Category: Child Labor

Abstract

In the developing, overpopulated countries, child labor is often institutionalized for economic reasons, further perpetuating multi-generational poverty. Indian law is not concerned with abolishing child labor and fails in regulating it while the children are exploited and harmed. Until eighteen years of age, the child cannot own their labor; therefore, parents may sell these labor rights or even their child. Moreover, fourteen is the minimum age for working in dangerous conditions, while in Nigeria and the Philippines the age is eighteen. The Nigerian legal instruments as to the worst forms of child labor, especially child trafficking, are in concert with international law; however, the problem of poverty needs to be further addressed. In the Philippines, though child labor laws are based on internationally accepted approaches, the penalization of victims occurs, as punishment for violations is imposed upon parents, further perpetuating the problem. In conclusion, child labor is a systemic issue, and the laws on child employment need to be reflective of it.

Introduction

Child labor is one of the crucial issues the world still faces today. International laws provide regulation of child employment; however, this paper argues that in developing countries the local legislature often is more permissible. Thus, the problem becomes institutionalized, and the cycle of poverty perpetuated. This paper will examine the legislature on the problem in developing countries such as India, the Philippines, and Nigeria by critically analyzing specific academic articles.

Child Labor Law in India: Ramanathans perspective

Usha Ramanathan in his 2016 article On Engaging with the Law: Revisiting Child Labour on the Indian child labor laws examines the inefficiency of the existing corpus juris in regulating the matter. Children in India work in shops, houses, and fields. They are employed in multiple workspaces and industries not regulated by law, as, for example, the begging on the street in India is commonly realized by children.

An Overview of Legislature

Ramanathan states that the Children (Pledging of Labour) Act (CLPRA) of 1933 presumes the capacity of a parent to pledge the labor of a child: a statement in law acknowledging that till majority (i.e., 18 years) a child cannot own even her own labor (2016, pp. 264-265). As a result, not only is the child unable to enter into a legal contract of employment, but the parents have the right to sell rights to the childs labor, or even to the child as a whole. The implications of the countrys economic need for the employment of children are thoroughly discussed, as are other factors, such as the public perception of the issue, and the population growth problem in the context of poverty.

The Mechanics of the Law and the Institutionalization of Child Labor

Next, Ramanathan discusses the mechanics of law and stresses that neither the Indian Constitution, nor the CLPRA is concerned with the abolition of child labor, but of merely the hazardous aspects of it (2016). The poverty of the Indian population, therefore, contributes to the fact that the law does not see the phenomenon as a problem. Discussing the prohibition aspect, the author explains why the laws and their revisions have been ineffective in regulating child employment in hazardous conditions, and how the legal definitions are enabling the exploitation of children. The aspect of the legal system failing those employed in industries not regulated by law, and, thus, victimized, is thoroughly addressed with cases examples included.

Discussion

To sum up, Ramanathan sees the need for abolition of child labor in India, though they are more concerned with elucidating the childrens condition than the mechanics of the Indian legal system. The Indian scholar sees a lack of pragmatism in the laws enumerated in the article and finds them dehumanizing. Ramanathan cohesively links the roles poverty, employment in the family business, and illiteracy play in the extent of the problem; however, the strength of his argument is undermined by the use of slang.

Ali and Khan on Overcoming Child Labor in India

Hasnaim Ali and Mr. Samsuddin Khan in their 2012 article The Overcoming of Child Labour in India: In Perspective of Constitutional and Legislative Framework, attempt to examine the existing body of laws on the issue. The Constitution is stated to be effective in safeguarding the children who work, and the corresponding Articles are enumerated; however, in contrast with the previous scholar, the authors fail to notice that it allows the problem to persist. The only Article that is concerned with age merely states that no children under the age of fourteen shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment (Ali&Khan, 2012, p.84). Addressing other legislative provisions, among them CLPRA, they enumerate the ways these Acts regulate child employment and protection of young workers. Once again, the Indian authors are unclear in their discussion, and repeatedly stress that the existing laws are successful in securing the childrens health and well-being. However, as seen in the previous article, it is not the case.

Causes of Child Labor

Next, Ali and Khan focus on the causes of the phenomenon. Once again, poverty, overpopulation, and customs are cited to be the case. More importantly, they address the issues of industrialization, government apathy, and insufficient enforcement of the legislation as well. Strikingly, the authors then blame the children for these issues, stating that these are mostly silent listeners or non-listeners of the policies and programs meant for them and hence, their problems are not properly realized (Ali&Khan, 2012, p.86). One might think, then, that the scholars would like these poor, uneducated children to be more active in raising the issues they have no control over. The notion is all the more absurd, as further on in the article the authors discuss the harmful impact of labor on children, naming the section Challenges.

Legislative Efforts Aimed at Combating the Problem

The authors then continue with the present scenario and legislative efforts both international, such as those adopted by the UN, and local, such as the 1987 National policy on child labor. National Human Rights Commission is stated to be concerned with the working childrens lack of access to education. However, the scholars are mostly declarative in these sections of the paper and are not concerned with adopting a more pragmatic approach and demonstrating whether or not these efforts had any effects on the persistence of the problem in India.

Discussion

The authors introduce their work in an unscholarly manner; moreover, the document contains numerous mistakes in using the English language. Ali and Khan fail to critically approach the notion of institutionalization of child labor in India, merely stating that the phenomenon is widespread. To sum up, therefore, the scholars main failing consists in not addressing the possibility of the abolishment of child labor, as they see the phenomenon as necessary; moreover, they place the blame on the working children.

Worst Forms of Child Labour in Nigeria

Nwazuoke and Igwe in their 2016 article Worst Forms of Child Labour in Nigeria: An Appraisal of International and Local Legal Regimes aim to identify main concerns with the issue. Additionally, they present a comprehensive study of international and local legal instruments against child labor (Nwazuoke & Igwe, 2016, p. 69). The authors examine the worst forms of child labor as defined by international and local legal instruments, and identify their causes and consequences. It is worth noting that under Nigerian law, the child is taken to mean a person under 18 years of age, not 14 as in India.

The Legal Instruments

The International Labor Organization (ILO) thus enumerates the worst forms of child labor: slavery in all its forms, prostitution and related activities, other illicit activities such as those related to drugs, and any form of work that may harm the morals, health or safety of the child. Nwazuoke and Igwe, then, comprehensively analyze the legal instruments concerned with the trafficking of children, such as the Palermo Protocol and the 2003 Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Law, Enforcement and Administration Act, and the Childs Rights Act of the same year. As trafficking presents a significant problem in all of Africa, the scholars thoroughly discuss the legal implications for the guilty party, as well as the obligations of the state. Concerning child slavery and prostitution, they thoroughly cite the corresponding forms of punishment, such as terms of imprisonment and fines.

Causes of Child Labor in Nigeria

As to the causes of child labor, the authors address the problem of poverty and the high rate of unemployment in Nigeria. As to the lack of education, Nwazuoke and Igwe stress that the regions where between 60%  70% of child labor is prevalent, do not possess adequate school facilities (2016, p. 79). Citing harmful cultural practices, such as rationalizing child labor as character-building, they address the issue of gender discrimination and child neglect as well. Specific consequences of child labor, thoroughly enumerated by the authors, include injury, death, disability, sexual abuse, and the perpetuation of poverty and crime.

Discussion

Moreover, Nigerian laws offer better protection of children as to the forms of employment that are likely to be harmful to their morals, health, and safety. This notion is all the more significant, as the article by Ali and Khan states that in India those over 14 years of age are allowed to work, for example, in a mine. Using a pragmatic approach, Nwazuoke & Igwe propose specific recommendations to the state, citing the need for appropriate training and adequate facilities for the law enforcement agents, and an enhancement in travel security measures aimed at combating child trafficking. The scholars are, unfortunately, brief as to the proposed measures of reducing poverty, choosing instead to address the issue of human trafficking further.

Child Labor Law in the Philippines

In her 2016 article Eradication of Child Labor in the Philippines: Shifting the Financial Burden of Child Labor Law Violations from Parents to Employers, Ju focuses on the effects of Republic Act No.9231 (Act) on combating the problem of child exploitation. In implementing the principal international conventions, the act establishes the minimum age of employment as fifteen, prohibits those under the age of eighteen from engaging in the worst forms of child labor, and establishes penalties for violation of the corresponding laws for both parents and employers (Ju, 2016, p. 178).

Emphasizing the Domestic Context

Next, the problem in its global context is succinctly addressed, as are its adverse effects on the underage laborers health, education perspectives, and personal development. By employing research and statistics, the scholar finds that eight percent of the countrys children between five and seventeen years of age were engaged in child labor in 2011 (Ju, 2016, p. 183). Most of these worked in the agricultural or service sector, however under six percent were employed in dangerous industries, such as gold mining (Ju, 2016). Next, the author provides an examination of the links between poverty and interrupted education, the latter being crucial in perpetuating the generational aspect of the former.

Penalizing the Victim

The second section of Jus paper elucidates the reader on the legal framework that governs the phenomenon both globally and in the domestic context, via a thorough examination of international conventions and the way the Act successfully implements these. However, stressing the poverty of a significant part of the population, Ju finds the schedule of penalties on parents and employers who violate child labor provisions aspect of the Act detrimental to tackling the issue of child labor, as it imposes additional financial burdens on the already struggling parents, while penalties for employers are marginally higher (Ju, 2016, p. 191). Additionally, as the provision includes imprisonment as a form of punishment, the victim is further penalized. In the conditions of poverty, child labor is an additional source of income for the family, more so in the case of losing a parent due to incarceration.

Discussion

Providing a strong argument, Ju proposes that the penalties imposed by the Act on parents should be eliminated, and those for the employees should be appropriately raised, taking into account the worst forms of child labor as well. The scholar is thorough in substantiating their claim, citing statistics, and presenting a relevant case analysis. The author is thorough in elucidating the influence of multi-generational poverty on the phenomenon in the Philippines, citing a lack of education of both parents and children as crucial in perpetuating it. Most importantly, Ju addresses the aspect of global supply chains as perpetuating child labor in the growing economy, while the Indian scholars fail to address the issue.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research has examined the problem of child labor in the developing countries and the role the corresponding legal instruments play in combating or sustaining it. Based on the critical analysis of the Indian articles, one could conclude that child labor is institutionalized in the country, and not every scholar sees the need for its abolishment. The Filipino laws, meanwhile, penalize the victim, thus contributing to the perpetuation of multi-generational poverty and further exploitation of children. Therefore, there exists a need for changes in the legislatures of these two countries. In Nigeria, poverty and lack of access to education perpetuate the problem; however, the scholars see the need for combating the worst forms of child labor as crucial. In conclusion, child labor is a systemic issue, and the law-makers need to view it as such.

References

Ali, H., & Khan, M. S. (2012). The Overcoming of Child Labour in India: In Perspective of Constitutional and Legislative Framework. Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research, 1(3), 84-85. Web.

Ju, D. (2016). Eradication of Child Labor in the Philippines: Shifting the Financial Burden of Child Labor Law Violations from Parents to Employers. George Washington International Law Review, 49, 175-203. Web.

Nwazuoke, A. N., & Igwe, C. A. (2016). Worst Forms of Child Labour in Nigeria: An Appraisal of International and Local Legal Regimes. Beijing Law Review, 7, 69-82. Web.

Ramanathan, U. (1998). On Engaging with the Law: Revisiting Child Labour. The Indian Law Institute. Journal of the Indian Law Institute, 40(1/4), 263-283. Web.

During the past century, child labor has been increasingly viewed critically, despite it having been widely practiced throughout human history. As such, the civilized world has been increasingly attempting to eradicate it. Therefore, the question is raised: what improvements could be made in combating the problem of child labor across the world? Possible answers to this question include the development of a more effective inspection system, health insurance interventions, and a greater collective social effort, all of which can be seen to bring positive changes to the current existing issue. These thesis statements will serve as the framework for the development of the argument of this paper, and their evaluation will offer a comprehensive conclusion.

Development of the Argument

Overview of the Problem of Child Labor

Alongside other socio-economic issues, the phenomenon of child labor possesses a stronger ethical concern because the use of underage individuals for work directly contradicts modern standards of care for children. Even though efforts to eliminate child labor can be seen as largely successful, given this phenomenon is much less present in developed modern countries today, the practice of putting children to work can still be found in the majority of developing countries. As it is mentioned by Landmann and Frölich (2015), “child labor is a common consequence of economic shocks in developing countries” (p. 51). Therefore, the effects of the problem still persist.

It is also important to mention that child labor is a part of the larger concept of modern slavery, which is defined by Rodrigues (2017) in the following way. It constitutes

1. forced labor,
2. bonded labor,
3. bad conditions of work,
4. child labor, all of which are also generally characterized by the lack of liberty and dignity (p. 8).

It is apparent that the criticism of the practice of child labor is largely based on these ethical concerns. According to Thompson, Peteraf, Gamble, and Strickland (2018), child labor is mentioned among other unethical and destructive working practices as long working hours, hazardous work environments, and environmental degradation practices. After the establishment of the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 1947, major positive changes in the sphere of child labor began (Rodrigues, 2017). The effective abolition of child labor was among the most significant priorities of this organization (Rodrigues, 2017). To achieve this goal, it is essential to discuss particular approaches for decreasing the negative effects of child labor found in the scholarly literature on the topic.

Arguments in Support of the Thesis Statements

The Implementation of Inspections

The first evidence-based policy that could be implemented is labor inspections. This option appears to be quite obvious; however, it has a significantly positive impact on the eradication of child labor. This claim is based on the results of the study by De Almeida and Kassouf (2016), in which the authors utilized the two-stage least squares method to conduct their research. The findings of the research claim that “a 1% increase in inspections reduced the number of working children and adolescents in the 10-13, 14-15 and 16- 17 age ranges by 0.66%, 0.41%, and 0.08%, respectively” (De Almeida & Kassouf, 2016, p. 15). Overall, these numbers translate into 17,184 children over all three age groups being removed from work (De Almeida & Kassouf, 2016). Accordingly, it is possible to state that this practice is applicable and efficient.

Health Insurance Intervention

Secondly, it is of high significance to observe a very interesting approach that is proposed in the article by Landmann and Frölich (2015). In a randomized controlled trial in the Pakistani context, the authors exploited “the extension of a health and accident insurance scheme by a Pakistani microfinance institution,” accompanying their study with household panel surveys (Landmann & Frölich, 2015, p. 51).

The importance of the study’s insights is additionally determined by the fact that the researchers give particular attention to such factors as economic instability, economic shocks, the context of developing countries, and poor households, as they all have a considerable impact on the existence of child labor. Particularly, “the extension of voluntary health insurance coverage and regular visits sensitizing microcredit clients regarding claim procedures” are named as the most efficient policies (Landmann & Frölich, 2015, p. 59). In general, the findings of this article are considered robust enough to advise the implementation of this intervention in practice.

Participation of Civil Society

Another highly important policy that could be implemented in order to eradicate the negative effects of child labor, as well as the phenomenon under consideration as a whole, is the active participation of civil society. This could manifest itself in numerous forms, each being an effective instrument in combating child labor. For example, the importance of the press and mass media in contemporary modern society is highly evident, and thus social activists and journalists can have an immense impact on the current situation.

However, there is another more particular intervention mentioned in the study by Rodrigues (2017) that needs to be considered. This initiative is called the “dirty list” and, essentially, has the aim of creating a database of organizations that use child labor. Once it has been proven that companies are using underage workers in their manufacturing facilities, they can be exposed through this “dirty list” by means of TV or Internet information channels and would be expected to incur significant losses because their customers would not want to support such a company. The efficiency of this approach is evident, and it could be broadly implemented in various contexts and circumstances.

Other Perspectives on the Issue

In general, in our civilized world today, nobody would openly support the existence of child labor. However, there are other perspectives on this issue that are still subject to debate to a greater or lesser extent. For example, one of the most contradictory questions is the appropriate age at which to officially start work. Another perspective that is widely promoted states that child labor exists because parents with large families cannot provide for all of their family members, and thus it is normal that children should help support their family. While this assumption is true to some degree, it is still unacceptable for children to work in difficult conditions and degrading environments, and the additional issue of providing more comfortable workplaces in such circumstances is therefore raised.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while it is not pleasant to admit, child labor still exists in the modern world. However, the attitude of governments and societies is gradually changing toward the subject matter, as more and more people recognize that it is unethical to use children for work purposes. This paper provides a brief overview of the topic and proposes three approaches to tackle the issue, supported by the evidence from scholarly literature.

Additionally, alternative perspectives on the topic have also been discussed. Overall, this paper provides a critical investigation of a relevant, current subject matter that has to be improved. A more effective inspection system, health insurance interventions, and increased collective social effort are viewed as the most effective measures to be utilized in the fight against child labor.

References

De Almeida, R. B., & Kassouf, A. L. (2016). The effect of labor inspections on reducing child labor in Brazil. In Anais do XLIII Encontro Nacional de Economia[Proceedings of the 43rd Brazilian Economics Meeting] (No. 238). ANPEC- Associação Nacional dos Centros de Pós-Graduação em Economia [Brazilian Association of Graduate Programs in Economics].

Landmann, A., & Frölich, M. (2015). Can health insurance help prevent child labor? An impact evaluation from Pakistan. Journal of Health Economics, 39, 51-59.

Rodrigues, M. P. C. (2017). Compliance with labor standards: Measuring theeffectiveness of policies against child labor and modern slavery in Brazil. Web.

Thompson, A. A., Peteraf, M. A., Gamble, J. E., & Strickland, A. (2018). Crafting andexecuting strategy: The quest for competitive advantage: Concepts and cases (21st. Ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

The modern world

Michael Thomas Sadler is the author of the text. England began its journey into industrialization in 1800, and by 1900, industrialization had reached rural enclaves in England. One of the early reformers at that time was Michael Sadler; he had a poor background and understood how the poor were suffering in England. Although England was not fully ready for this kind of revolution, the change exposed various issues that have been in England over the years.

The rate at which children were used for labor in factories was alarming, and Michael could not afford to stop this trend until he was elected to the House of Commons. He served to the house bills against child labor, which seek to enact policies to stop child labor in Britain (The Sadler Report).

The report of Sadler as Chairman of the committee hearing on child labor was one among the many fights Sadler championed during his stay in the House of Commons. Sadler wanted to end child labor; he used the hearing to expose to the world the hazards these children faced while working to earn a living. Sadler used the opportunity to call for a social reform policy that should enlist children into insurance schemes that will cater to them.

The argument was that these children were being exploited and the situation was worse than what they know. Social reforms at that time were not accepted by the authorities in England due to the inequality margin. Sadler used the testimonies of these children to make a case for them and change history on their behalf.

Arguments from the text

Sadler used the hearing to educate the members of the House of Commons on how these children were treated at work. He used the opportunity to make a strong case against child labor, and the challenges children encountered while working at the mill.

The arguments were that these children suffered while working for their country just to make a living, and the elites did not see the need for social reforms. The House of Commons was moved beyond doubt by the testimonies of the little children. At the end of the hearing, they came up with some strong points that formed the basis of a bill against child labor. Sadler proposed that owners of factories and mills would be prosecuted or fined should there be cases of accidents with these children.

He pointed out that negligence on the part of the owners accounted for the rate of accidents in the factories. Another point raised was the number of hours that these children are forced to work. Sadler pointed out that children under the ages of eight and below were not permitted to work and if they should work in any mill, it has to be for six working hours. Sadler believed that this would give the children time to make use of other educational institutions in society (The Sadler Report).

The text showed the transformation process of England at that time. It was a time when the industrial revolution was just gaining speed. In addition, the dependency on individual labor was fading away. By the end of the nineteenth century, England’s revolution had reached its peak. Industrialization is the process whereby a country or nation evolves from farming and crop production into the production of goods and services. The text from Sadler’s report provided the answers on how the revolt for industrialization started in England.

Reference

The Sadler Report: Child labor in the United Kingdom. (2009). Pearson Education, Inc. Web.

Economic problems and social injustice are often interconnected in developing countries. A child labor social worker in a Southern country might face various cases of abuse of children’s rights because minors often work in unfair and unhealthy conditions in these states. The absence of governmental supervision contributes to child exploitation and the overall aggravation of conditions of children’s life (Payne, 2021). The immediate family cannot help these children; in most cases, parents make their children work to provide for themselves due to poverty. Due to the complex nature of this problem, there is a critical need to introduce a plan that opposes child labor on all levels, including individual, communal, and state.

The reasons that lead to the exploitation of child labor are connected with more general problems in the country, including poverty and lack of social mobility. The root of the situation on the individual level is that the family cannot provide for their children, who need to start working when they are still young (Payne, 2021). There is not enough food for all children in the family, and the responsibility for survival is on the child instead of their parents. The second root of the problem is the level of the community. Children do not have opportunities for education and personal growth, their families often neglect them, and society does not control this situation. Child labor is regarded as an acceptable situation due to the dominant cultural context in the particular community (Payne, 2021). For instance, when the generation of adult people used to work from their earliest childhood, they did not think that there was a problem with child labor. Their children also operate when they can do something and receive payment for their services.

There are no regulations prohibiting child labor in the country, and it is a problem on the governmental level. The state does not guarantee children education, food, and shelter, so they have to find ways to survive. At the same time, children are among the most vulnerable categories of people in society (Payne, 2021). Without state supervision and protection, they are abused regularly, and unhealthy work conditions illustrate this point.

It is essential to develop a plan of action that might help achieve social justice for children laboring in this country in unhealthy, unfair conditions. One possible intervention at the state level of social work practice is implementing legislation protecting children’s rights. It is vital to start from the state level because it is the guarantee that controls the conditions of life of minors in families. Moreover, the state should provide opportunities for children to develop, including compulsory education (Payne, 2021). State officials and social workers should ensure that all children in the country receive a school education and do not work instead of learning. In addition, state regulations will control the conditions of life in families and help those parents who cannot afford to buy all the necessary things for their children. The state program for helping children and for controlling their conditions life is the central point in implementing innovation in the developing country.

The problem of child labor should also be addressed on the community level. For example, people should start perceiving child exploitation as unacceptable, and these cultural changes require time. After decades of successful implementation of the plan at the state level, it is possible. It is critical to understand that changes in the community’s views on the problem of child labor are gradual and require much time (Payne, 2021). As mentioned, the immediate family often exploits the child’s work because adults cannot provide for them. The changes on the individual level require the assistance of social workers who supervise families living in extreme poverty conditions. They should also explain that child exploitation is unacceptable and control how the family follows these recommendations.

In all cases, solving the existing issues of child labor and exploitation requires a holistic approach due to the significant social injustices that lead to it. It is more effective to start by implementing changes on the state level because the government serves as the guarantee for the realization of the reforms. The community’s views on child labor will change with the time when all people understand that the exploitation of minors is unacceptable.

It is possible to hypothesize that crime is inevitable because it is the consequence of various reasons contributing to this situation. Criminal activity is higher in places where the population is poor, which emphasizes the direct connection between the level of well-being and the rate of breaking the law. For example, the inhabitants of the district where the immigrant population lives have a higher crime rate than the district where upper-middle-class families reside. Lack of social mobility does not allow people from immigrant neighborhoods to break the cycle of crime and punishment (Sue, 2016). They cannot often receive higher education because they have to support their families when they are adolescents. Criminal activity, including drug dealing, gives them more accessible options for earning money. In most cases, this illegal work ends with detention, which ruins the person’s subsequent life, depriving them of all career opportunities (Sue, 2016). As a result, the criminal activity becomes the only work that will give these people from poor social classes money and the opportunity to survive.

The measures that can stop the increase in criminal activity should target general problems of social inequality. Increasing social mobility is the key issue in helping people from poor and marginalized groups improve their quality of life (Sue, 2016). Therefore, it will improve the well-being of society in general. This situation influences the criminal rate directly, which means that crimes do not happen when most people are satisfied with their level of life.

Microaggressions are the problem that most people disregard, thinking that it is not essential. Though, it significantly impacts human interactions and personal psychological well-being. It can spoil relationships between people, lead to misunderstanding at the workplace, and lead to a nervous breakdown when the individual does not understand the ways of coping with microaggressions. For example, many people suppress their negative emotions every time they feel them, which can save their relationships with others at that particular moment. However, in the long-term perspective, it has multiple adverse consequences on communication and the psyche.

I started to understand that there is a more general reason behind my microaggressions than I used to think before learning. For instance, people often think they dislike a particular individual, but in reality, they share discriminatory views and attitudes they do not understand consciously. Racism, sexism, and lookism are among the most common examples of segregation that people do not analyze critically (Sernau, 2022). When they see the person does not correspond to the expected standards of beauty, they automatically think that this individual has negative character traits. The over-weighted woman is regarded as a lazy person who does not care for her health and beauty, which means she does not want to work. This example of the stereotypical perception of the person leads to microaggressions against her, including jokes or pieces of advice concerning her body shape. It is an example of the typical lookist perspective and microaggressions against a person who does not have a conventional appearance.

There are several critical steps I should take personally to stop microaggressions. First, it is vital to understand the reasons that make me think negatively about a particular person and to distinguish between the stereotypical perception of this individual and our actual conflicts (Sernau, 2022). Second, it is essential to control how I communicate with another person even when I have reasons to treat this individual this way. Being respectful in interactions with other people is crucial because sometimes minor details in the dialogue can seriously insult another individual. Third, I should develop empathy to avoid insulting another individual unintentionally in communication. It is difficult for the person to understand that they have stereotypical thinking that leads to a biased perception of others. Most people have prejudices about the surrounding reality and divide people into categories to simplify their thinking. These actions are the basis of microaggressions, and I need to control stereotypical thinking to improve my communicative skills and speak without insulting others.

References

Payne, M. (2021). Modern social work theory. Oxford University Press.

Sernau, S. (2022). Global problems: The search for equity, peace, and sustainability. Pearson.

Sue, G. W. (2016). Multicultural social work practice: A competency-based approach to diversity and social justice. Wiley.

Introduction

Across the globe, people enjoy wearing fashionable clothes and drinking coffee at cheap and affordable prices. However, while happily purchasing the items and services, they fail to imagine how such goods found their way to the stores. Someone somewhere made the garments and plucked the berries using cheap capital hence making them affordable. Child labor has been highlighted as one of the major ingredients in the production of such commodities in many countries thus denying children their right to education. A report by UNESCO shows the extent to which young kids and adolescents in Latin America have been excluded from learning opportunities due to work (UNESCO, 2022). Further, the findings paint a gleaming picture of the education crisis in the aforementioned region and especially in Brazil where there are persistent inequalities. In addition, 12 million youths and children have been excluded or denied means of education in the above regions due to poverty which has exacerbated the vice of using minors to work (UNESCO, 2022). This paper explores the current child labor situation, attitudes, legal protection of minors, and changes taking place in Brazil.

The Current Situation on Child Labor in Brazil

Around the globe, the participation of young children in work has become detrimental to their development and inhibiting the attainment of their potential. The International Labor Organization (ILO) asserts that although this group of people can help with house chores, the resultant effects, and intensity of the activity matter (International Labor Organization, 2021). Therefore, child labor is seen as work depriving the young of their dignity, and childhood, and, is harmful to both mental and physical development. Further, it is socially, morally, physically, and harmful to kids.

Therefore, it interferes with their education by preventing them from attending school or attempting to combine heavy work and school for the learner simultaneously. A recent report by ILO highlights that there has been an increase in child labor for ages 5 to 17 years accounting for more than half of the vice globally (International Labor Organization, 2021). Furthermore, countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are more susceptible and vulnerable due to the onset of COVID-19. As a result, 160 million children are involved in the exploitation; an 8.4 million increase over 4 years (International Labor Organization, 2021). On the other hand, Brazil has not been spared from the above-mentioned challenges. The country has children aged between 7 and 14 years working illegally, receiving meager salaries in various sectors including agriculture 56%, services 35.2%, and industrial 8.2% respectively (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). On the contrary, both economic and social challenges have been highlighted as some of the causes of the problem, and this includes poverty where many families can not afford meals hence letting kids search for livelihoods.

Unemployment is another reason for the vice as many underage teenagers opt for drug trafficking and prostitution as a source of income. Bureau of International Labor Affairs (2020) asserts that children in Brazil are susceptible to exploitation in minors labor which includes commercial sex and sometimes results in human trafficking. Selfish economic interests by companies have led to the rampant practice of vice. Consequently, the children provide easy and cheap labor for the employers who exploit them. The International Labor Organization (2021) expounds on the report by UNESCO that highlights the aforementioned factors as the main cause of children dropping out of school. Moreover, the aforementioned sectors in the country have continued to exacerbate the problem for many years. In 2019, 1 to 3 children engaged in coffee production, and 1.4 million teenagers engaged in child labor where 706,000 worked in worse conditions (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). Although the report indicated a decrease in the previous years, recent indicators in Brazil have shown an increase in the practice in the aforementioned sectors.

Highlights on child labor in Brazil, have uncovered many incidents that show the intensity of the practice in the country. For instance, many minors are involved in agriculture where they engage in the harvesting of fruits, bananas, coffee, cocoa, corn, and cotton. In addition, others work in grazing livestock, cattle ranching, and fishing. In the industrial sector, children are used in the slaughtering of animals which includes beef production. Moreover, they are involved in mining and stone quarries (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). Further, they take part in ceramics, pottery, textile and garments, footwear, and, the rolling of straw cigarettes works. According to the ILO, other forms of labor among minors include services such as vending, garbage scavenging, washing vehicles, working in fairs and markets; hauling vegetables and fruits (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). In addition, there are the worst forms of exploitation prevalent in the country. These include vices such as underage commercial sex involving pornography and human trafficking which leads to forced domestic work in different regions (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). As aforementioned the cheap source of labor is exploited in the production of manioc and coffee.

Moreover, gangs traffic drugs using by using the young ones as moles or the modes of transporting the contrabands across states. On the contrary, the Brazilian government reported in 2020 to have made efforts to curb the same by publishing a governmental dirty list containing all the employers in various sectors found exploiting children. Further, various departments such as the police, and the association for the defense of children, women, and the youth highlighted highways that were risky to teenagers and children. However, the Bureau of International Labor Affairs (2020), asserts that the above-reported measures do not meet the international standards and as such, there is little progress in curbing the vice.

Attitudes Towards Child Labor in Brazil

Although the government has been at the forefront to curb child labor across the country, there are challenges from citizens’ attitudes in different parts of the country. In addition, Brazil has been highlighted as an example of a successful country in eradicating the problem. However, the declining child labor trends witnessed over the years have not been significant in specific sectors such as informal settlements and agriculture in rural areas (Aransiola & Justus, 2020). This is especially visible in towns and local families found in the countryside respectively. Therefore, the decrease in curbing child labor in the aforementioned regions has been due to two major reasons. They include issues such as the negative attitude of the family agricultural practitioners and inequality among informal dwellers in town who depend on child labor for survival (Aransiola & Justus, 2020). Further, the reluctance from the above two groups is exacerbated by limited due governmental programs that do not reach these areas and address the challenges adequately.

Furthermore, the determinants for cooperation from the public especially among parents and other stakeholders in the above regions, depend on various factors. These include parameters such as the parent’s education level, family structure, income, socio-cultural ideologies, and, urbanization (Aransiola & Justus, 2020). Moreover, the aftermath of early programs aimed at reducing exploitation has led to its increase. This has been attributed to inadequate engagements and consultations between the government and the family members hence reaching a consensus (Aransiola & Justus, 2020). On the other hand, the introduction of labor inspection in all states did not carry out its mandate as expected since some states were neglected.

For instance, the Southeast and Midwest regions of the country are more prioritized as compared to the Northeast part. Consequently, those in these regions feel neglected and continue with the practice even when the residents are aware of the detrimental effects on minors. The introduction of cash transfers for poor households between 2004 and 2014 showed that some areas with more cases of child labor received fewer funds as compared to others (Aransiola & Justus, 2020). In addition, a family’s poverty level was considered when rolling out the project but this was not followed as some poor households were left out of the programs hence resentments. All the above instances portray citizens with mixed attitudes toward child labor where poor households receiving the money are in support while their counterparts continue with the exploitation.

Laws and Legal Protection of Minors

The Brazilian government has made progress in passing laws aimed at protecting minors against child labor. While lauding the country on its efforts, the UNESCO chairperson expressed her satisfaction during the 70^th anniversary of Human Rights on the strides the country had made in passing laws for children (UNESCO, 2019). The right to free education for a minor in Brazil has been enshrined in the country’s constitution. Consequently, the 1988 law, spells out responsibilities for the state, federal and municipal education sectors describing it as among the fundamental human rights (UNESCO, 2019). Following its enactment, vital progress in the citizen’s awareness of education has been achieved. In conjunction with the public prosecutor and defender, the law is enforced for all preschool children and early education. This has led to the tremendous expansion of the two aforementioned departments. On the other hand, the Supreme Court steps in to defend the constitution and bridges the gap arising during its implementation (UNESCO, 2019). As a result, many lawsuits have been decided in favor of young children.

As a UNESCO chair, Professor Nina Ranieri expressed her pleasure in the expansion of education rights in Sao Paulo reminding people that in 2015, 28 million students had been enrolled in elementary (UNESCO, 2019). Furthermore, the country had made tremendous progress for twenty years with the challenge of transforming from access to quality. For instance, the National Education Plan for 2014 to 2024, aims to allocate 10% of the country’s GDP by 2024 (UNESCO, 2019). Moreover, the country has enacted laws to curb abuses of minors through the national plan on combating both sexual violence and human trafficking against children. This policy identifies, strategies to address, curb and protect victims while promoting their rights (Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 2020). Furthermore, the trafficking of minors who are later forced into prostitution and drug trafficking has been highlighted in the security department. The Brazil Federal police have identified risky areas for sexual exploitation. As such, they have launched public awareness campaigns against the practice.

Changes Occurring in Brazil on Child Labor

According to the global education report, there are tremendous changes taking place in Brazil. The UNESCO education monitoring group findings show the rising disparities in the education of minors among Latin American states. This has been worsened by the onset of COVID-19. As a result, 40% of the countries across the globe did not offer any form of support for the learners during the pandemic (UNESCO. Org, 2022). The crisis realized in education has been exacerbated by pre-existing inequalities.

For instance, UNESCO. Org (2022) asserts that in 2020, almost twelve million youths and children in Latin America had been excluded from education due to poverty. Although Brazil has made progress in the preschool education system, it has not adapted to its learners’ needs. Further, there are inequalities among the indigenous population although the country has succeeded in controlling its social classes. However, over 50% of the teachers in Brazil requested to be trained on special needs to assist students (UNESCO.2022). On the other hand, the country has made steps in eradicating forms of child labor such as sexual exploitation and trafficking. To curb this, the government enacted policies through strategic frameworks; the National Children’s policy, its enforcement, and coordination.

Conclusion

In summation, Brazil has experienced child labor for many years. Although it has enacted laws to curb the practice, it continues to face many challenges. For instance, the rural agricultural families and slum dwellers in the city continue exploiting children through child labor, trafficking, and prostitution. Furthermore, the enactment of the cash transfer program for poor households was not implemented transparently as other regions were neglected. This has resulted in negative attitudes from the affected regions. However, the country has made improvements in education with the majority of teachers requesting to be trained in special needs skills thereby enhancing their skills for the students.

References

Aransiola, T. J., & Justus, M. (2020). Evolution of child labor rate in Brazilian states: Policy limits and contradictions. Economia e Sociedade, 29(1), 273 295.

Bureau of International Labor Affairs. (2020). 2020 findings on the worst forms of child labor: Brazil. U.S. Department of Labor.

International Labour Organization. (2021).Child labour rises to 160 million – first increase in two decades.

UNESCO. (2019). Using the judiciary system to enforce the right to education in Brazil. UNESCO.

UNESCO. (2022). A new UNESCO report shows the extent of global inequalities in education and calls for greater inclusion as schools re-open. UNESCO.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the problem of child labor was reflected in poetry and fiction as one of the main social issues. In general, during this period, child labor was officially permitted and widely used by upper-classes and in production. Cheap labor, it was always maintained, was essential to Britain’s competitive position, and children were the cheapest labor of all. Textile mills, potteries, ribbon factories, brickyards —whatever industry had ill-paid drudgery to offer, offered it to children. Romantic and Victorian writers viewed this social problem similarly, seeing it as the main evil of the society based on deep social values and traditions.

Romantic poets pitied children and expressed feelings of anger and anxiety associated with this social phenomenon, but they did not protest against inhuman conditions and the exploitation of children. In his poem, William Blake writes: “And my father sold me while yet my tongue / Could scarcely cry ‘weep! ‘weep! ‘weep! ‘weep! / So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot, I sleep” (Blake). The poem depicts a small boy whose life is full of grief and who leads miserable existence. In general, children were perceived by romantics as innocent creatures who suffered from the ruling class and oppression (Enscoe and Gleckner 41). Blake depicts the dramatic illusion, sensibility of a human using the dynamic nature of imagination and creativity. Similar to other romantics, Blake uses imagination as the main tool to unveil the main message of the poem and shape an atmosphere of innocence and hardship. Blake writes: “they clothed me in the clothes of death” (Blake). This symbolic and imaginary world creates passion, tragedy, desperation, and sorrow as the main markers of child labor. Its symbolic representation appeals to the imagination and forces readers to create a picture of sorrow and sadness through “the clothes of death.”

Victorian poets and writers depicted child labor as a social problem and protested against exploitation. Elizabeth Barrett’s “The Cry of the Children” (1844) was the most notable poetic protest against child labor, and Charles Kingsley’s novel Alton Locke (1850) was in part an exposé of sweated tailoring shops. With the curbing of the worst abuses in some portions of industry and the return of prosperity in the late forties and early fifties, a lot of some workers—by no means all, or even a majority—became a bit more endurable. )n general, Victorian poetry and literature portrayed that the appearance of a few public parks and the introduction of cheap excursion fares on the railroads enabled them to escape briefly from their depressing habitats. But the habitats themselves remained largely what they had been. For various reasons, after the middle of the century, the evils of the factory system itself ceased to be a leading theme of social commentary and fiction. But toward the end of the century, the issue of how people lived or were forced to live was revived in a new locale, the East End of London, where the foul conditions of slum life aroused the conscience of a new generation. Surveys showed that fully a third of the population lived on or below the bare margin of subsistence (Bristow 99).

In contrast to romantics, Victorian writers were less sensitive and pitiless. Poets and writers tried to arouse the nation’s conscience and tell about the problem. As the sequence of events shows, the initial reforms, at least, were accomplished before men and women of letters addressed themselves to the condition of England question (Bristow 258). But by adding their often eloquent humanitarianism to the message contained in the blue books and in the news accounts of constant strife between labor and management, they unquestionably gave greater impetus to the cause. A series of novels protested the human cost of industrialism and sometimes suggested ways by which the interests of employer and worker could be reconciled: Disraeli’s Sybil (1845), Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton (1848), and North and South (1854-55), Charlotte Brontë’s Shirley (1849), and Dickens’s Hard Times (1854). The publicity was given to laboring conditions extended to sweatshops and other non-factory enterprises as well. Again there was agitation for reform, and fiction found a theme in the life of the workers.

Romantic poets portrayed children’s voices as silent sufferers who could do nothing but worked under oppression. Through children’s eyes, these writers portrayed terrible living conditions and hunger. Long hours of strenuous work left little leisure or inclination to take up a book or magazine. Crowded rooms noisy with quarreling adults and squalling children, insufficient light, poor eyesight caused in part by nutritional deficiencies and eyestrain at work—such factors discouraged reading even among those who had the ability to do so (Enscoe and Gleckner 51).

In contrast to Romantics, Victorian poets protested against oppression using children’s voices and narrators. Even the titles of both poems reveal the difference: ‘The Chimney Sweeper’ portrays a life of a small boy and the hardship he faces, while Barrett protests against oppression and humiliation using the title “the Cry of the Children”: “Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows, From your pleasures fair and fine!” (Barrett). If social adjustment lagged behind the new conditions of life, even farther behind were the schools as a seed-ground of humane culture. As the state of popular culture everywhere in the Western world, today attests, universal education has proved not to be the panacea it once was touted as being. But at least a working-class child has a better chance today to share in the nation’s intellectual and artistic life than did his Victorian ancestors, whose cultural deprivation was one of the sorest reproaches to the notion of progress and one of the age’s most intractable problems.

Victorian expressiveness and imagination are more sympathetic to children portraying real-life problems and grievances faced by small boys and girls. Victorian poets used emotional appeal as a symbol to describe deep personal feelings and life experiences. In contrast to Romantic writers, Victorian poets portray that in an ordered and organized world, children sometimes feel the need for a change. It is possible to say that children weeping is full of tragedy, looses and depression, which has a profound influence on the writing style and message of most poems. Themes of weeping and cry shape poems and create the feeling of futility of life and death. In both periods, happiness and pain have much in common with a child’s emotional sufferings (Bristow 163).

In sum, both literary periods unveil social injustice and hardship faced by children. Thus romantic poets just expressed their views and feelings while Victorian writers protested against child labor and exploitation. Imagination and romantic nature are typical for both periods, which help authors to create political and social criticism of the epoch.

Works Cited

Barrett, E. The Cry of the Children. Web.

Blake, W.TheChimney Sweeper. Web.

Bristow, J. The Cambridge Companion to Victorian Poetry (Cambridge Companions to Literature). Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Enscoe E. Gerald, Gleckner, Robert F. Romanticism: Points of View. Prentice-Hall, 1962.

Introduction

As a rule, people start their professional careers when they are of full age. In this case, they can work full-time, while employers do not face any significant issues with workers of this group. At the same time, many people start working, either legally or not, when they are younger than 18 years old, which is known as child labor. It should be mentioned at once that there are two representations of this phenomenon in the modern world.

On the one hand, it refers to those underage citizens who have the possibilities and right to work under the law. On the other hand, numerous teenagers become involved in illegal labor activities because harsh external conditions force them. According to van Wormer and Link (2015), it is necessary to distinguish between the two variations above, and the second type of child labor is a severe problem both for developed and developing states. Thus, this phenomenon can have economic, personal, and social reasons, while its effects can be detrimental both for individuals and whole countries.

Causes of Child Labor

As has been stated previously, there are many reasons for this phenomenon to exist. Among them, economic matters are said to have the most crucial impact. It is generally accepted that child labor rates are higher in those areas where people are forced to live close to poverty. It can refer to both underdeveloped states and troubled regions of developed countries. J. Sarkar and D. Sarkar (2015) denote that there are secure connections between “child labor and income inequality” (139). As soon as people are forced to struggle in finding means of subsistence, it is not a surprise that many children start working to earn some money. Thus, economic conditions represent the most popular phenomenon that results in child labor.

Social reasons are said to be closely connected to economic ones, but they consider the issue from a different point of view. Even if a child lives in a family with a more or less satisfactory income level, they can become involved in child labor because many people around them do the same. It refers to the fact that the social environment influences individuals heavily. For example, if a child from a secured family appears among representatives of lower classes, there is an opportunity that this child will soon start speaking and acting like these people. In other words, the social reasons stand for the reverse side of the economic causes. When some teenagers do not have enough money, they start working early, and it becomes a destructive example for other children.

Then, a phenomenon of child labor exists and prospers because of personal or family reasons. On the one hand, a parent or parents can get seriously ill or even die, which makes underage people take care of themselves. In this case, finding work seems to be one of the essential steps to survive. On the other hand, many teenagers become involved in child labor because they want it without any apparent economic and social preconditions. However, once they start their early professional careers, it is difficult for them to escape. Even if the working conditions are severe, children cannot leave a job because they appear in a labor trap (Smith 2015). In this case, a single mistake negatively influences many lives.

Thus, the causes above are interconnected, and it makes the situation with child labor severer. As soon as they evoke one another, it is impossible to tell which group of reasons has influenced more children or which of them is more dangerous than others. However, there are no doubts that these causes cannot go unnoticed, and they imply substantial consequences for both underage workers and whole states.

Effects of Child Labor

As has been mentioned previously, child labor has numerous effects. Firstly, it refers to health issues that can arise from premature working activities. One should note that the phenomenon under consideration mainly denotes teenagers who are involved in hard labor rather than brainwork in comfortable conditions. Thus, when underage people regularly deal with exhaustible physical activities, it influences their organisms significantly (J. Sarkar and D. Sarkar 2015). As a result, these children witness heart, back, and other related issues.

Furthermore, their moral order will appropriately decrease against the background of health problems. What is more, unless the teenagers change their working activity, the given state of affairs will become only worse for them. As a result, adults will have to deal with consequences, even though the mistakes were made long ago.

The second effect is connected with education, in general, and school enrollment, in particular. It is said that there are “significant negative relations between all forms of child labor and school enrolment” (Putnick and Bornstein 2015, 117). It is proven that those children who are involved in labor activities have neither time nor effort to attend schools. In addition to that, even those unofficially employed teenagers who attend schools show poor results in comparison with those children who focus solely on education. Consequently, if children experience problems with schools, it will be difficult for them to continue their education further, which is necessary for their future successful careers. Thus, the situation is the same because people make severe mistakes while they are young, and these errors influence their further life.

In addition to that, the individual problems above are combined and create crucial issues for whole countries. On the one hand, when many children miss schools, it negatively influences the situation in a country. For example, this state of affairs can create a shortage of educated and skillful specialists in various spheres of economy, technology, scientific area, and others. On the other hand, the situation with aggravated health also has an impact on countries. In this case, a significant number of people with limited physical abilities cannot be advantageous, and when it refers to the youth, it evokes even more crucial issues. Thus, governments are interested in solving the case with child labor.

Conclusion

Child labor is an essential phenomenon in the modern world because many people under 18 years old start their labor activities prematurely. Even though the term also refers to those children who work under the law, a majority of teenagers are involved in labor illegally. It exists due to many reasons, with economic, social, and personal ones are among them. It is difficult to mention which of them has more impact, and the three introduce essential reasons. Furthermore, child labor can be dangerous for individuals because it worsens their health and prevents them from obtaining a decent education. Thus, states struggle from this phenomenon because a significant number of uneducated young people with poor health conditions will result in appropriate problems for a country.

References

Putnick, Diane L., and Marc H. Bornstein. 2015. “Is Child Labor a Barrier to School Enrollment in Low- and Middle-Income Parties?” International Journal of Educational Development 41: 112-120.

Sarkar, Jayanta, and Dipanwita Sarkar. 2015. “Why Does Child Labor Persist with Declining Poverty?” Economic Inquiry 54 (1): 139–158.

Smith, Stephen C. 2015. Ending Global Poverty: A Guide to What Works. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Van Wormer, Katherine S., and Rosemary J. Link. 2015. Social Welfare Policy for a Sustainable Future: The U.S. in Global Context. California: SAGE Publications.

Introduction

Schmitz and fellow author define child labor as “the employment of children at regular and sustained labor”¹. The issue of child labor has been a source of heated debate in many countries.

While critics argue that it is an inappropriate and exploitative act, a few of the people who support the act think it is important for children to be taught independence at an early stage. Many countries have banned the act and many international organizations consider it exploitative.

Child labor has been existent for as long history can record. “It has was employed to varying extents through most of history, but entered public dispute with the advent of universal schooling, with changes in working conditions during the industrial revolution, and with the emergence of the concepts of workers’ and children’s right” ².

Perhaps the work form of child labor was recorded during the industrial revolution when children as young as five years old were employed in processing factories. There they worked with adults in equally dangerous and sometimes fatal working conditions. In Scotland for example, more than two thirds of the workers in the cotton mills during the mid to late 1780s were children.

During the 19^th century, one on every three poor homes was without a bread winner due to the high number of deaths. This meant that children had to work to support themselves and younger siblings. Coal mines were also popular during this time and companies employed many children since the tunnels were too small for children to crawl.

Based on this understanding, almost all the rich nations today consider the issue a violation of human rights. Unfortunately, most poor countries are yet to confront the issue comprehensively while children continue to suffer in tasks that their age does not allow them to handle.

Opposing views

“UNICEF estimates that 250 million children aged 5 to 14 years old are still in child labor worldwide, excluding child domestic labor” ³. It is not until recently that psychologists started providing reliable information on the effects of child labor. From the views of different stakeholders, it is clear that there are very many negative effects. However, few people still support this act with a few reasons.

It is argued that letting children provide for themselves or their families at an early age teaches them responsibility. It countries where poverty is rampant, many homes have one or both parents missing as a result of death or abandonment. In such cases, children need to learn how to take care of themselves and cater to their needs. Medical care in poor nations is not easily available.

This means that when parents are sick, employed children are able to provide the most basic needs such as food through their wages. Another argument for child labor is that it keeps poor children from engaging in more dangerous professions such as prostitution.

The negative effects of child labor are many and disheartening. First and foremost, child labor deprives children of a proper and normal childhood. Time meant for playing and developing psychologically is spent working. Another effect is physical and mental torture.

While adults’ body and minds may adapt to working a number of hours a day, children’s bodies and minds have no ability to adopt to an arranged schedule. Furthermore, their bodies are not well developed for some of the manual jobs that they engage in.

Child labor causes children to become emotionally and mentally mature earlier than they ought to, a situation that could lead to more problems in future. These children tend to make major decisions such as getting married or getting children too early and are not able to relate to situations they find themselves into thereafter. In places where child labor is still practiced, it is evident that it perpetuates poverty.

Children quit school to work and the wages they receive are not able to sustain any form of development. As a result, a cycle of poverty develops from one generation to another. Finally, child labor condemns children to lives of unskilled and unsustainable work.

Without any form of qualifications, they are not able to develop any form of professionalism. They are forced to depend on manual jobs for the rest of their lives, ultimately leading to child labor in each generation, more poor children and more communities with undercutting wages.

From the arguments, it evident that the negative effects of child labor largely outweigh any positive argument that could exist. It is wrong and detrimental to innocent children who can be supported to develop their talents, potential and dreams. It harms children’s bodies, future, minds, hopes and spirits. While children are supposed to be playing and enjoying being young, child labor ties them to toil and torture.

These children are unable to have a normal life after such experiences. They are unable to go to school and therefore, they have no way out of poverty. This results in continued cycles of struggles and inherited poverty for generations that follow. More countries, activist organizations and individuals should support measures that discourage child labor such as the proposed boycott of all products made by children.

Even though the moral complicity of the public over this issue has raised many concerns, boycotting the products this will serve as lesson to the producers and force them to employe people who are considered legible for employment by the law.

Conclusion

“There are hundreds of millions of children and young people around the world who are imprisoned, not in physical jails, but in a state of bondage more permanent than locks or bars alone could create” ⁴. The situation is particularly wanting in poor and developing nations. Lack of basic needs and poor wages at work forces children to send their children to work in an effort to have a bigger family income.

The effects are extremely damaging to their bodies, minds and spirits. Parents, institutions and all other stakeholders have a role to play to ensure that the practice is brought to an end. Children have a right to be protected and have their talents and dreams supported.

Furthermore, every member of the UN should work consistently by implementing proper laws and regulations in line with the UN’s stand on the issue.

Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child stipulates that “States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development” ⁵.

Bibliography

Baland, Marie and James Robinson. “Is Child Labor Inefficient?” Journal of Political Economy 108 no. 4 (2000): 663-679.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Convention on the rights of the child, 2011. Web.

Schmitz, Cathyne and Desi Larson. Child Labor: A Global View. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004.

UNICEF. Beyond child labor: Affirming rights. 2011. Web.

Footnotes

¹Cathyne Schmitz and Desi Larson, Child Labor: A Global View (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004), 44.

²Marie Baland and James Robinson, “Is Child Labor Inefficient?” Journal of Political Economy, 108 no. 4 (2000): 663.

³UNICEF, Beyond child labor: Affirming rights.

⁴UNICEF, Beyond child labor: Affirming rights.

⁵Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Convention on the rights of the child, 2011.

Abstract

The global initiatives pertaining to child labor have been successful to a great extent in reducing the instances of child labor in the developing countries. International organizations such as the ILO and UN have initiated various programs with an aim to alleviate the plight of child laborers in developing countries. Cotton industry is one of the major revenue earning industries in Turkey. Unfortunately, this particular industry is infamous for employing children who are under the internationally approved minimum age to start working. Though the Turkish government is taking admirable steps towards eradicating this menace, a lot need to be done because even today there are children the specified age limits of 15 years who work in cotton fields.

Introduction

The cotton industry is one of the major revenue earning businesses around the globe and is considered to be the most preferred fiber for clothes. Cotton is grown in dry areas where sun shines in abundance. Cotton irrigation requires a lot of manual labor and as such there is a lot of demand for people willing to work in the fields. Over the years, due to an increase in demand for better quality and quantity of cotton in the industrialized nations, pesticides are used in the fields to boost production. As is understood, pesticides pose great health hazards for the people working in the fields. Among the workers who work in the fields, the percentage of child labor is considerable.

Child labor in the cotton industry is not new; it was there even 200 years back. Today, most of the children (those who are employed) work in the plantation and picking of cotton. Some children also work in establishments that make cotton products. Featured below are pictures of children engaged in various activities of cotton irrigation and processing:

It is very awful that children as young as 5 years old are sent to work in the cotton fields. Some of them are even sent away from their homes to work in cotton fields; this happens especially during the harvest time when there is ample work load. In spite of the fact that education was made compulsory for children between 5 to 8 years of age, these children are employed at the cost of their education (Bahar, 2011).

Such instances of child labor defy the norms of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Social and Environmental Reporting Assurance (SERA). The main objective of SERA is to ensure that we do not practice such actions that might endanger the purity and peacefulness of the earth and its inhabitants. Sustainability is the capacity for continuance in the long term. Sustainability in the context of organizations encompasses the social, environmental and economic impacts of a business or other organization. These impacts are judged in terms of the extent to which they contribute to sustainable development. There is always a requirement of reliable and correct information from the management in order to manage the company’s environmental and social risk factors. The same applies to the stakeholders who demand assurance that the company documents or report is trustworthy (KPMG, 2002). CSR was initiated to start a model of reporting that would concentrate on the financial, social and environmental issues.

The issues covered under SERA are:

• Social issues like human rights, child labor, standard of living of the workers, and multiplicity;
• Environmental issues like pollutions, emissions, wastage of natural resources, wastage of energy, and environmental management systems; and
• Economic issues like financial performance.

Research problem and issue

Research problem

Child labor is a menace that is prevalent throughout the developing countries in the world. Several international organizations are engaged in safeguarding the interests of children. Child labor puts the physical and psychological health of children at great risk. A certain age is specified under which it is illegal and against the society norms to employ children. All the works done by such children cannot be considered to be against society norms. There are children who work in order to gain experience and even contribute towards their family’s income. However, this should be optional, meaning that it should be left up to the children to decide whether they want to work or not. It is understandable that when children are asked to do such work forcibly, it becomes child labor.

Research issue

In Turkey, cotton industry is one of the major contributors to the country’s economy. It is also the country’s largest industry sector that employs children under the specified age. Organizations and people engaged in this particular segment employ children under the age of 15 (Caliskan, 2007) which is unconstitutional according to the country’s law.

Methodology

Considering the significance of the topic, the researcher referred various reports and surveys. The official website of the International Labor Organization (ILO) was also referred in order to understand the international laws pertaining to child labor. Other referred material included scholarly articles, journals and books. Authentic and reliable websites were also referred to understand the meaning of SERA and CSR.

Background information / Literature Review

Children can be seen working in most of the developing nations around the world and Turkey is no exception. Rural areas have more instances of child labor but even in urban settings, children are employed in streets, restaurants and homes. While children employed as street vendors and restaurant workers get some emoluments, those working at homes are not paid. It is estimated that almost half a million (almost 4.2 percent) children under the age of 14 years and a little more than one million (almost 28 percent) children between 15 to 17 years of age are employed in various establishments (Dayioglu & Assaad, 2002).

Some scholars believe that the figures, that are a result of a countrywide survey, are miscalculated and the actual figures could be more than this. Whatever the case, it is a fact that hundreds of thousands of children are employed in Turkey. The ILO, in 1992, influenced the Turkish government to implement the ‘International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor’ (IPEC) in the country. The program was well acclaimed and accepted by the people, with the exception of some critics. The ensuing years witnessed more laws pertaining to child labor being initiated in Turkey. In 1997, it was made compulsory for children between 5 and 8 years to go to school. In 1998, the minimum age that a child could work was raised to 15 years and later in 2001, the Turkish government made it illegal to engage children in the worst forms of labor (Dayioglu & Assaad, 2002).

The working hours in the cotton fields depends on the activity, salaries offered and the requirement of labor. The wages of labor working in cotton fields is determined by the daily output. As is obvious, laborers work hard to give better output. For this, they have to start work early in the morning and work until late evenings. Since the work in cotton fields demands great physical work, the laborers get exhausted by the end of the day. During such work they get several physical injuries as well (Serinken et al., 2012).

The most affected among such laborers are the children who also work side by side the adults. They do not get proper nutrition and as such they get physically and mentally weak. A majority (75.5%) of male child laborers in the age group 6 to 14 years works for 12 to 15 hours daily. About 23.4% of children in this age group work for 8 to 11 hours daily and only 1.1% work 4 to 5 hours daily. The difference in the working hours of male children in the age group 15 to 17 years and those in the age group 6 to 14 years is not much. A majority (72%) of male child laborers in the age group 15 to 17 years works for 12 to 15 hours daily.

About 28% of children in this age group work for 8 to 11 hours daily and only 0.8% work 4 to 5 hours daily. The condition of female child laborers is also appalling. Almost 76.9% of female child laborers in the age group 6 to 14 years work for 12 to 15 hours daily while 21.5% work for 8 to 11 hours daily. The percentage of female child laborers working between 4 to 5 hours is 1.6 (Gülcubuk, Karabiyik & Tanir, 2003).

Gülcubuk et al. (2003) further claimed that almost 10.6% male children and 2.7 female children were put to work at the tender age of 6 years. The maximum percentage of children started working at the age of 7 to 9 years which includes 44.6% male children and 49.6% female children. Children in the age group 10 to 12 years were not far behind in starting to work; 36.8% male children and 39.5% female children. The percentage of children above this age group who started to work declined; 7.1% for children between 13 and 15 years and 1.0% for children between 16 and 17 years.

All such problems can be countered if organizations adhere to their CSRs. CSR is an important mechanism of accountability. During the 1990s, there were not many companies that published their CSR. Now that the company doors are open for stakeholders, people have started taking interest in the CSRs of companies. The chart at ‘Appendix 1’ depicts the percentage of people who have read or heard of a company’s social or environmental report.

Today, the world is full of competitions in all walks of life. Owing to the technological developments and the businesses growing on a worldwide level, it has become very essential for business houses to follow business ethics in order to gain public support and to enhance the image of their business. There are many plus points of following the business ethics but the demerits of not following the business ethics are countless.

During the years, owing to the great effect that business ethics have on a business, organizations have started laying greater stress on adhering to the business ethics. There are many instances during the performance of a business where the performers are confronted by the business ethics. Basically, there are two kinds of ethics that business houses should follow namely, personal ethics and organizational ethics. In both the situations, it is crucial to know what exactly should be the individual’s or the organization’s conscientiousness in any particular business. For individuals, it is a greater task since they tend to have different ethical values outside the organization. While in the organization, individuals have to act differently, according to the business ethics of their company.

Pro evidence

In 1992, the ILO initiated a landmark program that addressed the plight of working children (child labor) at the global platform. The program was called the IPEC and was targeted mainly at countries such as Turkey, where there were abundant instances of child labor. The member nations (including Turkey) were suggested to cooperate with each other in resolving the critical issue of child labor through sharing expertise and funds (ILO, 2009).

Turkey has taken several measures to combat the menace of child labor prevailing in the nation in general and the cotton industry in particular. Since the implementation of IPEC, the nation has come a long way towards eradicating child labor, which is gradually but steadily becoming an issue of the past. Turkey adheres to the Conventions (No. 138 and No. 182) of ILO and strictly opposes child labor (before the specified age limit) and the ‘worst forms of labor’. The nation has made several amendments in its legislation pertaining to child labor and it is believed that the day is not far when no instances of child labor would be found (ILO, 2009).

Con evidence

In their survey of 2003, Gülcubuk et al. (2003) claimed that even after 11 years of the implementation of the IPEC program, Turkey did not seem to come out of the shadow of child labor. Referring to a survey conducted by SIS in 1999, Gülcubuk et al. (2003) stated that almost 10.2 percent of Turkey’s children were employed in some or the other job. The survey further claimed that almost 66.2 percent of these children were employed in rural areas.

Among the employed children, 58.8 percent worked at homes (unpaid labor). The condition of children working in the agricultural sector was very pathetic. Due to scarcity of funds for purchasing machinery, rural families who had irrigational farms (for cotton) were forced to take the help of their children in the fields. Moreover, when such small enterprises were unable to earn enough livelihoods from their farms, they were forced to migrate to urban areas and work along with their children. Such migration depended on the season and the duration varied between three and seven months.

The United Nations (UN) took notice of this serious issue and awarded special status to children by way of the ‘Convention on the Rights of the Child’. The Convention received great participation from the UN member countries but despite the global support, only a few children are able to enjoy the benefits (Arat, 2002).

In spite of the claims of the Turkish government, the UN and the ILO about their successful efforts towards eradicating child labor, the prevailing condition of children suggests something else (Akin, 2009). According to a survey conducted by TurkStat in 2010, almost 6% of children from 6 to 17 years were employed (Child labor in Turkey, 2010).

Conclusion / Summary

When we talk about SERA or CSR, the motive or intention that lies behind is social welfare and environment protection. There are some more scopes of SERA and CSR, but these two are the major ones. We should be responsible for our actions and at the same time spread the awareness of the negative aspects of child labor. The Turkish government has taken some serious steps towards putting the concept and practice of child labor to an end. It remains to see whether such steps would bring some encouraging results or not.

Recommendations

Children are the future of all societies and parents need to understand this. It is true that due to their helplessness and need, parents are forced to employ their children, but at the same time, they should understand that by doing so, they are spoiling their children’s future. The world is in the 21^st century and there are various means to combat poverty. Financial institutions can be approached for loans. Moreover, there are several genuine charitable organizations that are ready to help the needy. Such charitable organizations would feel obliged to help alleviate the plight of children.

It is always better and smart to avoid a mistake than to rectify it. So in this context also, we all should try to follow the guidelines set by the governing bodies of SERA and CSR. It is not that only the business houses or corporations are responsible. We, as human beings, are equally responsible. The difference is the magnitude of the responsibility. My recommendation is that we should spread the awareness about SERA and CSR and also about the benefits of educating our children. For the major works, we have very competent people sitting on responsible posts. Nonetheless, since I have to make some recommendation, I would suggest that the governments of different nations should come forward with some sort of mandatory awareness and training sessions for the general public. This will surely make some impact.

Presentation Paper

Towards the end of 19^th century, big business owners, who were really concerned about the social abuses and demands of labor unions, started the concept of CSR. They constructed abodes and medical facilities in order to improve the living standards of their employees. This gesture paid back. The employees were motivated and there was a decrease in the worker turnover. This happened because the business houses cared for the society and in return, the society cared for the business houses. This is a small example of business ethics where ethical leadership plays a major role. Business Ethics means the moral principles that a business should follow while performing its functions.

Unfortunately, such business ethics seem to be of no concern to people who engage child laborers in their cotton fields in Turkey. Even though the Turkish government, in association with international organizations such the UN and ILO, is trying its best to counter the efforts of such people and businesses, the plight of children, especially in rural areas does not seem to end. In my opinion, the financial condition and lack of education are the two main causes that act as barriers to the initiatives of the Turkish government.

It is understood that the Turkish government has made education compulsory for children in the age group of 5 to 8 years, but the execution part is not very encouraging. Moreover, besides education, the financial aspect should also be considered by the government. Subsidized loans should be provided to families who strive for sustenance from their small farms that are either owned or rented.

References

Akin, L. (2009). Working conditions of the child worker in Turkish labor law. Emply Respons Rights, 21(1), 53-67. Web.

Arat, Z. F. (2002). Analyzing child labor as a human rights issue: Its causes, aggravating policies, and alternative proposals. Human Rights Quarterly, 24(1), 177-204. Web.

Bahar, O. S. (2011). “Education is important but…”: Low-income Kurdish migrant mothers’ beliefs about child education and child labor. Journal of Global Social Work Practice, 4(2), 1-16. Web.

Caliskan, K. (2007). Markets and fields: An ethnography of cotton production and exchange in a Turkish village. New Perspectives on Turkey, 37(1), 115-145. Web.

Child labor in Turkey exposes growing social inequality. (2010). Web.

Dayioglu, M. & Assaad, R. (2002). The determination of child labor in urban Turkey. Web.

Gülcubuk, B., Karabiyik, E., & Tanir, F. (2003). Baseline survey on worst forms of child labor in the agricultural sector: Children in cotton harvesting in Karatas, Adana. Web.

ILO. (2009). Ending child labour: A comprehensive review of Turkish experience. Web.

KPMG. (2002). International Survey of Corporate Sustainability Reporting. KPMG Global Sustainability Services. The Netherlands: De Meern. Web.

Serinken, M., Turkcuer, I., Dagli, B., Karcioglu, O., Zencir, M., & Uyanik, E. (2012). Work-related injuries in textile industry workers in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Trauma & Emergency Surgery, 18(1), 31-36. Web.

Appendix 1

Introduction

Child labor nowadays is regarded as one of the kinds of child exploitation. Approximately 250 million children from developing countries, staying at the age between five and fourteen are involved in earning their living. Nearly 120 million of these children are involved in full-time works, and most of them work under tyrannical, exploitative, and dangerous conditions. As the researches by the International Labor Organization show, about 61% of working children can be found in Asia, 32% are from Africa, 7% of working children are from Latin America and the Caribbean region (Grey, p. 139). United Nations Organization and the International Labor Organization regard child labor as the form of exploitation, and stipulated the following thesis in article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child:…States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. (Kuper, p. 19).

Main body

The commonly accepted governmental approaches are usually directed against children labor. But the fact is that children continue working in spite of any law projects. Instead of abolishing children to work (this is the easiest, but not efficient enough way to solve the problem) governments and international organizations need to provide norms and observations on protecting children’s labor rights, and, of course, prevent the violations of these rights. The laws should also provide the distinction between exploitative and non-exploitative child labor, in order kids could earn pocket money without any law difficulties for the employer, or in the case, if a child works in order to help his/her family. But the amendment on exploitation should also be elaborated

On the other hand children slavery, military use of children, prostitution of children should be completely eliminated. And, it should be highlighted, necessary steps to it have been already made by international organizations, and the important conditions are fixed in International Humanitarian Law.

Moral choices and their consequences

In our daily life, we are obliged to make choices. Moral choices which we face, usually relate to various angles of humanity and honor. The choices we make usually impact our further life like any others. It can affect the treatment of surrounding people, the development of someone’s career, the relations among the family, or within the employees.

Moral choice as a problem that faces any responsible employee is a widespread phenomenon in business life. The cost of such a choice can vary greatly, from the very trinket, up to someone’s career or even life. The most common choice is, undoubtedly, when an employer gives favor to his/her friend, instead of a more experienced (thus more valuable) expert.

Conclusion

The case I’d like to describe is also rather a common one and could happen to anyone, working in the banking sphere, that’s why it’s needlessly to give names. A friend of mine (for simplicity let’s call him “J”) had to make very important for him a choice. Being a credit expert in one of the banks, J was ordered by his boss to give credit to some insolvent company. Having realized, that this financial operation could harm his career, J addressed the boss and faced a choice, either giving credit or being fired. J pro-and-coned all the variants and decided that the retirement would be the best one. This way, the boss’s ambitions faced J at the need to make a significant selection, and the boss himself lost rather a valuable employee.

References

1. Bullard, Madeleine Grey. “Child Labor Prohibitions Are Universal, Binding, and Obligatory Law: The Evolving State of Customary International Law concerning the Unempowered Child Laborer.” Houston Journal of International Law 24.1 (2001): 139
2. Kuper, Jenny. International Law concerning Child Civilians in Armed Conflict. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
3. “Business Standards and Ethics” – 2007; Walt Disney Company. Web.