immigrants, it has indirectly created negative consequences for Latin American children. To begin to reverse these consequences, the government must implement programs that will effectively reunify children with their parents. By working to eliminate separation, immigrant families will be united for the ultimate purpose of achieving citizenship. According to a study published in American Sociation of Pediatrics, which is a collaborative medical journal, a solution should be proposed where children are temporarily placed in foster or pre-adoptive homes while parents go through the process of receiving a visa (Linton, Griffin et al 29). While there is still some form of separation, parents are permitted to see children and monitor their wellbeing. This eliminates the need for border detention centers that often have low quality resources for childhood development. Therefore, the United States government has a responsibility to improve the wellbeing of immigrant children as they prepare to become citizens of the land of the free.

Introduction

The so-called “Marshmallow Test,” or “Attention in Delay of Gratification” (Mischel et al., 1970) has taken on iconic status in popular culture, purportedly demonstrating the struggle that children encounter with the concept of delayed gratification. In truth, there were multiple conditions in Mischel’s experiment, and it was only in one particular condition that all of the children “failed” the test. To summarize Mischel’s original experiment, children were told that they could immediately enjoy a treat; however, if they waited a specified amount of time, they could have the initial treat and a second treat as well, thus putting to the test a child’s ability to delay gratification for a greater reward. In one condition of the experiment, children were placed in a room alone with both treats. It was in this condition that children showed the most difficulty with delaying gratification, waiting a mean time of 1 minute before eating when both rewards were present. It is this condition that concerns the present study proposal in that there is a possibility for social factors to affect the time waited, and whether or not a child may indeed wait the full timeframe and attain a second reward, which was not accomplished by any of the children in the original experiment.

This study seeks to understand the role of social factors on delayed gratification; specifically, the question of whether encouragement and/or forgiveness will have an influence on children’s delay of gratification. It is proposed that this be done by replicating the aforementioned condition of Mischel’s original test, adding conditions wherein children receive a statement of encouragement or a statement forgiveness prior to the test being carried out.

Review of Literature

Research has shown that encouragement has an effect on behavior, with a study by Guyatt et al. (1984) showing that giving encouragement improved the walking test performance of patients with restricted airflow or heart failure conditions. Given the difficulty in walking for people who are experiencing restricted airflow or chronic heart conditions, and the concerted effort, maintained over a prolonged period of time to complete the walking test, it may be assumed that encouragement has an effect on the ability of a person to finish a difficult task with sustained effort over time. Further, Sewell and Shaw (1968) showed that parental encouragement had a positive effect on academic outcomes for students. The prospect of pursuing a college education could be considered one of the archetypal representations of delayed gratification in the lives of youth. The task of getting a college education itself requires sustained effort toward many preparatory tasks over the course of the years of highschool education. The reward of attending college can seem part of a far-off and slightly ambiguous future when compared with the immediate rewards of social interaction and entertainment that at times must be eschewed in favor of attending to tasks preparatory to future college acceptance. Thus, parental encouragement, it seems, has a positive effect on the ability of a youth to delay gratification by turning to homework, school attendance, and other preparatory tasks and eschewing distractions, in order to gain a future reward. From these studies we may conclude that encouragement has a positive effect on a person’s ability to show sustained effort through difficult task and the delaying of gratification until that task is complete.

Research by Hester et al. (2009) posits that praise is a key factor in encouraging positive behaviors in preschool students. The effect of praise on an increase in positive behaviors is given as a function of positive reinforcement. Further there is a plurality of research on antecedent strategies for classroom management that demonstrate the role of positive student-teacher relationships and preempting negative behavior, and emphasize its effects over punishment for bad behavior after the fact (Kern & Clemens, 2006; Emmer & Stough, 2001). By implementing systems ahead of time that promote positive behavior, make it clear what behavior is expected, and facilitate accountability for behavior, teachers are able to preempt possible negative behaviors before they happen and maintain a positive relationship with their students. The research on praise and antecedent strategies emphasizing positive teacher-student interactions to preempt bad behavior make a compelling case that encouragement and praise given before a task or an expected behavior will have a positive effect on that future behavior.

The question of the effects of forgiveness on future behavior remains open as far as the research encountered in preparing for the proposal of this study, with no. Still, it seems to intuit with facility that there is a relationship between forgiveness for past poor behavior and future good behavior. Anecdotal evidence abounds, from the reliance of many religious institutions and spiritual practices on seeking forgiveness as a gateway to changing behavior for the better, to Alcoholics Anonymous inclusion of forgiveness into their 12-Step program (Hart, 1998). A literature review by Martincekova (2015) emphatically extolls the benefits of forgiveness in the process addiction recovery. Addiction recovery implies a change in behavior away from substance use, and also a myriad of other lifestyle changes that support a non-addicted lifestyle. Because substance use grants a high degree of immediate gratification, and non-use of substances is practiced as a means of obtaining many benefits which are relatively delayed and otherwise difficult to obtain (e.g. improved interpersonal relationships, long lifespan and healthspan, a healthier overall lifestyle, potential career impacts, etc), the effects of forgiveness on long-term success in addiction recovery are pertinent to the present proposal of forgiveness as a social factor in delay of gratification. Further the presently proposed study gives opportunity to attain experimental evidence as to the efficacy of forgiveness as a factor in behavior.

To understand the role of the forgiveness factor in the study being proposed, we must understand what forgiveness is and define how it can be applied as an independent variable to this study. Madsen et al. (2009) gave an operational definition of forgiveness that will be applied, in part, in this study. The key components for consideration in the bounds of the presently proposed study are a conscious release and putting aside of one’s right to emotion and retaliation for the event in question and a renegotiation of the relationship.

Theoretical Justification and Hypotheses

Given the foregoing research on the effects of encouragement and forgiveness on behavior, specifically behavior that requires eschewing an immediate gratification in favor of a greater, delayed reward, it follows that encouragement and forgiveness will have an effect on the delay of gratification in Mischel’s (1970) “Marshmallow Test.” The proposed study will investigate whether delivering a statement, either of encouragement or forgiveness, prior to test administration will have an effect on the time a child waits before consuming the treat offered to them. It will also be reported whether more children in the experimental conditions (encouragement and forgiveness conditions) will wait the full timeframe and receive the delayed reward.

Hypotheses

• H1: Children in the control group who receive no statement of encouragement or forgiveness prior to test administration will wait a mean of 1 minute before consuming the treat offered, as per Mischel et al. (1970).
• H2: Children who receive a statement of encouragement or forgiveness prior to test administration will wait a mean time of longer than 1 minute before consuming the treat offered
• H3: A higher percentage of children who received a statement of encouragement or forgiveness prior to test administration will wait the full time period and receive the delayed reward than the children in the control group.

Method

Participants

Participants will be selected in concordance with Mischel et al. (1970). At least 124 participants will be selected from nearby preschools, ranging in age between 3.5 and 5 years old. At least 62 will be randomly selected from male preschoolers and another 62 from female preschoolers.

Procedure

As per Mischel et al. (1970) the researchers who will be conducting the experiment will be tasked with visiting the preschool(s) that the children attend in order to play with the children and build rapport for at least two days prior to the experiment. When conducting the experiment, researchers will ask for participants’ consent to be led into a “surprise room” where the rewards will be located, along a number of toys that the researcher will indicate can be played with afterward. As in the original experiment, children will be shown the initial treat and the delayed gratification rewards and be asked to choose which of the delayed gratification rewards they prefer. The researcher will also demonstrate for the child how they can end the experiment by consuming one of the initial treats in order to summon the researcher back into the room and explain that in order to receive the delayed reward, they must sit quietly and still in their chair, and wait until the researcher returns to the room themselves 15 minutes later.

There will be three experimental conditions (independent variables):

• Condition 1 – Control Condition: Children are left in the room with the treats uncovered and visible and the researcher leaves the room to come back in 15 minutes, or after the child has consumed the treat. Note that at least 50% more children should be selected into this condition compared with the other two conditions to allow for subsequent selection into condition three as per condition three’s specifications.
• Condition 2 – Encouragement Condition: Children are left in the room with the treats uncovered and visible. Before leaving the room, delivers an encouragement statement as follows: “I’ve noticed that you are very well-behaved and very patient! I know you can wait until I come back so you can eat the (names preferred reward). The researcher leaves the room to come back in 15 minutes, or after the child has consumed the treat.
• Condition 3 – Forgiveness Condition: This condition will by necessity be administered after the other conditions. The children who fail the prior conditions by prematurely consuming their treat self-select for this condition. One week after the initial test, the researcher will return to the preschool and, after a short period of play and reacquaintance, attain the participant’s consent to be led again to the “surprise room.” Once there, the researcher will deliver a statement of forgiveness, as follows: “Last time I was here you didn’t wait for me to come back before you ate your treat. I want you to know that I am not mad at you and you are not in trouble*. Eating the treat doesn’t make you bad. You’re good! Do you understand that I am not mad and you are not in trouble?” When the child is able to affirm that they understand that they are not in trouble, the researcher continues, “And I’m going to give you another chance to get the (name preferred reward). How does that sound? Would you like another chance?” After the child answers in the affirmative, the research should affirm the child’s choice; “that’s good! I’m happy that you’re getting a second chance!” The researcher leaves the room to come back in 15 minutes, or after the child has consumed the treat.

*Note here that in Condition 3, the researcher’s affirmation that they are not mad and that the child is not in trouble satisfies the operational definition given by Madsen et al. (2009) that forgiveness entail a releasing of one’s emotion and right to retribution concerning the forgiven action or event.

Once the test is underway, if the timeframe of 15 minutes elapses and the researcher is allowed to return on their own without the child consuming the treat, the delayed reward treat is given. The amount of time each child waits before consuming the treat and summoning the researcher back to the room is recorded, as is the number of children who wait the full timeframe for the researcher to return and earn the delayed reward.

Data Collection

A minimum of 124 participants will be selected for the study. Participants will be randomly selected into conditions one and two with condition two having 32 participants (16 male, 16 female), and condition one having half again as many at 48 in order to have enough overhead of participants to ensure that there are enough participants for condition three. Condition three will have a sample of 32 with participants being randomly selected from those that failed either condition one or two. It is anticipated, given the results of Mischel et al. (1970), in which no child in the condition replicated in this study waited the full timeframe, that a sufficient number of participants will fail either the first or second condition, or both, to make random sampling selection into a third condition viable.

To summarize the sampling process:

• Condition 1: Participants randomly selected from participant pool until 48 participants are selected.
• Condition 2: Participants randomly selected from participant pool until 32 participants are selected.
• Condition 3: Participants that failed conditions one or two form participant pool for condition three. Participants randomly selected from those that failed condition one or two until 32 participants are selected.

A three-way factorial ANOVA will be employed to measure effect size for each independent variable. Given that the null hypothesis – that neither condition two nor three differ from the control condition – is rejected, a Least Significant Difference test will be employed to ascertain which groups differed.

A primary factor with potential to bias the data is the fact that the sample for condition three will be selected from participants in the previous two conditions. This is by necessity of the mechanics of condition three which requires a failure in order for the participant to receive forgiveness; however, to account for this, a two-way ANOVA with replication will be used to analyze the difference between the participants’ results in their first condition (condition one or two), and their second condition (condition 3). Further, these data will be analyzed for any interaction effects between having received praise for participants who started in condition two and also participated in condition three. Significant correlation between the interaction of encouragement and forgiveness together may in fact form an evidence base for potential further study on the efficacy of the use encouragement of positive action and forgiveness for negative action on reenforcing positive behavior.

Ethical Considerations

Parental consent is necessary for any participants in this experiment given that the participants will be young children. A consent form will be submitted for IRB approval that outlines the details of the experiment in order to inform parents of the procedure. Signed consent forms will be collected from at least one parent of each participant.

Confidentiality will be maintained in accordance with APA guidelines. Any identifying information is abstracted by an identifier number, thus identifying information is not published with the results. Results will be coded with this identifier number for analysis, and only the results of the analysis of the data will be published, thus individual results, and any potential identifying information, will not be published or shared in any way. Parental consent forms will include a disclosure on the limitations of confidentiality and the intent to publish results of analysis of the combined data of the experiment. Thus consent for participation in the experiment will also include consent to publish the results, stripped of identifying information.

Measures will be taken to protect the participants from physical harm on the part of the researchers by ensuring that at least one other adult – a research assistant, another researcher, or a member of staff at the preschool other than any that the child has everyday interaction with – in order to prevent the presence of an adult with whom the child has an emotional bond and whom the child views as an authority figure in their day-to-day life from creating a complicating factor and skewing results – to be present with the principal researcher at all times when the researcher is present with only the child in the room.

References

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2. Guyatt, G. H., Pugsley, S. O., Sullivan, M. J., Thompson, P. J., Berman, L., Jones, N. L., … Taylor, D. W. (1984). Effect of encouragement on walking test performance. Thorax, 39(11), 818–822. doi: 10.1136/thx.39.11.818
3. Hart, K. E. (1998). A spiritual interpretation of the 12-steps of AA: From resentment to forgiveness to love. PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi: 10.1037/e523632013-007
4. Hester, P. P., Hendrickson, J. M., & Gable, R. A. (2009). Forty Years Later —The Value of Praise, Ignoring, and Rules for Preschoolers at Risk for Behavior Disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 32(4), 513–535. doi: 10.1353/etc.0.0067
5. Kern, L., & Clemens, N. H. (2006). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 65–75. doi: 10.1002/pits.20206
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8. Martincekova, L. (2015). Forgiveness in the Treatment of Alcohol and Other Substance Abusers: A Review. MOJ Addiction Medicine & Therapy, 1(1). doi: 10.15406/mojamt.2015.01.00003
9. Sewell, W. H., & Shah, V. P. (1968). Social Class, Parental Encouragement, and Educational Aspirations. American Journal of Sociology, 73(5), 559–572. doi: 10.1086/224530

Growing up as a teenager in the 21st century holds a unique set of perks and drawbacks. Highly exposed to technology and social media, children and young students are getting fonder of socialization. Preferring friends of the same age group for any kind of solutions, suggestions, and advice, the current generation is finding more comfort in peers rather than family members. Coming from different cultural backgrounds, the friend circle of today’s kid is comprised of children with distinctive preferences in food, clothing, and lifestyles. Feeling an urge to re-modify their likings and disliking to fit-in the friend’s circle or to match as per other’s expectations can be termed as peer pressure. At a young stage, it is not quite a common factor to feel intimidated due to peer pressure. However, there are always two sides to a coin. While peer pressure may provoke and mislead young minds to do unnecessary things, that sometimes might create unavoidable circumstances, Peer influence acts as a guidance and a sustainable factor in the lives of the students. Peer pressure might persuade the students to skip classes, smoke cigarettes, and consume alcohols, whereas peer influence might encourage them to study harder and achieve good grades.

To differentiate between peer pressure and peer influence, and to act accordingly, the below-mentioned points can be of some assistance.

Interaction with Parents and Teachers

Elders play a vital role in a student’s life by guiding and encouraging them constantly. Interacting with teenagers in a friendly manner will prompt them to reveal themselves. If they are facing any problems or urge to adopt certain lifestyle changes that might be a disadvantage for them, the guidance of elders will certainly help them distinguish between good and bad.

Choose the Friend Circle wisely

Our friends are like a separate family whom we can trust and rely upon. As the children spend maximum time with friends, their habits and choices are bound to reflect upon each other. Keeping a small but good company will help the students to develop academically as well as psychologically. True friends will influence positively by helping each other to pick all the right habits.

Be Confident

A confident mind is hard to be persuaded. By knowing the difference between good and bad factors that can affect the students, in the long run. So it is necessary to boost confidence to always choose the right thing. Confidence upon oneself helps the students to distinguish between peer pressure and peer influence.

Learn How to Say No

It is hard to say ‘No’ when somebody insists but it is not impossible. Knowing the limits up to which the students can explore their independence, they must say no to things like smoking, alcohol, and skipping classes. These options might appear lucrative initially but it is for the benefit of the students and their academic careers.

Set your Goal

Once a student sets a goal, he/she works tirelessly to achieve it. It can be anything like securing ranks in the class, boost up academic performances, nurture a hobby or to get into the college of their choices. Once the goal is set, a student can easily distinguish the factors that are blocking his/her path in achieving it.

Friends and peers play an important role in the life of a child by helping them to learn and grow. Posing as a strict parent and interfering in their decisions may hinder their development into a strong-minded and capable individual. What they need is guidance and support while choosing their own path and advancing at their own pace to reach their respective goals.

Serious Case Review (SCR) which is now known as Safeguarding Practise Review (SPR June 2018) plays a vital role in helping local professionals and organisations to continually improve the way they work, individually or together, to keep children safe and free from harm. The Serious Case Review is the formal process that brings together information with all agencies involved with the child and the family leading up to the child’s death or serious harm. From the records a complete picture of the case can be drawn up in form of a final overview report. The final report should provide comprehensive analysis of what measures should be put in place in order to reduce the risk of the situation happening again. The retrospective review is the opportunity for learning and improvement.

Child R Serious Case review (February 2018), Child R was a seven-year-old boy reported to the police missing by his mother on the evening 26 July 2015 he was found on the 27 July deceased in a pipe on a building site he was known to visit frequently. It is not known how such a tragedy came about maybe from accidently falling or possibly hiding from people out searching for him. At the time this occurred Child R was subject of a child protection plan, there were also a number of agencies involved with child R and his family.

It was reported at the time of the review (23rd February 2016) that some agencies were not authorised to share information emerging at Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference with relevant frontline professionals. (8.1 learning and improvement opportunity 1) The quality of notes taken during the MARAC (2014) minutes did not make evident the aims or appropriate consideration of child safety issues. The Multi-Agency Risk Assessment Conference (MARAC) is an initiative designed to bring agencies together to discuss the safety and well-being of children and families that are at high risk of further serious harm or death. The Frontline case workers, care coordinators, head of schools and other agencies involved all should be properly debriefed from the MARAC meeting with key issues and plans emerging from the meeting. It is crucial that the child protection conference chair is as informed as possible so that decisions are made for the child in order to keep them safe. The MARAC coordinator had already acted on aspects of the process that required attention at the time of the SCR. The multi-agency risk assessment conference has been amended the meetings are now fully recorded and if required can be accessed. A copy of the recording will be sent to the child (if old enough), parent and all other participants in the Review process within one week of the review meeting. Copies of the recording should be noted in the child’s file.

One of the difficulties in evaluating the situation and why certain decisions were made about the child, was owing to a lack of attention to detail about the incident (The incident of 9 march 2015) in the Child Protection Incident report, which was recorded by frontline professionals. The Child Protection Incident Report did not require a police constable to record their assessment of the situation, such as the safety of the child or how the decision was made regarding the safe placement of the child or if removal from the family was required. The design did not have a position for the police constable to be able to deliberate and to make evident what he or she had known, understood and delivered what the expected responsibility conveyed by ‘The Children Act 1989’ stated. There was also nothing to prompt any record of why, in this case the threshold of a Care or Supervision Order had not been considered to be met. As agencies are subject to scrutiny following the unexpected deaths of a children the documents record core data and help to demonstrate on reflection that the best interests the child were preserved, also support professionals to demonstrate they did their jobs well. The Serious Case Review-Summary report (February 2018) recommended the review of The Child Protection Incident Form, with The Safeguarding Children Board and the South Yorkshire Police working together ensuring it captures the essential data necessary in the safeguarding responsibilities of a child. South Yorkshire Police have worked towards improving practice to safeguard children. The ‘vulnerability’ training programme had been developed to raise awareness and improve the skills of frontline police officers and staff. The training focuses on early intervention by equipping officers to identify signs of vulnerability and take effective action at the earliest possible opportunity. South Yorkshire police that attend an incident of domestic abuse that a child has been present or involved is to be spoken to and checked on by the officer attending and the report is then shared with social care. Posters have been put up in police stations in prominent places with information that officers can access on a daily basis.

All services that provide support for children and families are expected to provide those services in an environment that is safe. They are expected to have safeguarding policies and procedures, and to train their staff and volunteers to be aware of signs of abuse and neglect, and to raise issues of concern with their agency’s safeguarding lead or refer to children’s services. Working Together 2018 requires that anyone who has concerns about a child’s welfare should make a referral to local authority children’s social care and should do so immediately if there is a concern that the child is suffering significant harm or is likely to do so. The Barnsley Assessment Framework (BAF) aims to offer guidance and support to all practitioners working with children and families in Barnsley it reflects the different needs of practitioners working with children and families in Barnsley Social Care. This will sit alongside individual agency guidance and may be used to provide general assistance in assessment practice that can be applied to support intervention, it places greater emphasis on measuring what change has actually occurred rather than what parents stated. The purpose of Assessment Framework is to enhance support to practitioners who may lead or contribute to assessments of children and families at any level. All practitioners working with children and families should, therefore, be familiar with Working Together 2018 and this guide should be read in conjunction with that key document. Model for change forms the basis of understanding motivation to change this is cited within the current Barnsley Assessment Framework, development of the procedures for the child protection conference added in the consideration of capacity to change within the conferences and have new conference reports asking what professionals consider what harm and safety look like, and what the complicating factors and strengths are.

Multi-agency training is an effective way of bringing together professionals from different agencies to gain a better understanding of their roles and responsibilities for safeguarding and protecting children. Barnsley Safeguarding Children Partnership offers an extensive range of training courses to individuals and agencies who have a responsibility for safeguarding children, both online or face to face training, they also encourage colleagues in partnership agencies the chance to shadow social workers with a view for mutual understanding of responsibilities and roles.

Reference

1. Barnsley Safeguarding Children Partnership(2020) ‘Serious case reviews’[online] Available from: www.barnsley.gov.uk [Accessed 28th January]
2. Children Act 1989 [online]. Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ [Accessed 28th January]
3. Child-R Serious Case Review-Summary report (2018)’Child R’[online]Available from: www.barnsley.gov.uk [Accessed 24th January]
4. Child-R Serious Case review-Summary report (2018)’Child R,8.1 learning and improvement opportunity 1’[online] Available from: www.barnsley.gov.uk [Accessed 31st January]
5. Child-R Serious Case review-Summary report(2018)’Child R,8.2The incident of 9 march 2015-learning and improvement opportunity 2’[online] Available from: www.barnsley.gov.uk [Accessed 1st February]
6. Child-R Serious Case review-Summary report (2018)’Child R,6.3 public protection unit.[online] Available from: www.barnsley.gov.uk [Accessed 1st February]
7. College of Policing (2020) How do you respond to the needs of vulnerable people? April 2017 [online] Available from:https://www.college.police.uk/News/College-news/Pages/police_transformation_fund.aspx[Accessed 2nd February]
8. Department of Education (2014) Assessing Parental Capacity to Change when Children are on the Edge of Care: an overview of current research evidence Research report June 2014 [online] Available from:www.gov.uk/government/publications [Accessed 1st February]
9. Doncaster Safeguarding Children Partnership online procedures(2016) Multi Agency review of child in need [online] Available from: https://doncasterscb.proceduresonline.com/index.html [Accessed 3rd February]
10. HMIC 2015. (July 2015) National Child Protection Inspection Post Inspection Review South Yorkshire Police 28 April – 1 May 2015 [online] Available from: https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/[Accessed 28th January]
11. Safeguarding children in Barnsley (2019) Multi-agency training[online] Available from: https://www.barnsley.gov.uk/[Accessed 4th February]
12. Working Together (2018)Working Together to Safeguard Children A guide to inter-agency working to safeguard and promote the welfare of children-July 2018 [Online] available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/Working_Together_to_Safeguard-Children[Accessed 3rd February]

Children, adolescents, and adults, experience, understand and react to the passing of a loved one or passing of any person differently. Grief is normal and an expected response in anyone that experiences a loss; however, the symptoms of grief are often misunderstood in children and youngsters going through bereavement. When a loved one dies, how a child and/or adolescent’s grief will depend on many factors and will differ among children in several ways. Theories and research indicate children’s individual characteristics, their developmental stages including cognitive level, their environmental and familial experiences must be considered to identify how they are coping with their grief and loss. (Norris-Shortle, 1993) While there is no way to forecast how a child will respond, or how death will affect them, some situations may increase the chances that a child will experience prolonged sadness and depression after a loved one dies. (DiMaria, 2018) Depression, if left undiagnosed and thus untreated can worsen and significantly affect a youngster’s childhood and diminish their quality of life. (William, Chung & Muening, 2017) Depression and grief share several common characteristics. They both may include sadness, tiredness, restlessness, lack of appetite, loss of pleasure, and difficulty focusing. (Ferszt,& Leveillee 2006) We must learn and teach children the similarities and differences between symptoms of normal grief and depression because when issues like fatigue, insomnia, and indecisiveness persist from two weeks to several months; depression may be the root of the problem. (Ferszt,& Leveillee ) To help kids manage the unexpected emotions of grief after a loved one’s death, grief counseling and grief therapy are imperative in easing the healing process of grief.

Grieving Reactions of Children by Age Group

Babies and toddlers are unable to comprehend the concept of death or lack the verbal communication to express their feelings; nevertheless, they can portrait sorrow and distress by looking for the deceased, crying more and wanting to be held more by the surviving members. (KidsHealth, 2017) Children ages three to four years of age, tend not to understand that death is permanent. Understanding the eternal concept of death is challenging for them, since they tend to believe the deceased would come alive again, as often viewed in cartoons and animations. They often express grief by looking for the person who has died. They tend to feel uncomfortable in new surroundings and seek familiar places. They feel insecure and scared when taken away from their environment and do not like what they accustomed to change around them. (KidsHealth, 2017) Kids ranging from five to nine years of age and enroll in elementary education are beginning to learn the concept of death. They have some muddled and disorderly thoughts about death. Some may continue to think as a preschooler and think death is temporary and others understand the permanent action of death and express concerns about the deceased welfare, like if the deceased is comfortable in the casket, or if they experience feelings of thirst and hunger. They also show curiosity about how the deceased has died and what happens to the body after death. Their grief behaviors may start to mimic adult behaviors like anxiety, panic attacks and feeling of extreme sadness. They may also have physical symptoms like headaches, upset stomach, and body aches. (KidsHealth, 2017) Children between 10 and 12 years of age fully understand that death is eternal and are conscious of how the death of a loved will change their lives. They are also aware that death can be associated with pain in tragic events and long-term diseases. They are mindful of the pain and suffering their surviving family members are experiencing and don’t want to be a burden to them by showing emotions of grief. They often stick to their daily routine of attending school, homework, chores, and extra-curriculum as a coping mechanism, as not to let themselves mourn. (KidsHealth, 2017) Adolescence, between 13 and 17 years of age, understand the concept of death. Even though some may not have experienced it personally, they are aware death is part of life and its inevitable. They experience grief in some aspect like the other age groups, such as wanting to be near families and friends, concerns about death, dying and mortality, physical complaints of body aches and anxiety, but they also differ greatly from the younger groups. Some teenagers tend to cope with grief by participating in risk-behaviors, to cope with the pain associated with grief, like experimenting with drugs, sex, drinking, reckless behaviors and acting like or saying, they don’t; care. According to Fitzgerald, (2000) everyone battles with the heartache and anguish of losing a loved one. Adults, adolescences, and children all feel the unbearable pain of loss upon the death of a parent, sibling, child or other significant other; however, it has been observed that adolescent face physically and mentally agonizing adjustments following the death of a loved one. As these feelings intensify, it can increase the chance that they might fall into a downward spiral or even depression from grieving.

Do Children and Teens Mourn like Adults?

Children respond differently from grown-ups when a loved one dies. How a child or adolescent mourns when they lose a loved one will depend on many factors like age, gender, their developmental stage, family circumstances, available support, personality, any prior experiences with death, how others are grieving and the bond they had with the deceased. (KidsHealth, 2017) Children and teenagers may seem undisturbed, by the loss of a loved one. In comparison to adults, children may continue their normal routines undisturbed. They can easily continue going to school, enjoy playing and even socialize in moments of expect grief. Due to this behavior, adults often assume they do not properly comprehend the severity of the situation. Kids grief differently, children may go from crying one minute to playing and laughing next. These behaviors do not mean they aren’t depressed by their loss or that they are no longer mourning. What it shows, is that children cope differently than adults, and playing and having fun can be a defense mechanism to prevent themselves from unpleasant thoughts and emotions like guilt, anger, shame, and anxiety towards the situation. (Ehmke, 2019) However, children do grief the death of a loved one, in their own way.

Kids and adolescents tend to mourn differently, then adults their loved ones. They are known to mourn in spurts and briefly without evoking too many emotions. Children are known to avoid grief due to the unpleasant thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations experience in the process. They tend to stay clear of the pain and sorrow by continuing their usual daily routines and activities which brings them comfort. What a grieving child is feeling today may diminish and be substituted with different attitudes and behaviors throughout the course of their bereavement process. Grief has no set pattern and timeline. Anyone acquainted with grief understands that emotional state, setbacks, breakthroughs, barriers, triggers, and resolutions can happen unanticipated, impulsively and in inexplicable times and durations. (Williams & Haley, 2018) In spite of the substantial changes in the understanding of grief in children, some medical journals continue to rely on the continuous recognition of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross five stage of grief approach. (DeSpelder, 2010) The five stages of grief are composed of the phases of denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance are part of the frame of grief. In recent years, a new approach in grief is considering how the biopsychosocial effect of the passing of a loved one has directed grief counselors and therapist on identifying and treating people at risk for mental and physical health risks due to their grief. (Kersting, 2004) Instead of using the five stages approach, to all mourners, recent peer-review journals, scholarly books, and professionals are suggesting that deep sorrow caused by a loved one’s death does not move smoothly and predictably through a series of predetermined stages, as previously assumed. Grieving kids and adolescents need to be closely monitored since grief can affect children in many ways than it does in adults. When a child and/or teen is told of a loved one’s death, they might not express any feelings of sorrow or sadness at the moment, as anticipated in an adult. For children, the overwhelming news might take time to process and understand. For an adolescent, they tend to minimize their feelings, thoughts, and emotions because teens may be uncomfortable with the attention of being center stage as everybody observe how they’re coping. Teens most often choose to grieve privately and may downplay their pain. Many teens battle emotional pains due to the guilt and anguish, they feel when they are having fun and living while their loved one is dead. It is not uncommon for the anguish and sorrow of grief to manifest itself later in an adolescent’s life, well after the loved one departure. (Kersting, 2004)

Helping Kids and Teens Cope with Loss

The loss of a loved one is always hard and tough for everyone but is an undisputable fact that children and adolescents will suffer deeply the death of a significant family member, like a parent, a sibling, or other significant family members. To aid kids and teens cope with grief, the healthcare community and caregivers must understand the similarities and difference between children, adolescents, and adult’s grief. They must provide a better understanding of how to offer support to grieving children and adolescents while recognizing the misunderstandings of providing similar support, guidance, and care that is offered to grown-ups experiencing grief and sorrow. We must keep in mind, to be patient and open-minded. We must allow children and teens to grieve in their own way. Kids and teens must be reassured that any range of different emotions, from happy and laughing for one minute to crying the next one is totally normal. We must train grief counselors and grief therapist to better understand the differences between children, adolescents, and adult’s grief, so grieving children some experiencing death for the first time can feel comfortable expressing their feelings. (WYG) For children and teens who have minimal experience with stress, pain, and death, this might be an overwhelming experience. The death of a loved one, as children can be a disturbing experience, a child must be prepared to understand and comprehend the changes the death will impose in their lives. Unfortunately, this can be terrifying to children, as well as adults. Children, as well as many adults, do not possess the knowledge to know what types of coping strategies can help them, manage the hurtful emotions of grief. Death can be a traumatic and confusing situation for our youth to experience. (Ehmke,2019) It may seem that children and teens are able to overcome their grief more quickly than adults. But his doesn’t mean they have managed their grief, since many grieve in cycles or in spurts. In fact, their grief can last longer, and be disguised by their coping mechanism. Caregivers and grief counselors must be attentive to their behaviors and grieving progress while allowing them to come to term with death in their own way; but attentive, since in fact, their grief can last longer. (MarieCurie, 2019) Attentiveness to children and teens understanding of grief can help caregivers and healthcare providers, like primary care doctor or grief counselor, be able to recognize the early signs of depression in the context of bereavement, the child might be experiencing. It will help them identify if any additional help is necessary to aid the child to overcome their sorrow and help the child avoid and evade feelings of hopelessness, that can lead to depression.

Experiencing a significant loss of a loved one like a parent, siblings or caregiver in some children and /or teenager can generate stronger emotional reactions, such as guilt, anger, hopelessness and a sense of rejection that are similar symptoms of both grief and depression. (Schirmelpfening, 2018) Caregivers and health professionals must be able to identify and make the distinctions between normal grief and depression, in their child or children and their patients to be able to help them cope with their loss and grief and avoid depression. Education is very important in providing information to make a distinction between grief and depression since they share similar symptoms. Learning to identify the difference in normal grief and depression is important to the mental stability of a grieving child. It can be life-saving for a child, to seek treatment for depression, rather than continuing their emotional pain and agony without an understanding and hope. (Schirmelpfening, 2018) A better understanding of the similarities and differences between grief and depression can help significantly. We must create awareness of the difference of depression to grief, so everyone can be attentive to the signs and seek help. Understanding that everyone grief at their own pace and should be allowed to grief and mourn without a timeline or a pattern, is understandable; however, we as parents, caregivers, and health professionals should be more conscious and aware of the length, grief symptoms are taken to lessen. The difference between grief and depression is the length of the symptoms and emotions are affecting us. Grief is extremely painful, more so in children who might be experiencing these feeling of anxiety, sadness and possibly fear for the first time but these emotions and feelings should dwindle over time and resurface when trigger by memories and thoughts. Unlike, depression tends to be an ongoing feeling of hopelessness and sadness. Children suffering from depression feel depressed all the time, exhibits signs that their life has no purpose, usually by isolation and losing the desire to engage in social activities. (Nall, 2017) Creating awareness in the difference of grief and depression is an excellent way to help relieve the unnecessary suffering depression can cause our children. (Ferszt,& Leveille, 2006)