Category: Child

In today’s day and age, the terms Inclusive Education and Participation are used interchangeably in the education world and in today’s society. Budiyanto, Kaye, Rofiah and Sheehy (2017) has defined Inclusive Education as a widespread phenomenon that has been inspired by the Universal Declaration Rights of the Child. It gained importance to other nations as a movement for all education system to cater, support, welcome, address and respond to the diversity needs of all learners with varying capabilities. The International Classification of Functioning Disability and Health (ICF) on the other hand has defined the term Participation as being “ involve in life situations”. (World Health Organisation, 2001 as cited in Chien, Copley & Rodger, 2017). The ICF has also stressed its preference to use the term “participation” rather than “inclusion”, as it is through participation that inclusion is promoted (World Health Organisation, 2001).

In the year 2005, the Australian Attorney General formulated the Disability Standards for Education under the Disability Act 1992 where the standard provides basis for the framework. This framework informs all educational system of their legislative obligations and responsibilities towards all children. Participation, being one of the main legislative requirements by the Disability Standards stresses that all children regardless of their capabilities have the right to actively participate and be guided in an Australian dignified Curriculum that promotes inclusive education and practice (Disability Standards for Education, 2005). The United Nations Conventions Rights of the Child, Article 2 and 23 also draw importance to Participation; Article 2, indicate that all children with disability has every right to a sense of belonging without being discriminated, while Article 23 indicate that all children regardless of capabilities should be given and provided access to a full and decent life that facilitates participation (UNICEF, 2006). These Laws are put into place not only to adapt the principle of “Education for All (EFA) (Fitriah & Imaniah, 2018), but also to ensure that the rights of all learners are respected and protected.

Participation has always been classified as an important aspect of children’s learning and development. This will allow all children including those with learning disability to have opportunities to participate in an active and healthy lifestyle. Participation benefits all children, as it enables them to achieve happiness and trusting relationships. When children are accommodated and supported by peers, teachers, parents and the surrounding communities, they are able to engage in meaningful and positive learning experiences. This way they learn the skills to express ideas and obtain information that optimizes their potential and enhances their own understanding of the world around them.

Although this is everyone’s ideal scenario, children with learning disabilities are unintentionally made to be at a disadvantage. This is due to teacher’s lack of knowledge, inadequate training and lack of understanding to one’s condition and specific needs. This becomes a problem, as teachers are unable to adequately support and facilitate children’s learning The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) note “While people with disability participate actively in all aspects of Australian Life, they are most likely to face challenges than people without disability”(AIHW, 2017). This lack of understanding may result in children having to experience participation limitation. Australia being a multicultural country with different cultural beliefs and traditions means that people will have different views and perspectives about disability and participation, therefore this can affect their attitude towards inclusion. Study Findings has shown that non-western teachers tend to have a more negative attitude towards inclusive education (Malinen & Savolainen, 2008 as cited in Savolainen & Yada, 2017), due to the fact that their understanding and knowledge are insufficient and inadequate to carry out inclusive practices.

This is where an adaptable teacher with an inclusive pedagogy comes in. An adaptable and inclusive teacher is someone that is not only capable of delivering quality teaching but one with a strong sense of efficacy. Teacher efficacy happens when the teacher believes that he or she can influence how well a child learns. One of the many roles of an adaptable teacher is to provide an inclusive classroom that supports and caters for children with differing learning styles, differing capabilities and intelligences. It is through this provision of an ideal learning environment that children’s can thrive and learn. Early Childhood Theorist, Lev Vygotsky emphasised the importance to strong relationships and positive interactions in children’s learning and development, where the less advance peer learned from the more advance peer in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)(McLeod, 2018). As adaptable and teacher myself, I have always strive for an active classroom full of eager children. One of the strategies that I have implemented in my classroom was the differentiated instruction strategy. I chose this strategy, as I believe that this is the most effective way to teach diverse students as it modifies the curriculum to meet the needs of all learners (Hall, Strangman, & Meyer, 2013 as cited in Watts-Taffe et.al, 2012). It also through this method that I have witness children regardless of their capabilities are able to contribute and participate in meaningful learning experiences. “Children are unique (UNICEF, 2006), competent and capable individuals”(Community Child Care, Victoria 2011) with differing learning styles, capabilities and intelligences. Renowned Theorist Loris Malaguzzi has supported this statement through his 100-language masterpiece, where he indicated that children have infinite ways of doing, being and expressing (Patte, 2017). It is through the careful and effective implementations of these strategies that teachers are able to avoid stereotyping children as belonging to a specific class with having either predicted or fixed learning. Some of the strategies that have worked for me to increase engagement and participation in children are as follows: Introduction of Interactive Communications in our curriculum for a fun and versatile experience, Visual aids, Flexible routines and the Implementation of support programs and plans such as Individualised Learning Plans.

In my several years in the Early Childhood Sector, I too have my fair share of experiences wherein I have supported and facilitated children with diverse needs in their learning. This is evident when I introduced to Hailey, a 4-year-old girl who suffers from a mild hearing impairment and a rare condition called diastrophic dysplasia, which is commonly known as “dwarfism”. I was able to provide for her curriculum needs by collaborating with her parents and relevant professionals and specialist involve in making appropriate reasonable adjustments and accommodations as well as putting in place Differentiated instruction and Individualised Learning Plans to maximise participation. The reasonable adjustments and accommodations put into place for Hailey are as follows; lowered shelf and hook for the locker, a lowered desk and chair so she can sit comfortably, Modifications in the room setting were made so she can move freely, participate and reach necessary materials needed for engagement and participation i.e. In class discussions she will be put at the front wherein she can hear better.

As an advocate for children, I see the importance and benefits of Inclusive practices, not only to promote engagement and participation but also equality. According to the National Quality Standards Professional Learning Program Inclusive Practice occurs when teachers make thoughtful and informed curriculum decisions and work in partnership with families, teachers and professionals (Early Childhood Australia, 2012). I have always seen Families and the communities as having a vital role in children’s positive growth and development, therefore I encourage and value their inputs and contributions in regards to the planning, development and implementation of a rich and dignified program. It is also through this meaningful and positive partnership and collaboration that teachers, families and relevant professionals are able to work towards common goals for the holistic wellbeing of the child where children’s interests, access, participation are prioritised and maximised.

Through my vigorous research and studies, I have concluded that being inclusive is not just about giving children right to be in your class but a philosophy of acceptance to any individual regardless of who and what they are. Being Inclusive is about giving someone a fair go to participate in rich opportunities from a dignified curriculum where mutual respect, positive attitudes are promoted and necessary adjustments are made so children can reach and optimize their potential. I have also come to an understanding that as our communities have become increasingly diverse and nations become globally open and connected, the awareness of the benefits of an open inclusive learning has spread like wild fire. Therefore the inclusion practice of participation has been regarded as the standard goal not only by all educational system but also in our society. I see the Differentiated instruction as a responsive and effective strategy for inclusion, as it enables teachers to proactively plan varied approaches to the differing needs of children hence, encourages participation. Tomlinson argued that “not’ one size fits all’ teaching”(Tomlinson, 2005 as cited in Strogilos, Tragoulia, Avramidis, Voulagka & Papanikolaou, 2017). I believe that one of my many key roles is to educate children and families about inclusive ways, so they in turn can acquire the skills to accept and embrace other individuals that are different and unique from their own. I have also realised that the promotion of inclusive practices such as participation is not a one-way streak but an ongoing process; a journey full of professional commitment and focused reflection. I think it is crucial that teachers critically reflect on their practices as well as upskilling current knowledge through professional development trainings; researches etc. in order to expand knowledge enhance existing skills or develop new. I have also learned that the children’s right to a dignified curriculum, right to participate and, right to be supported and sheltered make up an inclusive education system. “When all children, regardless of their differences, are educated together, everyone benefits—– this is the cornerstone of inclusive education” (Study International Staff, 2019). If one day, everyone understands the true meaning of being inclusive and take positive ways to promote active participation and equality, then our World will be a much better place.

References

1. Strogilos, V., Tragoulia, E., Avramidis, E., Voulagka, A., &Papanikolaou, V. (2017). Understanding the development of differentiated instruction for students with and without disabilities in co-taught classrooms. Disability &Society, 32(8), 1216-1238. Doi:10.1080/09687599.2017.1352488
2. Woodmanse, C., Hahne, A., Imms, C., &Shields. (2016). Comparing participation in physical recreation activities between children with disability and children with typical development: A secondary analysis of matched data. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 49(50), 268-276. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0891422215300263? via%3Dihub
3. Watts-Taffe, S., Laster, B., Broach, L., Marinak, B., Connor, C.M., &Walker-Dalhouse, D, (2012). Differentiated instruction: Making informed Teacher-Decisions. The Reading Teacher, 66(4). 303-314. Retrieved from
4. Pinto, A.I., Grande, C., Coelho, V., Castro, S., Granlund, M., & Bjorck-Akenson,E, E, E. (2018). Beyond Diagnosis: the relevance of social interactions for participation in inclusive Preschool settings. Development neurorehabilitation, 22(6), 390-399. Doi: 10.1080/17518423.2018.1526225
5. Sheehy, K., Budiyanto, Kaye, H., &Rofiah, K., (2019). Indonesian teachers epistemological beliefs and Inclusive education. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 23(1), 39-56 Doi: 10.1177/1744629517717613
6. Chi-wen, C., Rodger, S., &Copey, J. (2017). Differences in patterns of physical participation in recreational activities between children with and without intellectual and development disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 67(2017), 9-18 Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rdd.2017.05.007?fbclid=IwAR1-c0nIYeLXQvfZieRE8eSePk0aS7t9WiWVRYsaJ6t9YhIrHPZe07RdFPw
7. Imaniah, I., & Fitriah. (2018). Inclusive Education for students with Disability.EDP Sciences Retrieved from https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2018/03/shsconf_gctale2018_00039/shsconf_gctale2018_00039.html
8. Waitoller, F.R., &Kozleski, E.B. (2012). Working in boundary Practices: Identity development and learning in partnership for Inclusive Education, Teaching and Teacher Education, 31(2013). 35-45 Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X12001709?via%3Dihub
9. Yada, A., Savolainen, H. (2017). Japanese in-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education and self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 64(2017), 222-229. Doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.02.005
10. Commonwealth of Australia (2005). Disability Standards for Education 2005.ACT: Australian Government Retrieved from https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/disability_standards_for_education_2005_plus_guidance_notes.pdf
11. Commonwealth of Australia (2003). Disability Discrimination Act 1992. ACT: Australian Government Retrieved from http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdb/au/legis/cth/consol_act/dda1992264/?fbclid=IwAR0N39v0wnnT-3-eXUJzqRuM3bO5ckLKBsmODdjVBay8P2iAjqzwCg1u11g
12. Forlin, C., Chambers, D., Loreman, T., Depellar, J., &Sharma. (2009). Inclusive Education for Students with Disability. Australia: The Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth (ARACY) Retrieved from https://www.aracy.org.au/publications-resources/command/download_file/id/246/filename/Inclusive_education_for_students_with_disability_-_A_review_of_the_best_evidence_in_relation_to_theory_and_practice.pdf
13. UNICEF. (2006). A simplified version of the United Convention on the rights of the Child. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org.au/Upload/UNICEF/Media/Our%20work/childfriendlycrc.pdf
14. Community Childcare Victoria. (2011). Child-centred Curriculum Planning (0-5 years) Self-Guided Learning Package Retrieved from https://www.ecrh.edu.au/docs/default-source/resources/ipsp/child-centred-curriculum-planning.pdf?sfvrsn=4
15. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2019). Disability Reports. Retrieved from https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/health-conditions-disability-deaths/disability/overview
16. World Health Organisation, (2001). International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42407/9241545429.pdf
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18. Early Childhood Australia, (2012). Relationships with children. Retrieved from https://www.ecrh.edu.au/docs/default-source/resources/nqs-plp-e-newsletters/nqs-plp-e-newsletter-no-36-2012-relationships-with-children.pdf?sfvrsn=4
19. Study International Staff. (2019). The Benefits of an inclusive Curriculum. Retrieved fromhttps://www.studyinternational.com/news/benefits-inclusive-curriculum/
20. McLeod, S. (2018). Lev Vygotsky Retrieved fromhttps://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Introduction

Middle and late childhood is considered the calm before the storm as many of the major developments have either happened or are about to happen. Early to middle childhood is defined as an age from about six years old to about eleven years old, and it is a time of stabilization. The child is beginning to understand the core principles being taught in elementary school. According to Piaget middle and late childhood is the of concrete operational stage of development.

Identifying information

Brandee is the second daughter born to parents Michael and Corina. Michael is the oldest son of his family and graduated from the University of Texas at El Paso. Michael is a seventh-grade math teacher at Indian Ridge Middle School in El Paso, Texas. Corina is the oldest child of her family and does have two younger siblings. Corina had been a stay at home mom from most of their child’s lives, but this school year began to work as a part-time attendance clerk at the elementary school that Brandee attends. Brandee was born on June 8th, 2010 and is months away from being ten years old. Brandee’s older sister, Hailey, is two years older than her and is above average height for her age. Brandee is average height for her age and is normal weight as well. She also has long straight brown hair that is very thick just like her dad’s hair. Brandee is currently enrolled in the fourth grade and is being taught in a dual language classroom. Her and her classmates are the first class in her elementary school that instruction is being taught in English and German concurrently. Brandee and her sister currently share a bedroom, each has their own twin bed to sleep. The family lives in a three-bedroom house and the girls have always shared a room, but their parents are going to give each daughter a room within the next year. They have all been born and raised in El Paso, Texas, and they do not have any immediate plans to move from the city. Both sets of grandparents are older but still a part of the girl’s lives. All together the girls have five uncles and they do not have any aunts that are related by a common ancestor.

Developmental Changes

Physical Changes

Brandee is at an average height and average weight for her age, and as Santrock (2017) states she is gaining about five to seven pounds per year. However, Brandee does not exercise at home, any exercise that she does it is either in her physical education class or at lunch with her friends. She is gaining much more control of her fine motor skills and she displays this better control with her love of art. Brandee loves to use her sketch board and draws dresses for her dolls or her pets. Her dresses are usually very detailed, and she takes the time to ensure that her design is exactly how she envisions in her head. Once she has the dress that meets her expectations, she will then take the time to plan out her color scheme and coordinate her colored pencils. Brandee will use small intricate strokes to color the dresses. Brandee and her mom will also follow recipes and bake cookies, cakes, or desserts. Brandee will use the tools that they have in their kitchen to measure exact amounts needed for the recipe, and she will also use spoons or mixtures to mix the recipes. She will also make crafts with her mom for decorations that they will use around the house for gifts.

Emotional Development

Brandee is very sentimental and feels deeply when it comes to her emotions. She has a great relationship with her parents and can express how she feels to her parents. Brandee is very close to her mother and will rarely go out if her mother is not going with her. When her mother is not around, she is very much concerned of the time that she will be away and will ask how long she will be gone. Brandee loves animals and the zoo, she will talk to animals and tell them to be safe until the next time that she visits. If she does see that an animal is hurting or suffering, she will then cry and become inconsolable. The same will also happen if she sees an animal on the television or movie that dies or is hurt. She will cry and not continue to watch until she knows the outcome of the story. Brandee does not like any book, movie, story, or show that does not have a happy ending.

Social Development

Brandee is very much like her father, a social butterfly. She has a group of five friends from school that she likes to talk to and hangs out with at lunch. She also gets included with the friends of her older sister whenever they have a sleepover. Brandee loves to speak to people about her favorite things in this world. This includes koalas, dogs, and other animals. Brandee has been taught by her parents that manners are important and to be nice to people. This is how Brandee is always, she says please and thank you and is polite to anyone. She respects the authority and directives of her teachers as she has been taught by her parents to behave in the classroom. She will also speak up if she believes that someone is being bullied and will try her best to make them feel safe.

Cognitive Development

Brandee appears to be above average intelligence and she performs very well in school. She is doing so well that she was just recently recommended by her teacher to be tested to determine if she meets the criteria for GT testing. For as long as her parents can remember, Brandee would ask them questions that were more advanced for her age. Her parents would monitor her television usage, internet usage, and even social interactions, but they would still be surprised by the depth of questions by Brandee. Brandee loves to read and performs well on her reading tests and can comprehend what she reads. However, Brandee is much more adept at mathematics. She does well with patterns, numbers, and number sense. Her grade in mathematics is always above ninety-five. Brandee is an all A student in school and is very interested in playing an instrument when she is of age.

Language Development

Brandee has a vocabulary that is above average for her age, her reading has expanded her academic vocabulary and given her much more variety of word choice. Her pronunciation, appropriate word choice, and syntax are used correctly in both her speaking and sentences. She developed normally and did not have any delays or birth defects affecting her language.

Moral Development

Brandee is being raised to follow the catholic tradition and attends church every Sunday with her parents. Brandee has finished catechism and is currently not old enough to begin confirmation. Brandee will follow the sacraments that her parents have received. She is always concerned about doing the right thing. She takes her religious beliefs and is trying to adapt them and apply the teachings to her life. Brandee is always willing to help anyone that is needing it and will look out for others who are hurt. Brandee is at the stage that she does not want to get in trouble with her parents and this leads her to make decisions to avoid those situations.

General Assessment

According to Jean Piaget, Brandee is currently in the concrete operational stage of development (Santrock, 2017). This is the stage that a child begins to complete concrete operations that are applied to real, concrete objects (Santrock, 2017). The child is becoming capable of ordering objects according to different dimensions whether it is height, weight, or another dimension. Brandee with all her colored pencils or objects is placing them in the correct order by the dimension that she deems important. Her room is organized in this manner and even her backpack, the folders are placed in order from thickest to thinnest. During the concrete operational stage, the child also begins to develop the ability to recognize relationships according to Piaget (Santrock, 2017). Brandee can understand that object A is equal to object B, and object B is equal to Object C. Then, object A is equal to object C. This critical step in development is the foundation that will abstract mathematics will begin to form in later grade levels.

Conclusion

Brandee is the youngest child in her house and she is a smart, sweet, and fun-loving girl that has her whole life in front of her. She is following the stages that Piaget determined was the appropriate stage of development for her age. She has hit milestones either early or at the correct stage of life and is developing emotionally, academically, and socially at an appropriate rate. The current progress that she is currently making is setting up for her future to be bright.

Social Construct has many different definitions, according to Norozi & Moen (2016) “Social construction of childhood is grounded in varying conceptions among different cultures, societies and at different time period in history”. But how does this have anything to do with childhood or childcare? Well Childhood/Childcare are seen in many ways it as it is made up of many different factors e.g. time, age, policies, environment etc. Childhood is usually focused on theories and that’s how we observe them, but childhood should also be looked at with an empirical study as a child’s life experience is never the same so should be taken into consideration. (James & Prout, 1997)

Age

What is a child? According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) state that “a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child.” (2010, P9) This shows that to be a ‘child’ you are classed as someone who is 18 years or under, but in other parts of the world this may not be the case e.g. in the United States you’re a child until you are 21 years old. The age a person is should not define weather they are a child or not, a person who is 18 years old may not be as mature as a person who is 16 years old, but a 18 year old is expected to start their lives as an adult? It all depends on the child, a lot of theorist insist that all children grow in certain developmental stages, but this is not that case, each child develops at different levels and stages. This all depends the child’s physical, social, and cultural context, defining someone as a child just because they are under a certain age does not give a fair definition. (Norozi & Moen, 2016)

History

The UN Conventional Rights weren’t always around, they were only established in the late 80s early 90s, so children didn’t always have rights. Before this pre-school weren’t around, this was mainly due to the marriage bar. Most woman who worked, which wasn’t very many before this 80s, had to stop working once they got pregnant to become the primary carer of the home. Even after the marriage bar was lifted if you did work outside the home usually someone in your family would look after you. (Flood & Hardy, 2013) This is completely different to the 21st century as most parents work outside of the home and most children go to pre-school before they go to primary school. Since the UNCRC there has been many other legislations, policies, practices and procedure which help improve a child’s livelihood. The White Paper was established as the main policy for all things affiliated with childcare. This helped start off the quality of pre-schools all around Ireland. Síolta, Aistear and the Free Pre-School Year were all introduced in the late 2000s, early 2010, This gave childcare a framework to go from and to show that early years are important for a child’s development and not just for playing. (Hardy & Flood, 2016) Children now and children back in the 80s would have had 2 completely different childhoods, now children have rights and are given the opportunity to have and education from the ages of 0. Secondary school wasn’t always free in Ireland, in 1966 The Minister for Education Donogh O’Malley introduced the free secondary school plan. Before this a lot of children would not have been able to afford secondary education “some 17,000 of our children, finishing the primary school course do not receive any further education. This means that almost one in three of our future citizens are cut off at this stage from the opportunities of learning a skill and denied the benefits of cultural benefits that go with further education. This is a dark stain on the national conscience.” (Ferriter, 2019) Before this there was already the idea that children who didn’t receive a secondary education were already not going to have as good as a future to those who did. Thanks to O’Malley most secondary school is free and everyone has a right to a secondary education and is given the chance to be able to progress to the next level of education.

Environment

The environment is a huge factor in a child’s life, depending where a child grows up and how they are treated can really affect their development. Thanks to the children’s referendum in 2012, children’s best interest is now seen as an important part of the state. In Ireland the state has the right to take any child off their parents if it seems to be in the best interest of the child and if the parent does not amend their actions then the child can be put for adoption. (Flood & Hardy, 2013) According to an Australian study this may not always be a good idea for a child, with many studies resulting in the fact that not all the children in foster care came out as the “happiness assumption”. (Hansen & Ainsworth, 2011) “The removal of a child from parental care is traumatising for the parents and the child”. (Hansen & Ainsworth, 2011) Even though the children are getting a second chance on life the emotional, social and physical damage they may have gone through can affect them in their future.

Conclusion

A social construct is the idea that people learn through experiences, and childhood should be understood as a social construct. Social Constructivism theories are very different to social construct, the constructivism theories are all about how children learn and what they need/use to learn e.g. schemas, scaffolding etc. (Flood, 2013) This is important to a child’s learning but each child as individual goes through different experiences in their lives. “Childhood is neither universal nor natural rather it is tied close to social circumstances and cultural process.” (Norozi & Moen, 2016, P79) Each individual has a different life experience to the next, depending on laws, environments, culture etc. and this does not differ in childhood.

Reference

1. Ali Norozi, S., & Moen, T. (2016). Childhood as a Social Construction. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 6(2), 37–38. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2016.v6n2p75
2. Children’s Rights Alliance. (2010). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved from https://mie.learnonline.ie/course/view.php?id=879
3. Ferriter, D. (2019, January 19) ‘I was not a human being’: A History of Irish Childhood. The Irish Times. Retrieved from https://www.irishtimes.com/news/social-affairs/i-was-not-a-human-being-a-history-of-irish-childhood-1.3758896
4. Flood, E., & Hardy, C. (2013) Early Care & Practice. Gill Education. Dublin 12.
5. Hansen, P. & Ainsworth, F. (2011). In ‘The best interests of the child’: Critical reflections on an overused construct. Children Australia, 36, 1, 12–17. DOI 10.1375/jcas.36.1.12
6. James, A. & Prout, A. (1997). Constructing and reconstructing childhood. London: Falmer

Introduction

I have chosen to complete my work placement in a playschool setting as I believe it will encourage my development as a childcare practitioner. There’s many different beliefs and values which are relevant for working in this area which I will highlight and discuss in detail throughout this essay. I will include beliefs and values which impact the child, parent and the practitioners themselves. There are many skills and abilities that are required for practice, throughout placement I would like to develop the skills I already have but also learn some new ones such as organisational skills. In my opinion engaging in reflective practice can be very beneficial as we can reveal what skills and abilities that need improvement and develop new skills which are essential for childcare practice. Reflection can also allow us to pinpoint an area of interest, for example, choosing a childcare setting that follows the philosophy which you value and believe.

Beliefs and Values

There are many different beliefs and values which are considered relevant for working in a childcare setting. These beliefs and values impact not only the child but also the parents and the practitioners. I am going to discuss the beliefs and values which I believe to be of major importance when working in a childcare setting.

To begin, I will discuss my beliefs and values for the children in a childcare setting such as a playschool. I believe children are educated greatly through play. In my eyes children have a right to play and the United Nations agree with me as they state, ‘States Parties recognize the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts’ (The United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child, 2010). Play is essential in the development of a child’s emotional and cognitive development. Imaginary play also known as ‘messy play’ is essential for children’s cognitive development as they build creative and innovative skills in order to ‘transform objects and action symbolically’ (Gmitrova & al, 2003). Their emotions are developed by playing and interacting with children of the same age, as they learn to express feelings and to control them.

The beliefs and values which I believe are essential when dealing with the parents of a child in any setting is being a good communicator. Having good communication skills is essential for a childcare practitioner as they must discuss the child’s development with their parents. The parent is seen as the primary educator, “The Constitution acknowledges that the primary and natural educator of the child is the family” (Ready to Learn, 1999, p. 11). Having effective communication between the childcare practitioner and the parents allows a trustful relationship to form. This can be particularly useful if the practitioner must discuss a difficult topic with the parents such as delayed learning problems. The relationship must be based on trust, although the practitioner must follow confidentiality policies. ‘Practitioners need to respect the confidentiality of information they receive about children, while understanding that confidentiality cannot be guaranteed for example in cases involving child protection issues’ (Aistear, 2009, p. 7).

There are many beliefs and values which I believe are essential for practitioners of childcare settings to follow. Practitioners should respect the children they are working with and treat them as equals. As young children as not always able to express opinions, it’s the childcare practitioner’s responsibility to voice them in order to ensure they are treated as equals in society. In 1992, the United Nations Convention stated that ‘the child’s views must be considered and taken into account in all matters affecting him or her’ (The United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child, 2010). This Convention helps to protect children and ensure they are threat equally and with respect, I believe all childcare practitioners have a responsibility to follow this principle.

Skills and Abilities

Throughout my work placement I will implement many skills and abilities which I have already obtain and I will develop some new ones which will be useful when working in a childcare setting. Childcare practitioners require skills such as team- work skills, organisational skills and creativity in order to provide effective learning and development for the children.

Team-work skills are particularly important for a childcare practitioner to obtain as they will often have to work with several people, children, their parents and fellow co-workers. It is important when working with others to be patient and understanding particularly of their values. For example, a child may have different cultural beliefs and therefore it may be essential to work with their parents to ensure the child has alternative arrangements made which will give them a conclusive experience in conjunction with their cultural beliefs. ‘Understanding that children have individual needs, views, cultures and beliefs, which need to be treated with respect and represented throughout the early childhood services’ (Affairs, 2016). Therefore, it is clear to me that team-work skills are a prominent aspect of working in childcare setting. This skill ensures that all individuals, including children, parents and practitioners needs and wants met most of the time.

Next, I will discuss how organisational skills are very beneficial in a childcare setting such as a playschool or creche. Childcare practitioners must obtain the skill of being organised, working with young children can be difficult and I believe being organised is a great way to make things run a little smoother. Having good time-management is a large part of being organisation, it can be used to plan the timetable for the day, for example, what time lunch time will be. Co- workers often rely of fellow practitioners to be punctual. Many childcare settings are open from 7am to 7pm, therefore shift work is very common. ‘It is important you are on time so that you can relieve other members of staff, and you need to be prompt to make sure you don’t disrupt the work of the centre’ (Scott, 2008). It’s clear that organisational skills are required for practice, this skill is essential for the smooth running of a childcare setting.

The ability to be creative and innovative is important when working with young children. According to Piaget, children’s cognition is developed greatly through creativity and imaginary play (Mills, 2014). Creating tasks or games for children to explore in a playschool, creche or Montessori allows further development of their cognition. Imaginary play which is also known as ‘messy play’ is commonly used in a childcare setting as children can develop their imagination and socialisation skills. The practitioner must be able to make these tasks creative and exciting to keep the children’s focus as they have a short attention span at a young age. Being creative is an essential skill for a practitioner to have as they will encourage children to grow and develop their cognitive stage through multiple activities.

Importance of Reflective Practice

In my opinion, reflection is very important for a childcare practitioner. Reflection has many benefits; it can highlight the aspects of your practice which may need to be modified such as develop or improve skills, it can also help pinpoint a specific area of interest for the practitioner, for example, which philosopher’s approach they would like to work under.

I will discuss how reflective practice can be beneficial for a childcare practitioner. Reflective practice is a great way of identifying the aspects of practice which need to be modified as you can look back on the events of the previous day. Perhaps, a childcare practitioner needs to develop or improve certain skills such as communication or interaction skills. These skills can be highlighted through reflective practice. The Victorian Framework outlines that ‘Early Childhood practitioners continually develop their professional knowledge and skills to enable them to provide the best possible learning and development opportunities for all children’ (Malbina, 2009). There are certain skills which are essential when working with children as I have outlined in the above paragraphs. Skills such as communication and teamwork skills can be a major asset to a practitioner as these help a practitioner to create secure relationships with children, parents and co-workers.

Using reflective practice can also help a childcare practitioner to pinpoint an area of interest. There are many different approaches that childcare settings follow, they are often guided by the philosophies of theorists such as Freobel and Montessori. Freobel believed that children learn best when playing outdoors as this helps develop high levels of learning and helps children to connect with the environment. ‘Kinder garden can be translated as either ‘child’s garden’ or ‘children of garden’. Both meanings were used by Freobel and reflect his philosophy about young children’ (How Children Learn, 2008). Forest schools would often be guided by Freobel’s apporch. Montessori’s philosophy is another approach used by childcare settings which involved organised play. Maria Montessori believed in a more structured educational programme, where children’s day to day learning is based on practical life. ‘Guided play often involves specific toys with which a child can interact to gain knowledge’ (How Children Learn, 2008). Montessori schools are very common in Ireland as they follow the structured educational programme which many parents believe can be beneficial for their children before entering primary school. I believe reflective practice during work placement can allow a childcare practitioner to decide which philosophy they would like to work under in the future.

Conclusion

In conclusion I must say that I have chosen to complete my work placement in a setting which will help me develop as a childcare practitioner. I will complete my placement in setting where all individual’s beliefs and values are respects and followed, this is particularly important when working in a childcare setting to ensure all children learn and develop in a equal and secure setting. In my opinion, work placement will beneficial to be as I will use the skills and abilities which I already possess and I will develop new ones and as a result I will be able to use these skills to the best of my ability in the future as a childcare practitioner. I have also expressed the importance of reflective practice for childcare practitioners. Reflective practice is essential for all workers in order to improve their interaction and work with young children, it can also allow each worker to choose a philosophy which they value to work under. I trust that where you complete your work placement can have a major impact on your future as a childcare practitioner as it can be an eye-opening experience.

References

1. Affairs, D. o. (2016). DIversIty, EqualIty AND InclusIon Charte: GuIdelInes for Early ChIldhood Care AND EducatIon. Dublin: Government Publications.
2. Aistear. (2009). The Early Childhood Curriculum Framework. Aistear.
3. Gmitrova, V., & al, e. (2003). The Impact of Teacher-Directed and Child-Directed Pretend Play on Cognitive Competence in Kindergarten Childre. Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 30, 241.
4. How Children Learn. (2008). London: Step Forward Publishing.
5. Malbina, L. (2009). Vicotrian Early Years Learning an Development Framework. Department of Education.
6. Mills, H. (2014). The importance of creative arts in early childhood classrooms. Retrieved from Childcare Quarterly: https://www.childcarequarterly.com
7. Scott, F. (2008). Working in an early education and childcare setting. In Pearson Education Limited (p. 6). Pearson Education Limited.
8. The United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child. (2010, June). Retrieved from Children’s Rights: https://www.childrensrights.ie
9. The White Paper: Ready to Learn. (19991). Dublin: The Stationary Office.

In researching the effects of ECC on sociability four research articles were reviewed, analyzed on recorded: Acharya and Tandon (2011) ‘The effect of early childhood caries on the quality of life of children and their parents’, Bramantoro et. al. (2015) ‘The Patterns of Dental Caries Influence on the Children’s Quality of Life Aged 3-5 Years Based on the Socioeconomic Characteristics’, Jabin and Chaudhary (2014) ‘Association of Child Temperament with Early Childhood Caries’ and de Oliveira et. al. (2017) ‘Behavior Factors and Temperament in Children with and without Early Childhood Caries: A Comparative.

All four studies done were cross-sectional studies. Acharya and Tandon assessed the effect of Early Childhood Caries (ECC) on Quality Of Life (QOL) of children and their parents, conducted in the Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, Manipal College of Dental Sciences. A total of 500 children–parent pairs were selected from various schools and Anganwadis in and around Manipal (Karnataka) and Bhubaneswar (Orissa). The study population was divided into two groups: Group I (Bhubaneswar) and Group II (Manipal group), consisting of 250 subjects each. Bramantoro et al. analyzed the patterns of dental caries and its influence on the children’s quality of life aged 3-5 years based on the socioeconomic characteristics of their mother in Mojokerto Indonesia. This research was conducted in Puskesmas Wates Mojokerto and involved children aged 3-5 years as well as their mother. In total, this research involved 309 children and their mothers. The studies conducted by Jabin and Chaudhary and de Oliveira et al. both looked at ECC and its effects on temperament. Jabin and Chaudhary assessed the association of child temperament with early childhood caries in preschool children of Moradabad city, India, in children from 3-6 years of age in educational setting. Ten schools of Moradabad City were randomly selected from the list to make the sample of 1300 children aged 3 – 6 years attending preschool and their parents were included in the study. While, de Oliveira et al. carried out their study with a convenience sample composed of 120 children of both gender aged two to five years and their respective mothers, divided into two groups, Group 1:60 children without ECC and Group 2:60 children with ECC. The children were selected among the patients attending the same Children’s Dental Clinic in a public health service, who presented as following inclusion criteria: gestational age ≥ 37 weeks; birth weight ≥ 2.500; children who were born and lived in the city since birth; complete mental and physical health, and mothers with similar age (≥ 24 years), educational and socioeconomic levels.

In the study conducted by Archarya and Tandon, target population was children below 71 months of age, with a mean of 51.184 months (Group I) and 52.948 months (Group II). The mean dmft was 5.4240 and the dmfs was 8.0120 in Group I, whereas the mean dmft was 6.0120 and dmfs was 9.8600 in Group II. The use of questionnaires gathered data in relation to the QOL for both the parents and the child. It included physical, psychological and social aspects of QOL. The study revealed that 11.2% children in Group I and 10.8% children in Group II were teased by friends. While the study conducted by Bramantoro et al. the data obtained showed that the average number of teeth suffering from dental caries in those children was seven (7.848; SD = 5.032). It is also known that the average of the children’s quality of life was high enough or close to the maximum value (1.624; SD = 0.338). The results obtained from this study shows that the number of dental caries had a considerable effect on the children’s quality of life aged 3-5 years. It can be seen from the data that more than 50% of the dynamics occurred on the children’s quality of life aged 3-5 years can be explained by the number of dental caries. The influence coefficient obtained was greater than 0.7.

Jabin and Chaudhary’s issued child temperament questionnaires where temperament was assessed based on three variables approach withdrawal, adaptability and threshold of responsiveness. Mean score of these three variables were summed to give the sociability score. The range of possible scores was 3-15. High scores on this would indicate that the child is quite responsive to the environment, adjustable, adaptable and uninhibited. The results showed that children with caries were found less social (48.6%) as compared to non-carious groups (50.5%). The difference was statistically significant (p ≤ 0.005) in all the three components of sociability namely approach, adaptability and threshold of responsiveness. Adaptability segment of sociability has most obvious difference (p = 0.002). Children with caries were found to be less sociable, moderately emotional, less energetic, and highly distractible and are less rhythmic. This means the study population demonstrated high preference for being alone than in company, shows moderate crying/ tantrums, low rates of speaking and moving, have fleeting attention and possess irregular biological functions. De Oliveira et al. also applied a questionnaire in order to obtain data about mother (status marital and employment), family (parents’ live together, monthly household income and number of people in residence) and child (age, number of siblings, birth position, diet and oral hygiene habits, use of dental floss and temperament). Six choices of temperament were given to mothers and were asked to choose the most applicable to child: (1) calm; (2) fussy; (3) crying; (4) demanding; (5) stubborn; (6) other. The temperament of the child was classified as easy if the mother chose the option (1) or difficult if she chose the options (2), (3), (4) or (5). When the mother’s choice was (6), the child was classified by the researcher’s judgment. For example, if a mother answered happy, she was classified as easy. On the other hand, is a mother answered grumpy, she was classified as difficult.

Acharya and Tandon (2011), Bramantoro et al. (2015) and Jabin and Chaudhary (2014) studies all concluded that there is opposite relation between ECC and the children’s sociability. However, Oliveira et al. (2017) results are in disagreement with other studies, there was no difference regarding the temperament of children with and without caries. The researchers identified a few limitations with the research such as the selection and sample size, the selected sample was of convenience and compared. They further mentioned that despite the small sample size, the mothers and the children presented similar characteristics considered as risk factors related to ECC. Mother’s age, socioeconomic and educational levels were similar between the groups. In addition, the children presented characteristics similar to birth, age group and access to dental care from the first appointment in a public service. Considering that these children showed population determinants at risk for ECC, this study evaluated and compared behavioral risk factors and temperament among children with and without ECC.

The world health organization acknowledged the social impact of dental caries resulting in restricted school, home activities and loss of millions of school hours annually. The American dental association identifies that early childhood Caries is a significant public health problem in deprived communities, and is also found throughout the general child population. Early childhood Caries is five times as frequent as asthma and seven times as common as hay fever.

Abstract

This paper explores many aspects of the etiology of childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) including specific characteristics, cause of pathology, impact on subsystems and an overview of a full assessment. Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) discuss that childhood apraxia of speech is a speech sound disorder with distinct difficulty in motor planning and execution. There is no cumulative list of exact features children with childhood apraxia of speech possess, but the American Speech-Language-Hearing association released a position statement in 2007 with the three main agreeable elements. Similarly, the motor-disorder has three main causes, two that are associated with neurologic elements and one (and most common) cause is unknown, or idiopathic (Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017). Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) also go on to describe that children with childhood apraxia of speech may exhibit signs in all four subsystems: the respiratory system, the phonatory system, the articulatory system and the resonatory system. The paper also examines the methods use to evaluate a child with childhood apraxia of speech, and delves into both informal and formal measures. Finally, consideration for referral to other healthcare providers is discussed.

Characteristics of Impairment

Childhood apraxia of speech, also known as CAS, is a motor-based speech sound disorder (ODell and Shriberg, 2000). Before discussing the distinct features that can be present in a child with CAS, it is worthwhile to note the possible causes. There is not one exclusive cause for this disorder, but three accepted causes (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen, 2017). The first way it can present is the result of a neurological pathology, the second is that it can be co-existing with a neurobehavioral disorder, and the final cause is referred to as idiopathic CAS, because the origin is unknown (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen, 2017). Although the topic of definitive features of this disorder is heavily debated, there is no concise list exists. Rather, the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, also known as ASHA (2007), recognizes three agreeable characteristics of the disorder to be “inconsistent errors on consonants and vowels in repeated productions of syllables or words, lengthened and disrupted coarticulatory transitions between sounds and syllables and inappropriate prosody, especially in the realization of lexical or phrasal stress.” What this means is that teachers may report that a child does not produce a word the same way when it is repeated multiple times, parents may notice that their child takes pauses between words or syllables. A speech-language pathologist may notice that the child may seem like he or she knows what they want to say, but is having difficulty producing the sounds necessary to articulate their words (Hillis et al., 2004). Grigos, Moss, and Lu (2015) noted that for inclusion into the CAS group of their study:

Children with CAS also demonstrated at least four of the following characteristics: metathesis, vowel errors, timing errors (e.g., difficulty differentiating between voiced and voiceless cognates), phoneme distortions, articulatory groping (e.g., visual struggle accompanying phoneme production), impaired volitional oral movement (e.g., excessive oral opening during an open/close sequence), reduced phonetic inventory, and poorer expressive than receptive language skills. (p. 1107)

In addition to speech difficulty, results of a study by Nijland, Terband and Maassen (2015) also suggest that children with CAS have impairments in the areas of sequential tasks, and complicated sensorimotor tasks when compared to typically developing children. In other words, a child may present with a variety of outward signs.

Impact on Subsystems

Childhood apraxia of speech can have effect all four subsystems of speech. Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) discuss that because of the level of complexity and precise timing needed to control the larynx and respiratory cycle for intelligible speech, children with CAS often struggle with accurate production. Grigos (2017) discusses that the coordination of the four subsystems is what will be difficult for children with childhood apraxia of speech.

Respiration

The respiratory system may be impacted in children with childhood apraxia of speech in the sense that they have difficulty timing the movement of their air stream with their other articulators (Tukel et. al (2015). Grigos (2017) notes that unless a childhood has an underlying neurological pathology, the respiratory system is likely to not be further impacted. Therefore, the function of the respiratory system without additional pathology will likely be normal, but rather the coordination of the respiratory system in combination with other subsystems will be what is impacted in childhood apraxia of speech.

Phonation

As the air stream moves superiorly from the lungs through the phonatory system, it meets the vocal folds. Children with childhood apraxia of speech typically will have reduced control and coordination of voicing (Ballard, Maas and Robin, 2007). This means that the vocal folds are not exempt from the decreased coordination difficulties associated with CAS. Moreover, it implies that patients with childhood apraxia of speech could produce a voiced phoneme in place of what should be a voiceless phoneme, and it could contribute to one of the three agreeable features of CAS, inappropriate stress placement (Darley et al., 1975).

Articulation

When the air continues past the vocal folds, it will meet the articulators. Tukel et. al (2015) report that during their study they found that participants diagnosed with childhood apraxia of speech had significant lack of control over their articulators. Clearly, if a child is unable to plan their movements, or control the placement or timing of their articulators, shaping them to produce the correct speech sound would be very troublesome. Another way articulation difficulty presents in children with childhood apraxia of speech, is altered prosody (ODell and Shriberg, 2000). Kent and Rosenbek (1983) explain that altered prosody may mean that present in slow speech rate or prolonged pronunciation of sounds due to slow articulatory movement.

Resonance

The air resonates in the oral or nasal cavities to produce the sounds that we hear. It is no surprise that resonance is another example of how inconsistency is present in patients with childhood apraxia of speech (Sealey and Giddens, 2010). Grigos (2017) explains that if the child’s timing of the velopharyngeal port is inappropriate, they may produce a nasal phoneme when mean to produce an oral phoneme.

DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH ASSESSMENT WITH INFORMATION SPECIFIC TO THE DISORDER

Any child of concern should undergo a speech sound assessment along with an oral motor exam and hearing exam to determine pathology and if any further referrals are necessary (Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen, 2017). Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) describe the goals of a speech sound assessment to be to ascertain if the child’s speech is deviant enough from what is typical, identify possible pathology, establish possible treatment options if they are deemed warranted, as well as make determinations in regards to prediction of the outcome if intervention is not initiated. Assessment can take place in a multitude of ways, and both formal and informal assessments play important roles in being able to perform a thorough evaluation and see the whole picture and form a diagnosis. In addition to assessment, a speech-language pathologist must also interpret results and formulate a treatment plan. However, first a child may undergo a speech screening to determine whether or not additional assessment is necessary (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen 2017). This process is relatively quick and can typically be given in 5 minutes (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen 2017).

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS

After a child has been through the screening process, the speech-language pathologist will determine if further examination is necessary. If further assessment is needed, the speech-language pathologist will then begin a thorough speech sound assessment. One of the first steps of this process is evaluating the child through informal measures such as simple conversation and review of previous medical history (Strand, et al., 2013). This may take place in the form of interview-style questioning (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen 2017). The speech-language pathologist may ask the child a series of questions to get an idea of their natural speech in a relaxed setting. Prompts such as asking the child their name, some of their interests, the names of their family members or what school they go to can provide integral examples of the child’s speech ability because it uses familiar speech sounds that should be included in their inventory (Bernthal, Bankson, Flipsen 2017). At this time, the speech-language pathologist should listen for prosodic and fluency errors, and inconsistent repetitions. A benefit of this kind of assessment is that it can also be done in groups, and interpersonal skills can be observed.

FORMAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) discuss that formal assessment tools are useful when a speech-language pathologist is seeking normative data for comparison material or universal testing procedures. This would provide quantitative data that can be used to track the child’s progression as therapy continues, as well as enables the clinician to retest the child and compare their new results to their baseline findings. The recommended assessment battery for CAS according to Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) includes a hearing screening, oromotor examination, analysis of both connected speech and single word tasks, stimulability tasks, and observation of phonological perception and overall intelligibility. Grigos (2017) also notes that an oral peripheral examination should be performed to discriminate between pathology deriving from function vs. structure. During this exam, one should examine facial symmetry and the appearance of the articulators (nose, jaws, lips, tongue, teeth and palate) (Grigos, 2017). Grigos (2017) also notes the many factors that need to be taken into consideration to pick the most appropriate formal assessment for a child, the chronological age needs to be taken into consideration, there should be a chance to observe sounds multiple times, in multiple positions, through different contexts. One test that meets a number of these requirements is the GFT-3. As Grigos (2017) mentions, the test gives the clinician the opportunity to assess sounds in any word position, assess sounds in both words and phrases, and includes stimulability tasks. For a child with childhood apraxia of speech, this would be appropriate because it is also a picture test, and again, with childhood apraxia of speech, the child knows what they want to say, but sometimes cannot articulate what they wish to say (Hillis et al., 2004). If the child being tested actually had childhood apraxia of speech, the child will be able to identify what the picture is, but may not be able to communicate that. However, although there are specific standardized tests for the assessment of motor disorders such as the VMPAC, Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) warn that “…the available published tests for childhood apraxia of speech appear to be inadequate for the task.” One test, the Verbal Motor Production Assessment for Children (VMPAC) is an example of a formal assessment that evaluates the oral motor mechanism, and tests it through sequential tasks (both speech and non-speech) that helps us evaluate neuromotor control (Hayden and Square, 1999). McCauley and Strand (2008) report their findings from their study that of the six tests they evaluated, the VMPAC was the only one that they considered to possess validity, but still does not have reliability. This is consistent with Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen’s (2017) statement, and therefore, relying on standardized testing alone for the diagnosis of childhood apraxia of speech is not recommended.

TEAM/CONSULTATION CONSIDERATIONS

For a child with CAS, in addition to the Speech Language Pathologist, other health care professionals should be involved with full assessment of the child to rule out any added pathology. To quote Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen (2017) “If in doubt, refer for further testing.” Any time children are involved, communication with the pediatrician is indispensable because they can provide background of the child’s milestone achievement and can also help coordinate care with specialists. As always, a consultation with an audiologist is vital so that the child can have a full audiologic examination to rule out any possible hearing loss (Grigos, 2017). A recommendation to an ear, nose and throat physician would be beneficial for further work up and any necessary treatment if any deformity or abnormality was seen during the OPE. If the child is also having difficulty with fine motor skills, like Nijland, Terband and Maassen (2015) had stated was possible, suggestion to return to a primary care physician to inquire about referral to occupational or physical therapy could also benefit the child. Finally, a consultation with a neurologist may also be worthwhile, to rule out any possible underlying neurologic pathology. A report by Morgan and Webster (2018) cites that if warranted, a specialist may consider having a MRI performed to rule out neurologic lesions. Moreover, they acknowledge that patients with isolated CAS who undergo MRI assessment do not typically have lesions present.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Ballard, et al., (2010) state that there “has been a debate over the diagnostic markers of CAS,” which has become evident through the lack of cumulative list of distinctive features, but it is clear that a variety of signs may be present. The study by McCauley and Strand (2008) reinforces that there is also no solidified “gold standard” when it comes to formal assessment for childhood apraxia of speech and that more research must be done before that conclusion may be drawn. With this in mind, a combination of both formal and informal assessment, can help diagnose childhood apraxia of speech. Clinically speaking, if any question as to whether or not there are co-morbid (neurologic, audiologic, structural or other) factors in play, the child should be referred out for further evaluation and possible treatment by the appropriate specialist (Bernthal, Bankson and Flipsen, 2017).

References

1. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2007). Childhood Apraxia of Speech [Position Statement]. Available from www.asha.org/policy.
2. Ballard, K. J., Maas, E., & Robin, D. A. (2007). Treating control of voicing in apraxia of speech with variable practice. Aphasiology, 1195-1217.
3. Bernthal, J. E., Bankson, N. W., & Flipsen, P., Jr. (2017). Chapter 5. In Articulation and Phonological Disorders Speech Sound Disorders in Children (8th ed., pp. 132-136, 244-252). Boston, MA: Pearson.
4. Darley, F. L., Aronson, A. E., & Brown, J. R. (1975). Motor speech disorders. Philadelphia: Saunders.
5. Grigos, M. (2017). Etiologies of Speech Sound Disorders [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/nyu-umt/prod/NYU-SPEECH_0012+Speech +Development+and+Disorders+in+Children/Lecture+PDFs/Week+4/2018+May/Week +4_2018_May.pdf
6. Grigos, M. (2017). Assessment of Speech Production [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/nyu-umt/prod/NYU-SPEECH_0012+Speech +Development+and+Disorders+in+Children/Lecture+PDFs/Week+5/2018+May/Week +5_2018_May.pdf
7. Grigos, M. I., Moss, A., & Lu, Y. (2015). Oral Articulatory Control in Childhood Apraxia of Speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(4), 1103-1118. doi: 10.1044/2015_jslhr-s-13-0221
8. Hayden, A. and Square, P. (1999). VMPAC, Verbal Motor Production
9. Assessment for Children . San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
10. Hillis, A. E., Work, M., Barker, P. B., Jacobs, M. A., Breese, E. L., & Maurer, K. (2004). Re- examining the brain regions crucial for orchestrating speech articulation. Brain, 127(7), 1479-1487.
11. Katharine H. Odell, Lawrence D. Shr. (2001). Prosody-voice characteristics of children and adults with apraxia of speech. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 15(4), 275-307. doi: 10.1080/02699200010021800
12. Kent, R. D. and Rosenbek, J. C. (1983) Acoustic patterns of apraxia of speech. Journal of
13. Speech and Hearing Research, 26, 231-249.
14. Mccauley, R. J., & Strand, E. A. (2008). A Review of Standardized Tests of Nonverbal Oral and Speech Motor Performance in Children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17(1), 81-91. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2008/007)
15. Morgan, A. T., & Webster, R. (2018). Aetiology of childhood apraxia of speech: A clinical practice update for paediatricians. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 54(10), 1090-1095. doi:10.1111/jpc.14150
16. Nijland, L., Terband, H., & Maassen, B. (2015). Cognitive Functions in Childhood Apraxia of Speech. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 58, 550-565.
17. Sealey, L. R., & Giddens, C. L. (2010). Aerodynamic indices of velopharyngeal function in childhood apraxia of speech. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24(6), 417-430. doi: 10.3109/02699200903447947
18. Strand, E. A., Mccauley, R. J., Weigand, S. D., Stoeckel, R. E., & Baas, B. S. (2013). A Motor Speech Assessment for Children With Severe Speech Disorders: Reliability and Validity Evidence. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(2), 505-520. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0094)
19. Tükel, Ş, Björelius, H., Henningsson, G., Mcallister, A., & Eliasson, A. C. (2015). Motor functions and adaptive behaviour in children with childhood apraxia of speech. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17(5), 470-480. doi: 10.3109/17549507.2015.1010578

Abstract

Elementary education is analyzed thoroughly and definitively while major questions and aspirations are discussed at length. Major roles and professionalism in teaching are also discussed. Experiences, beliefs, and biases are explained in detail regarding the role of teachers in Early Childhood Education. The author discusses his or her past elementary educators and describes why he or she believes the teachers are so impactful. Concerns about the future of the career are also brought to attention while the author describes his or her personal affiliations with teaching and his or her worry for the future of teaching young children.

As a future elementary educator, I look to my former childhood educators as concrete examples of tangible, impactful teachers of today. Teachers influence the future whether they discern it or not. I aspire to teach for this very goal. The future of the world is through children, and teachers are remarkably imperative as they train children in the world around them. Teachers experience life from a different viewpoint than other individuals because they make new connections and relationships every individual year as pupils come and go. Teachers are the backbone of today’s society; meanwhile, early educators are the foundations of every child. Professional early childhood educators are increasingly needed in the education world today, and I hope to become the professional teacher I aspire to be.

Professionalism in the Education of Young Children

Professionalism is remarkably significant not only in the teaching profession but in classrooms. Teachers have to maintain a professional mindset towards other teachers and students. According to George S. Morrison’s textbook, Early Childhood Education Today, there are six standards of professional development in childhood education. These standards include various details such as child development, culture, language, relationships, disabilities, appropriate practices, individuality, supportive and challenging environments, and various other features. I believe teachers have to be astonishingly professional to have a successful classroom. As an aspiring teacher, I hope to create an environment that both is supportive and challenging to my students. There are many childhood educators in the world, and teachers have to learn how to be professional. Elementary teachers not only need to be professional, but they have principal roles in the education system as well.

Roles of Teachers in the Education System

To understand the numerous roles of young children educators, one must take into account the number of students in a classroom. The average number of students occupying a typical school room in the United States is about 24.3 students. While preserving order in this chaotic environment, teachers have various tasks they have to consider. Teachers have to conceive and implement rules for the students, and they must discern every unique student. Observing every single student provides reasonable promenades for eventual achievement. Instructors are leaders, and they must supervise their classes fearlessly. Teachers also are recognized to be family by various students. Formulating examinations, collaborating with parents and other instructors, enduring classrooms, maintaining deadlines, and interpreting work by students are just a few of the recurring roles educators must dominate every day.

As the daughter of an elementary teacher, I have learned to appreciate not only the educators of today but the educators I have been instructed by in the past. Their influence over my life has been astonishing. For example, I had a high ability teacher when I was in my late years of elementary school. Her ability to drive each student to his or her full potential is precisely what made her a phenomenal teacher. She maintained order, managed personal time amidst students and parents, devised not only challenging tests but also various designations independently outlined for particular students. Another example is my third-grade teacher. This teacher handled a class full of eight to nine-year-olds all while carrying her first child. This teacher exhibited depth in teaching and a strong love for children. Not only have I encountered unbelievable teachers while developing I have also undergone the roles of teaching firsthand.

I have been able to observe several grade levels at my former elementary school. While the elementary school has physically not changed, new faces have joined the teaching staff. In my observations, I have noticed each teacher has his or her personal teaching techniques. The techniques differ from one another based on the teacher’s abilities. For example, my second-grade teacher was a gifted reader. Instead of having us read texts on our own, she would read books to the class as a whole. Her intensity and passion for reading shone through her words. Another example is my kindergarten teacher. This teacher was truly talented at inventing exciting assignments and activities for every student. As I have observed my mother in the teaching setting, I recognize her teaching style as hands-on. Her students are given various exercises in which they collaborate with other students. I find this teaching style to be effective for the grade she teachers: fifth-grade. As I have observed these individual teachers I have pondered my own teaching style.

My Own Teaching Style. I have had the privilege of reading to students with ages falling among four-years-old to ten-years-old. After I finished reading to them, we operated contemporaneously on numerous worksheets composed by a teacher. I found myself standing at the front of the classroom directing the entire class by writing on the front board. We separated worksheets into themed inquiries and answered many questions at a time. To keep the lesson moving forward, I retained the students’ attention by incorporating their conclusions and statements by corresponding the inquiries to everyday moments. I read several stories, conducted experiments, solved math intricacies, and performed multiple tasks with the students. I relished working alongside them and collaborating with them. As I have experienced this, I have encountered several of the roles elementary educators must wield every day. I believe teachers hold the mantle of the future because of the influence they have in young lives. These children are the future and teachers shape the children; therefore, teachers have a direct influence on the future. Although I understand the direct effect I will have on the children, I recognize the concerns about my future career as an early childhood educator.

My Future Concerns. I am concerned about the many features of schooling because teaching every day is a challenge. Firstly I am concerned about the possible inability to maintain control in a classroom setting. With the average student count being around 23.4 I worry about having the strength to not only control behavior but also academic vigor and the willingness to do work assigned. Second I worry about deadlines and the workload. Teachers have to face a lack of time to create assignments and tests, evaluations from principals, parents, and students. I worry about the stress eventually being too much for me. I also worry about my own physical health. Having Meniere’s Disease can cause potential problems with my presence in a classroom. These concerns are the chief anxieties I have with being an elementary teacher. Although I worry all too much of teaching, I look forward to the first time I am to walk into my classroom and call it my own.

Conclusions

Teachers: the backbone of society. They truly are. Studying to become a teacher has opened my eyes to the various influences a single teacher has over hundreds of children. My experiences as teaching, past examples of teachers, and observations of teaching styles have propelled me into the course of elementary education. I desire the ability to impact the future through children; I have a strong love for children and their minds. Teaching is not something one decides to pursue on impulse teaching is something one must choose. I have decided to contribute my adulthood career as an educator, dedicating my time and wellbeing to launch children to their complete potential. I dream of the day I watch my former students graduate from high school and go on to impact the world. I cannot wait to get started.

References

1. Morrison, G. S. (2018). Early Childhood Education Today. Pearson Education Canada.
2. Rampell, C. (2009, September 11). Class Size Around the World. Retrieved from https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/class-size-around-the-world/

Introduction

One of the most exciting yet fragile stages of life is the preschool age. It is the make-or-break point of the child as he begins to wander, explore, and learn about his environment and self. The preschool stage is considered to be the person’s formative years where foundations that contribute to the child’s behavior in the future are built. Heath (2013) stated that a well-developed foundation during the preschool age will contribute to its functionality as the child slowly becomes an adult. In his transition to school-age, the child can be trusted and can function in society with a strong sense of autonomy, if the child has been guided during the preschool age accordingly. Moreover, Erikson (1963) highlighted the importance of preschool age as the developmental stage for autonomy and self-esteem, aspects that highly affect future behavior. Self-esteem is an essential aspect as it is considered to be the core factor of personality development, and consequently the basis of all behavior, may it be a positive behavior, or can be a cause of the future pathological disorder. (Steffenhagen, cited by Zakeri and Karimpour 2011). A person’s perception of self becomes positive through well-established self-esteem, and a person whose self-esteem has been developed negatively will result in a negative connotation about himself. Various studies have been conducted to define what possible factors are affecting the development of healthy self-esteem and what possible factors compromise the development. A perspective on the impact of social influences on self-esteem during the early years of life has been predominantly studied, with parents labeled as the most influential. This paper discusses the literature that shows how parenting style, especially positive parenting, influences healthy self-esteem in the early years. Multiple studies concluded that positive parenting aided in the development of positive self-esteem.

Self – esteem and the Developing Child

Self-esteem is a lifelong process, yet it begins to develop during the preschool. This is the age when the child begins to evaluate himself in terms of his competence and worth. It is in the preschool age when the foundation of self-esteem is situated (Weiten, Lloyd, Dunn, & Hammer, 2008). Self-esteem has been defined in many ways. One definition is the degree to which a person values oneself (Reber, cited by Wolff 2000). It is a degree of how much we believe about our ownself and how worthy we view ourselves. In some ways, self-esteem is a subjective evaluation of what a person feels about oneself since the evaluation is a private feeling of a person towards himself. A person who has a high regard for himself probably holds a high and healthy self-esteem, on the contrary, a person who has a negative regard for himself probably holds a low self-esteem. In addition, self–esteem is defined as a personal judgment of self and a sense of worth, (Alford, cited by Zakeri and Karimpour, 2011). According to Marion (2007), self-esteem has three building blocks: (a) competence, (b) control, and (c) worth.

Competence

Competence is the ability to meet the standards of achievement, (Marion, 2007). A child who thinks “I can do it” holds a high sense of competence. The child has a belief in his capability to address and complete tasks that he encounters daily. He acknowledges that a task can be accomplished with the use of his effort and does not wish for it. Competence is essential in a child as it will help him efficiently face challenges and new experiences without the fear of failing. If the child accomplishes the task with his effort and hard work, the child develops a positive and healthy self-esteem.

Control

If a child knows that he dominates the result of his tasks, he has a sense of control. Control is when the child thinks that he is responsible for how things will turn out (Marion, 2007). When the child is allowed to manipulate the task on his own, and this manipulation results in something good, This instance will increase the child’s positive regard for his capabilities hence increasing the child’s self-esteem.

Worth

Marion (2007) defined “worth” as the general sense of a person’s value and significance to others. This aspect supports the development of self-respect and love of self. If a person considers himself as someone significant, being respected, and accepted, a high and healthy self-esteem will be developed.

These three building blocks are the components that affect the development of self-esteem. A low sense of competence, control, and worth will probably lead to damaged self-esteem. In the early years, if a child develops damaged self-esteem, he may also develop a shaky foundation for learning other aspects of development (Marion, 2007)

These three building blocks play a critical role in the development of self-esteem.

The significance of the development of self-esteem is undeniable. Rosenberg (1965) cited that self-esteem may bring a positive or negative orientation of oneself. A healthy self-esteem may contribute to a person’s functionality in society. Also, taking into consideration that self-esteem is the evaluation of oneself, a negative development of it will probably affect a person’s mood and often lead to feelings of vulnerability, depression, feeling of hopelessness, and worst, may trigger the thought of committing suicide (Harper, cited by Wolff, 2000). Hence, the development of positive self-esteem is very crucial for it holds an enduring effect on the total development of a person.

Parental Influences on Self-esteem

Self-esteem is said to start its development during the early years of life, as the child begins to comprehend and make meaning of himself and his environment, but how is self-esteem developed in the early years? According to Alford (1997), self-esteem is a personal judgment of self that is based upon “externally exposed criteria” which are the social judgments, assumptions, and perceptions of the environment. In addition, Carl Roger’s Humanistic theory highlighted the thought that a person’s “growth” is influenced by his environment especially his early social environment, the family. A family that sets a secure, accepting, and open environment aids a child’s healthy development of self-perception (Wolff, 2000). Similarly, Bowlby’s Attachment Theory also emphasizes the importance of parental involvement in the developing child. He stated that parents who are present, sensitive to the feelings of their children, and responsive, and secure attachment, are most likely to develop a child with high esteem. On the other hand, if the child feels danger and fearful of the parent, there is a probability that a child develops low self-esteem that may lead to certain disorders.

Moreover, according to Cooley, (cited by Wolff, 2000), “ideal self” and the “perception of self” are integral in the development of a child’s self-esteem. He stated that the “perception of self” is the child’s evaluation of his strengths and weaknesses, while the “ideal self” is the standards set by the child’s most significant social environment. In his analogy, the smaller the discrepancy between the perception of self and the ideal self, the higher the development of self-esteem, on the other hand, the bigger the discrepancy, the lower the self-esteem.

Various studies identified the family as the most significant social environment during preschool age. Consequently, the development of self-esteem is highly influenced by the way the family, especially the parents, interacts with their children. In Dorothy Brigg’s (1975) Analogy of “House of Self”, she discussed how parental relationship contributes to the development of a child’s self-esteem. She identified the three levels of self-esteem:

• (a) Low self-esteem: a result of the child’s feeling that he has been neglected by his parents.
• (b) Middle self-esteem: the child’s level of performance is the predictor of parental intimacy.
• (c) High self-esteem: if the child feels the parents’ unconditional love and acceptance, then the child develops high self-esteem.

In reflection of Briggs’ Analogy of “House of Self”, parental interaction has a significant effect on the child’s development of self-esteem, not only their interaction but as well as their attitude towards their developing child. Wolff (2000) concluded in his study about the influence of parenting style on self-esteem that the quality of relationships and the level of acceptance determines the level of self-esteem that may progress. In his study, it was reflected that a high acceptance and psychological autonomy progressed into a more positive self-esteem. Another study was conducted by Akcinar and Shaw (2017) that resulted in an almost similar result. A non-coercive parental guidance increases the sense of self-worth and self-esteem of a child. Hence, if the child is being warmly supported by his parents, then more likely, self-esteem will be developed positively.

Positive Parenting

Considering parental interaction as the most crucial factor in establishing self-esteem, the question of how takes place. Being an effective parent to a child becomes increasingly challenging especially as the child discovers more about himself. There is no absolute answer to the question of “how to become a parent” taking into consideration that parents have varied attitudes toward their child’s behavior. But, reflecting on the claims stated above, positive parenting resulted in a more positive self-esteem compared to a more coercive one. Positive Parenting is focused on developing a strong, deeply committed relationship between a parent and child based on communication and mutual respect. Positive Parenting focuses on teaching the children not just what but also the why (Harvey, 2015). Harvey pointed out three major points on Positive Parenting:

Deeply Committed Relationship

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory highlights the importance of securing an attached relationship with the child. Thus, the parent-child relationship must reflect parental empathy and responsiveness. If the parents create a strong bond with their child, the child will have an increased sense of self-worth. Also, Briggs’ House of Self emphasized the value of “unconditional love” coming from the parent. Chew (2011) in his study of the relationship between parenting style and self-esteem concluded that responsiveness and support enhance the child’s concept of competence and worth. Hence, if the child feels that he is a significant individual to his parents, then he will have a positive evaluation of himself.

Communication

James and Cooley’s Theory of self-esteem reflected the importance of communication in the parent-child relationship. If the parents effectively communicated with their child and properly explained the reason behind setting rules and parental feelings without a high sense of intrusion, it would create a guided evaluation of the child’s self. “I-Messages” are a good way of communicating with the child wherein the parent effectively delivers his or her feelings towards the child’s behavior, and what was the effect of the behavior, (Heath 2013). In this way, the child will constructively evaluate himself and can comprehend what he needs to work on to be more effective. In this way, the child may still be given control over the situation.

Mutual Respect

The child is an existing person, hence, the child has as well a mind of his own. Parents often neglect the capacity of the child to decide about what he wants to do, and dialogue with what he wants. Erikson’s Psychosocial theory emphasizes on the importance of the developing child during the preschool age, wherein the child develops his sense of initiative and autonomy. The sad reality of “development” is the parent mostly commands the child on what he “can” do, and thus impedes the maximum development and can create doubt about the child’s actual competence. Akcinar and Shaw (2017) stressed the point that if the parent respects that their child is in a developing phase, they can gain more understanding of the child and can functionally support the child without taking control of the situation. Hence, supporting the child’s growth on positive self-esteem.

Therefore, some experts designed strategies that promote positive parenting. This is the summary of the suggested strategies for positive parenting:

1. Create a democratic dialogue with your child
2. Be involved, create a positive relationship
3. Understand that your child undergoes changes
4. Set boundaries and explain “why”
5. Encourage good behavior
6. Have realistic expectations and true judgments
7. Be an active listener to your child

Reflection

Self-esteem undeniably plays a major role in the development of the person. Its effect may not be immediate but it becomes more transparent as the child develops into an adult. If the self-esteem had been damaged, it would have serious results on the adult. His functionality in society may be affected, and the worst thing is when the adult loses trust and interest in himself. Sadly, many are not educated about the importance of self-esteem and how parenting style affects its development. I have informally talked to multiple parents on what is their view of their “developing child”. A portion of them mentioned that their child is “careless” and thus needs to be directed on what to do. Some of them view their child as a nuisance. On the other hand, parents coming from a low-income family, do not prioritize the growth of their child, they prioritize more on how the child will “properly behave” and “help” them with their family situation. Hence, affects their parent-child relationship. When asked of the child confidence, one parent of mine answered that “Bahala na siya teacher, lagi na lang takot, nauubusan nako ng pasensya”. The emotion and negative attitude of the parent are very transparent on her face. It made me reflect, did the parent ever ask the child what he is afraid of? How much effort did the parent use to encourage the child to go out of his comfort zone? And did the parent reflect on what triggered the behavior?

On the contrary, some parents shared their excitement as they recounted the development of their children, and how they reacted to it. It is somehow uplifting that many parents also take seriously the welfare of their children and consider them as significant individuals. It is great to think that many parents are ready to support their children and whatever they want to be. I even encountered parents who enthusiastically shared how they process their child whenever their child committed wrongdoings. I also observed these children on how they interact with others. I have taken into account that those children from parents who took over parental control, act carefully, as if they do not want to commit any mistakes. On the contrary, those children coming from a more supportive parent move carelessly and are not afraid to commit mistakes.

I view the preschool age as the “magical” stage of the child, for it is the perfect stage wherein the child’s metamorphosis may start. I have always taken into consideration how adult affects this “metamorphosis”, most especially how it affects the socio-emotional “metamorphosis” of the child. On a personal account, as a child, I was always fascinated with the things around me but then hesitated to try things because I was very afraid of pain. Yet my grandmother always allows me to explore, reflect, and react to things. She did not just support me but also assured me that whenever I felt pain, she would always be there for me. I can say that I have been blessed that I had a grandmother who supported me along the way, and so, I can reflect that self-esteem had been well–established. I can say that I have been transformed into a more explorative individual.

The developing child often seeks support, especially from the parents. Taking into consideration that there are a multitude of parents who are unaware that their actions create a huge impact on their child, especially on the development of self-esteem. Parents, parents-to-be, or those who are planning to be parents should be mindful of the development and changes of their children. Parents should maximize their influence to promote the healthy well-being of the child, and thus educate themselves on what are the best strategies they can adopt to properly guide their children. “There is no perfect recipe for parenting” indeed, yet, if the parents are aware of their developing child, parents may consider positive parenting and design a parenting style that will effectively aid their developing children without compromising the child’s interest.

Lastly, as teachers, it is our job to support effective parenting or secure one if the parents fail to do so. As the second most influential in a preschool’s life, we can fill in the gap if the parents fail to secure a healthy welfare for the child. Grounded by theories and studies, a teacher should also be equipped with positive discipline inside the classroom, which is equal to positive parenting at home. At the end of the day, our priority is the welfare of the child, and how we can create a long-term impact on their life.

References:

1. Heath, P. (2013). Parent–Child Relations: Context, Research, and Application (3rd Edition). New Jersey, USA
2. Marian, M. (2007). Guidance of Young Children, 7th Edition. Person Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. 0-13-154530-2
3. Akcinar, B. and Shaw, D. S. (2017). Independent Contributions of Early Positive Parenting and Mother-Son Coercion on Emerging Social Development. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev Journal. Springer Science, LLC
4. Chiew, L.Y. ( 2011). A Study Of Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem: Self-Esteem’s Indicator- Parenting Styles. University Tunku Abdul Rahman (faculty of arts and social science).
5. Akcinar, Berna & Shaw, Daniel. (2018). Independent Contributions of Early Positive Parenting and Mother–Son Coercion on Emerging Social Development. Child Psychiatry & Human Development. 49. 331-491. 10.1007/s10578-017-0758-4.
6. Wolff, J. (2000). Self-esteem: The influence of parenting style. Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1535
7. Leidy, M., Guerra, N., and Toro, I. (2010). Positive Parenting, Family Cohesion, and Child Social Competence Among Immigrant Latino Families. Journal on Family Psychology. American Psychological Association
8. Zakeri H., and Karimpour, M. (2011). Parenting Styles and Self-esteem. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811027637
9. Hendry. E. (2016). Positive Parenting: ISPCAN Global Resource Guide. IPSCAN, Australia
10. Cid. A, Balsa, A. and Antonaccio V. (2017). Positive Parenting: Babies and Toddlers Group-based Parental Intervention. University of Montevado, Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84873/

Child abuse is a global issue and refers to any form of neglect, physical or psychological abuse, sexual abuse, and so on. Child abuse has long-term well-being and mental fitness effects. Children who are victims of mistreatment have a higher risk of being the perpetrator of such forms of abuse later in life, a concept referred to as the ‘cycle of violence’. Abuse experienced in the initial stages of life may impact children in various ways including increasing the incidence of post-traumatic stress or learning that harming and hurting others is normal. Furthermore, physically abused children fail to learn essential social cues or misinterpret such cues as hostile situations. Abused children who came through any form of stigmatization are also more likely to avoid such negative states by replacing the shame with offense and sadness which increases their engagement in violent behaviors. Also, abused children be overwhelmed by unfavorable emotions like dissatisfaction, anger, and frustration which easily results in violent and criminal actions. Overall, child abuse boosts the risk of engaging in violent or delinquent altitude.

Child abuse increases the descent of dissociative behaviors and adverse childhood experience which increase an individual engagement in violent behaviors. Dissociation manners result in the disruption of normal functions including perception identity, motor control, perception identity, and consciousness, and is regarded as a risk factor in the progress of violent or aggressive behaviors (Altintas and Bilici 103). On the other hand, traumatic experiences increase the growth of dissociative symptoms, for example, parental separation or divorce, low income, family dysfunction, incarceration of family members, and substance abuse. For example, the study by Altintas and Bilici observed that earlyhood trauma from sexual abuse victims and engagement in violent crimes was extremely high among female inmates while a criminal background encompassing aspects such as substance use, frequent convictions, and childhood traumatization events were more common among male inmates (103). The above outcomes may be explained by general strain theory, an individual and socio-psychological theory explaining the association between crime and delinquency. At the center of the general strain theory is the belief that negative relationships with other people and negative experiences result in a strain in an individual which must be managed (Asscher et al. 215). Three sources of strains were identified including failure to achieve positively valued goals, the threat or removal of valid stimuli that the actor possessed, and the presentation of a negatively valued stimulus such as abuse (Asscher et al. 215). Child abuse results in a strain of negative stimuli such as frustration, anger, depression, and resentment which ultimately results in violent behavior especially when no corrective action is taken to alleviate the displeasure in unfavorable emotions (Asscher et al. 215). The general strain theory also indicates that males and females respond differently to child abuse as revealed by the findings of Altintas and Bilici.

Child abuse results in trauma which significantly impairs the psychological and biological aspects with violence being used as a stimulus to deal with internal feelings. The study by Fox et al. revealed that children who were jailed as serious violent and chronic offenders had adverse childhood experiences and were most likely exposed to numerous traumatic events including having a jailed parent, physical and emotional abuse, household mental illness, and substance abuse as well as witnessing falling of household violence (168). These practices significantly affected their biological and psychological development. Similarly, “adolescent girls who report more severe histories of childhood emotional abuse engage in significantly higher frequencies of aggressive manners than those with lower levels of emotional abuse” (Auslander et al. 356). “The link between aggressive actions and childhood experiences was mediated by both PTSD and depression” (Auslander et al. 356)

Exposure to greater levels of trauma affects the biological and psychological aspects of development resulting in poor outcomes. Children who were victims of abuse have a higher chance to show detrimental outcomes compared to children who lived normal lives and have more incidences of psychopathology. Trauma affects the biological and psychological growth of the child by causing neural impairment to some of the key regulatory processes associated with overall well-being. Trauma is indicated in causing chromosome damage to the chromosomes and overall brain structure and as a consequence results in functional changes in the brain (Shalev et al. 578). Stressful events related to adverse childhood experiences heighten the neural state resulting in the release of adrenal steroids, amino acids, growth hormones, and other stress chemicals in an effort to counter the event. Such signals have a beneficial effect when released in the short term. However, when the signal is prolonged the resulting chemical response due to the ongoing stress load associated with child abuse results in an allostatic load which may result in destructive behavioral and physiological responses. As a result of the different psychological and neurological changes that occur in the brain, the kid may become prone to violence in a number of different forms. First, the physiological changes from the load may result in the release of stress through violent means. Also, most children do not accept the expressed symptoms and may find it more difficult in expressing feelings related to anger which may dramatically affect emotional behavior.

Children who are exposed to adverse childhood experiences are more expected to engage in healthy risky behaviors. Some common risky behaviors that abused kids are more possibly to engage in include substance abuse, delinquency as well as engaging in violent behaviors. The cumulative risk theory explains the increased engagement in violent or other risk problems especially between abused children. The theory said that the number of adverse events a child becomes exposed to determines their engagement in risky behaviors with each multiple exposure resulting in a poorer outcome. Multiple child abuse incidence or adverse experiences including neglect and domestic abuse and correspond to a higher risk in health behaviors. People who came through adverse childhood events in their life are more likely to engage in different risk behaviors. Consistent findings have also been observed among adolescents. For example, Garrido et al. reported a direct association between the number of adverse childhood experience and their engagement in various risky behaviors. For example, each additional adverse event was linked with a 48% increase in engagement in delinquency, 24% growth in violence, and 50% in substance abuse (Garrido et al. 669). Considering that adverse events do not happen in isolation, children are more likely to be affected by multiple adverse effects at the same time affecting their overall engagement in risky behaviors (Garrido et al. 669).

Being in child abuse may be a predictor of criminal activities. There is a general belief that adverse immaturity experiences normally result in negative health events. Engagement in criminal behavior is commonly measured through various approaches including psychopathy, measures of risk as well as criminal history. Several affective and interpersonal characteristics such as shallow affect, hardness as well as antisocial behaviors include criminal versatility. Theobald et al. observed that men who committed intimate partner violence reported low scores compared to every facet of psychopathy compared to men who had violent convictions only despite both parties revealing an incidence of childhood experiences (1690). Similarly, evidence gathered by Hilton et al. reports that individuals who report greater adverse childhood backgrounds may still show lower criminal propensity on average as compared to the average offenders (15). However, the above findings indicated that intimate partner violence may not be accurately predicted since there the data provided was insufficient and there was a need to carry out extra research.

Diverse types of child abuse may result in being in risky behaviors. Child abuse or maltreatment contains assumptions such as engaging in harm. Each type of child abuse or maltreatment has its own specific result and the effects of kid maltreatment differ based on an individual’s race or sex. There are researchers that argue that not all ways of child mistreatment will directly result in engagement in risky behaviors by saying that there is no one specific way that can provide the exact issue of child maltreatment. Although not all styles of child abuse may directly result in increased violent incidence increased engagement in any form of child abuse, especially forms involving any physical or psychological aspect may also increase violent incidences. For example, social learning may be one of the forms that increase violence and abuse increasing chances of an individual learning the behavior either through imitation, observation, and reinforcement and also serving to engage in the behavior after punishments. Since learning normally occurs through direct experience, increased use of aggressive manners among children results in a response that uses the same direct or indirect experience in attaining a specific reward. For example, such rewards may be attained in an approach that requires the use of violence.

Child abuse and maltreatment may also affect normal emotional processing and development. Youngers who have a history of being mistreated are more reasonable to show fewer positive emotions and more negative feelings. In addition, such children may also have difficulty predicting the results of their behaviors due to their disability in emotional processing since their life mostly complied with bad feelings. Abused kids have higher chances of showing antisocial behavior and high levels of inciting to actions which may be a result of inhibiting multi urges and pre-potent behaviors Impulsivity may also be a result of a lack of judgment and foresight as well as increased emphasis on shortsighted quick behaviors. Impulsivity contributes to anti-social behavior by lowering regard for any ways of negative social behavior, heightening response to any form of threat, difficulties in regulating emotions in tough circumstances, and reducing levels of gratification (Thibodeau et al. 1622). Ultimately, high levels of impulsivity promote aggression which when governed by emotional acts increases engagement in violent behaviors.

Child abuse remains widespread across different parts of the world. Similar forms of child abuse may involve emotional or psychological. From the outcomes provided, child abuse or maltreatment may increase engagement in violent behaviors in different ways. First, child abuse raises dissociative behaviors which over time strain an individual to find a way of releasing the strain. One common approach to releasing negative effects such as temper and gloominess is through engagement in violent behaviors. Secondly, child abuse promotes trauma and depression which have both biological and psychological effects on the brain with the most common effect being the accumulation of the allostatic load and its release. Child abuse may engage in other risky behaviors accumulatively. Increased impulsivity and antisocial behavior in young ones are associated with child abuse too. Some studies reported an indirect association between child abuse and violent behavior by revealing studies that reported no links while other studies revealed that unsimilar types of child mistreatment or maltreatment may be associated with increased incidence of violent behavior. More studies should focus on the identification of methods that could cut the effects of child abuse. Also, more studies should emphasize the unfavorable effects of child mistreatment in violent behaviors.

Child discipline is probably the least fun part of parenting. It can be frustrating, discouraging, and exhausting. It is one of the most common and hardest challenges of parenthood. But there’s a distinction between discipline and punishment. Discipline is the practice of coaching someone to behave in accordance with rules or a code of conduct so they can adopt applicable future behavior. Punishment is inflicting pain on any individual for their past behavior. Parents use physical, disciplinary action or punishment to tell their children that they are not okay with some things done by the child.

When Mom or Dad bodily punished their kids it can be remembered as a physical attack, even if it is as meaningless as a spanning some point. Parents may additionally not be in a position to manipulate their energy and for sure harm their children. Children are weaker than adults and therefore, young humans are more prone to serious injuries. Moreover, from time to time, parents will punish their children with extra violent methods than spanking. For example, dads and moms may additionally go as far as to beating their children with weapons. In addition, bodily punishment can purposely create emotional and intellectual problems in children. Mere spanking can depart its mark on them for the duration of their lives. If adolescents are physically punished, they may additionally sense rejection by their parents. Likewise, these young people ought to build despair or hatred towards their parents.

Similarly, Mom and Dad can suffer emotionally and psychologically. For example, after punishing their youngsters, parents might also feel that they are too extreme or cruel. Furthermore, youth who have been subjected to corporal punishment are greater likely to commit the same crimes in opposition to their teens in the future. Punishment is now not solely a worrying journey, however, might also lead to the kid’s desire to believe in the kindness of their parents, and his trip to security is based totally on the kindness of his parents. Therefore, as with many busy experiences, punishment can develop depression. Unfortunately, punishment teaches children that those with Power or Authority can pressure others to do something they want. And as they grow up and is capable, they will attempt to use this strain themselves, for example, to punish their children in the most painful way.

Parents use Technology to shelter their children. Thus preventing youngsters from making a fuss of any sort. This lack of self-discipline does not educate children to clear up problems, however, it deprives them of the instructions they need to learn. The contemporary parenting style is comparable to a prefabricated playground. Sheltering children and their aversion to aches or risk no longer allow them to analyze their experience. They use science as a managed refuge choice in addition to physical play and learning. This in itself is no longer as energetic in instilling values in children, however except parents are involved, it is plenty much less useful for children. With that said Parents have ended up increasingly more based on science to nurture their children, whether they understand it or not.

Being a Parent is not handy and children are not born with a manual. Therefore, finding out the right way to keep a child is very tricky. In addition, one of the most sophisticated elements to promote adolescence is discipline. It may additionally be hard for dad and mom to decide what to do when they should punish their youth. Parents may additionally be irritated at their kid’s behavior, or they might also mirror on whether or not to consider physical punishment. However, dads and moms should no longer use physical punishment to discipline their children. ‘Children are like flowers, if you take appropriate care of them, they will bloom. If disregarded or tortured, they will wither and die. Child self-control is one of the most important elements of worthwhile parenting.