It is interesting to find out the impact of Barbie dolls when it comes to how it affects children’s and adolescent’s views on gender stereotypes. Four articles will be examined in this regard but even before engaging in the analysis of these four articles, the proponent of this study already has several ideas regarding the use of Barbie dolls. It is easy to understand that it is a toy that can be utilized by parents, to prepare their daughters for their expected roles in society.
The idealized version of a beautiful Caucasian female is the suggested idea behind a Barbie doll. But the proponent of this study was not prepared to discover that the impact of this toy goes beyond the borders of the United States. More importantly, it affects girls and boys based on the insights that can be gleaned from reading the said articles.
Discussion of authors
It is truly an eye-opener to discover that other cultures are affected by the Barbie doll phenomenon. It is also disturbing to find out that even children from other nations have a somewhat perverted view of what an ideal woman should be. The blonde hair, slim, and tall figure of the Barbie doll suggests that women should measure up to this standard. It is important to discuss these issues so that parents are aware of its implications.
Research Question: What is the impact of Barbie Dolls when it comes to how people view gender stereotypes?
Kuther and Mcdonald would say that the first impression one would have on a Barbie doll is that it is a mere toy. But a deeper examination of this phenomenon will prove that it is more than a plaything. It is a mere doll but because of its popularity when it comes to mainstream media, made it into a symbol of ideal femininity. Thanks in part to the tireless and efficient work of the marketing department; the Barbie doll is well known all over the world. Thus, it is easy to understand that the Barbie doll is a symbol not only of what a perfect toy should be but of how to become a woman, Kuther and McDonald would reiterate.
Kuther and McDonald would expound on this idea and assert that children living in the United States need not be convinced about this argument. They already accepted this as a fact but what is more interesting is the realization that even children outside the United States believe in the message that there is indeed an ideal symbol of womanhood.
Further discussion by article writers
The other three authors would nod their heads in agreement. Lilian Ross would completely agree with their view. Lilian Ross would even add to the discussion by saying that the Barbie doll is not only a symbol for the American children and adolescents but even children and adolescents in other countries. Lilian Ross did not provide more details in her article regarding the impact of the Barbie doll but in this discussion, she would encourage Kuther and Mcdonald to talk more about the impact of Barbie doll in nations that are outside the United States. She would like to know if American culture, especially when it comes to gender stereotypes can be imported to other nations.
Overview of their ideas
Wendy Varney would chime in that if this is true then the whole world requires re-education of what it means to be female and the impact of Barbie dolls on self-image. Wendy Varney will not only talk about the level of impact but she would even clarify her point by saying that it is not beneficial for children of other cultures to focus their attention on a Barbie doll made in the United States.
Varney may clarify her argument that there is nothing wrong with having this type of toy sold in the United States but when this type of toy-playing activity is allowed to prosper in other cultures then it is possible that these children would have a distorted view of what femininity is all about. Varney would also add to the discussion that young children create their interpretations of society through their toys.
Lilian Ross would chime in and say that even in countries like China and India, the power of the Barbie doll can be felt. Even if these countries are located far away from the US mainland, the influence of Barbie dolls can still reach the children who lived there because of mass media marketing. The radical transformation in transportation and communication technology made this possible. This concept is known as globalization. Lilian Ross would also add that because of the ability of the toy companies to market their wares in places like China, Russia, and Thailand, their global reach has reached profound levels. Thus, they can transcend cultural barriers.
Michele Dunbar would then ask Varney, Kuther, and McDonald to clarify their viewpoints when it comes to the connection of human behavior and role-playing with dolls. Dunbar would clarify that she understands that there is a connection but requires proof that indeed the impact is as profound as it seems. Dunbar would tell them that she completely agrees with the general principle but would like to know more the exact details regarding the influence of Barbie dolls on children. Dunbar is interested to know its impact on boys.
Kuther and McDonald will reply and speak directly to Dunbar regarding the impact of Barbie dolls on girls and boys. They would tell him that girls play with them pretending that they are real people. The girls in the act of role-playing would change the clothes of the dolls. But if the same toys are given to boys they would most probably destroy them. Kuther and McDonald would say that this destruction is not the symptom of psychotic behavior but a normal reaction for someone who does not know how to play with dolls.
Ross would add that boys are simply trying to develop a more exciting way to play and not because they simply wanted to destroy dolls. Dunbar would join the discussion and point at Ross would comment that her observations are very interesting especially if it can be linked to her study of a famous NBA player named Dennis Rodman. All the authors nod their heads in agreement, signaling the fact that they understand the connotation.
Dunbar would continue by saying that Rodman does not only pierce his body with different types of metal accouterments but he also “cross-dresses.” This is interesting according to Dunbar because there seems to be no indication that Rodman is homosexual. Dunbar would say there has been no proof or any disclosure about the fact that Rodman is gay. Thus, his cross-dressing antics are bizarre, to say the least.
Ross would chime in and say that there can be a simpler explanation to all that deviant behavior. Dunbar would say that yes Rodman may be doing all these to attract attention and nothing more. Nevertheless, the mere fact that he dresses himself up like a woman suggests that he is influenced by something that he had encountered while growing up.
Varney would say that it is easy to link his actions to Barbie dolls but there is no proof to support that assertion. Dunbar would say that it is possible that Rodman grew up with all these images of Barbie dolls that are placed in magazines, newspapers, and billboards.
In other words, he cannot escape the visual suggestions thrown at him by advertisers concerning the symbol of womanhood in America. By cross-dressing, he may have protested regarding the perpetuation of these myths. Dunbar interjected that it would be better to ask the opinion of Ross because being the only journalist in the group she possesses a different insight when it comes to the behavior exhibited by celebrities.
Ross throws in her observation. She said that it also possible that this is all a part of a stunt. Another way to look at it is that Dennis Rodman is a genius when it comes to marketing himself. Ross adds that people should not be naïve with regards to the marketing strategies employed by an organization such as the National basketball association. It is an organization that happens to be in the entertainment business. Dunbar, however, said it may be true but the fact that he dresses up like a Barbie doll tells this group that he too was influenced by what he may have seen in the past.
Writer’s Memo
This essay is an important step for me in understanding human nature. It never occurred to me that toys play a significant role in shaping society. I know that it has influence but not in the manner that was depicted by the authors of these articles.
Works Cited
Dunbar, Michele. “Dennis Rodman – Barbie Done Gone Horribly Wrong: Marginalized Masculinity – Cross-Dressing, and the Limitations of Commodity Culture.” Journal of Men’s Studies 7.3 (1999): 317. Print.
Kuther, Tara & Erin McDonald. “Early Adolescents’ Experiences with and Views of Barbie.” Adolescence 39.153 (2004): 39-51. Print.
Ross, Lilian. “Toy Dept.: Girls and Dolls.” The New Yorker. 2001. Web.
Varney, Wendy. “Barbie Australis: The Commercial Reinvention of National Culture.” Social Identities 4.2 (1998): 161-176.
Social control theory developed by Travis Hirschi specially states that all individuals actually have the potential to develop antisocial or criminal tendencies however it is the “bond” they share with society whether in the form of friendships, recognition of societal rules and norms of conduct, parental influences etc. that prevent them from manifesting such behavior (Payne & Salotti, 2007).
Hirschi goes on further to state that crimes occur due to individuals either losing or weakening the various bonds which bind them to society and as such results in them not caring of the social ramifications of certain criminal actions.
It is based on this that it can be seen that instilling proper social-emotional learning early on in a child’s life is of paramount importance in ensuring that they develop the necessary social and emotional bonds as well as the right way of thinking in order to succeed in aspects related to school, family life, community obligations and work.
It is based on this that this paper will explore the various qualities needed in order for a child to develop into a proper and well-balanced adult that is ready to tackle whatever life throws their way.
What is needed for Positive Social Development?
All individuals need to have a skill set that helps them cope not only with social interactions but with personal relations and the bonds that help to keep them in place. It is based on this that one of the first personal capabilities that contribute to positive social development is empathy. Empathy is a way in which an individual is able to understand either the positive or negative aspects of another person’s life.
It helps to facilitate a moment of deep thought and reflection wherein they place themselves in that person’s shoes and “feel” how certain positive or negative events would feel if it happened to them. It is through this that people learn how to promote positive behaviors and limit negative ones due to their perception over how it would be like if such experiences had occurred to them as well.
The second personal capability needed is tolerance; all too often people encounter various situations in their life that test their patience whether it comes in the form of a frustrating spouse, a demanding boss at work or even certain events that don’t go the way they were planned.
Tolerance can be thought of as a conscious effort to take such things in stride and to address them calmly and reasonably instead of reacting violently and irresponsibly. By developing proper tolerance an individual is able to respond to everyday challenges and cope with them instead of being frustrated and lashing out at those around them.
The last personal capability needed for positive social development is responsibility. Individuals need to learn to take responsibility for their actions or to take into account the possible repercussions of certain actions and how they will be responsible for it.
Through an understanding of individual responsibility individuals are able to limit negative behaviors due to their belief that they are inherently responsible for everything they do. This results in the development of further traits such as integrity, positive work ethics, as well as lesser predilection towards criminal behavior.
Qualities needed in a Family Environment
In order to bring about the positive personal capabilities discussed in the previous section there are distinct factors necessary in a family environment in order to bring them about. The first factor is a supportive family environment that facilitates independent action, emotional development and the creation of bonds that help to develop an individual’s social, emotional and mental stability.
It is suggested by Siegel (2011) that it is socialization and not the social structure itself that produces either positive or negative tendencies within children as they grow and develop (Siegel, 2011).
Siegel explains that “the more social problems encountered during the socialization process the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties and obstacles as they mature, such as being unemployed or becoming a teenage mother” (Siegel, 2011).
It is based on this that social learning theorists suggest crime is a direct result of individuals learning norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity (Siegel, 2011). When taking such factors into consideration it can be seen that a supportive family environment is a necessity in ensuring proper social development.
Children develop their positive or negative tendencies through emulation and socialization within family units and as such the greater the support given within an environment for proper emotional and mental development that is in line with positive societal traits the more likely it is for a child to develop into a proper adult. The second trait needed within a family environment for positive social development is familial affection.
What must be understood is that a child’s emotional growth is inherently dependent on the care and affection given to them during their formative years. It was seen in numerous cases of absentee mothers or fathers where children were left to their own whims and actions that their emotional growth and development was stunted leading to greater anti-social tendencies resulting in the potential for criminal behavior in the future.
It is based on this that adequate familial affection that encourages positive emotional growth is a necessity in order to ensure that negative tendencies do not manifest themselves.
Qualities of an Effective Classroom Environment
A classroom environment is a place where children interact utilizing the personality traits they learned within their family environment inside a social setting and as such it is the responsibility of a teacher to either promote or discourage certain types of positive or negative behavior.
One way of contributing towards the positive development of personality capabilities as expressed in the first section is to encourage cooperation and sharing among students. By helping students develop concepts related to cooperation and sharing they are able to take in the first steps towards understanding empathy, tolerance and responsibility.
This is done through group exercises where children learn to work together, share materials and take responsibility for certain tasks that they are assigned to do. This helps them to experience the initial aspects of a basic social setting resulting in the development of positive personality traits. The second quality necessary within a classroom environment is the creation of a reward and punishment system for displayed behavior.
By instituting this form of behavioral control this encourages students to display positive forms of behavior such as respecting other children’s things, empathizing with their situations and encouraging them to be responsible for their own behaviors. On the other hand it must be noted that one aspect that should not be implemented within a classroom environment is a rigid and unyielding structure for learning.
Children should be allowed to learn at their own individual paces since not all children have the same capability. If lessons were to proceed at a predetermined pace without taking into account differences in learning ability some children may feel left out resulting in the development of attitudes related to depression or anti-socialization due to them being unable to keep up with the other students.
Reference List
Payne, A., & Salotti, S. (2007). A Comparative Analysis of Social Learning and Social Control Theories in the Prediction of College Crime. Deviant Behavior, 28(6), 553-573.
Siegel, L. (2011). Criminology. (11 ed., p. 523). California: Wadsworth Publishing.
This essay summarizes three chapters 2, chapter 3, and chapter 4. These chapters illustrate various stages of child development.
Summary of chapter 2
Chapter 2 broadly focuses on the biological and environmental factors that influence the development of a child.
The process of a child’s development starts right from the stage when it is cocooned in its mother’s womb. In other words, it begins from the formation of a zygote. A zygote is developed as a result of the fusion of two sex cells – the sperm and ovum. As a result of meiosis occurring in the sex cells the normal chromosome number reduced to half. After fusion, however, it regains the normal chromosome count, which is 23 pairs.
A human chromosome contains 23 pairs. One is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. The basic element of a chromosome is DNA and gene is the major component of the DNA. Chromosomes are multiplying as a result of mitosis. So each cell in an infant body contains an equal number of chromosomes and the same genetic information. Genes give instructions for the development of proteins, which help the character development of a child.
After the formation of a zygote, chromosomes begin to pair up and multiply. Then the chromosomes next to one another exchange the segment through a process called crossing over. As a result of this process, new genetic combinations are formed. This is the reason why offspring of the same parents display both similarities and dissimilarities.
The 23 chromosome pairs contain 22 similar pairs called autosomes, and the remaining pair determines the sex of the child. Two forms of the gene inherited from mother and father placed at the same place on the autosome are known as alleles, whose relationship determines the traits of a baby. Among these two forms, one is dominant and one is recessive. Dominant determines the character of a baby while recessive has no effect.
Sometimes, the structure of the DNA may change due to mutation which results in genetic disorder in the baby. This chapter also dwells on parental diagnosis methods and health issues of a newborn baby.
Apart from hereditary, the environment has a great role in the development of a child. The most important environmental factor is family. Basic character building starts with the family. Some things from the family atmosphere directly influence the child while some others have an indirect influence. Society and culture are other two factors that affect a child’s development. The lifestyle of the society, financial status of the parents and the circumstances in which the child is developing, education level of the society, etc will also influence the development of a child. Neighborhood and school are two other important factors affecting the child’s development.
In short, both biological factors and environmental factors have equal importance in the development of a child
Summary of chapter 3
Chapter three deals with the prenatal development of a child. In this modern world, parents have full freedom to decide whether they want to have children or not. It has many advantages and disadvantages. In the recent period, there has been a huge reduction in the birth rate. The number of nucleus families has increased. Children get more benefits in a small family than in a big family. In a small family, parents get more time to spend with their child and they do have more financial stability. This facilitates better care for the child and this way they get a favorable atmosphere for their development. However, sometimes, children from small families become selfish and spoiled.
This chapter also mentions how the fusion of male sex cells and female sex cell happens and how the union of sperm and ovum takes place besides discussing its further development stages. It also deals with the growth of the brain at these stages.
This chapter further dwells on various environmental influences during the prenatal period and explains what are the effects of harmful factors like drugs and pollution in the development of a child during the prenatal period. It also discusses the significance of prenatal healthcare and prenatal parenthood life.
Summary of chapter 4
Chapter 3 mentioned the birth and the infant. A child’s birth has three stages. The first and second stage has two parts. In the first stage dilation and enhancement of the cervix occurs and in the second part comes the transition. In the second stage, pushing is the first part and the birth of the baby is the second part. The third stage is the delivery of the placenta.
This chapter also mentions the appearance of an infant and different types of approaches to childbirth. Different kinds of medical intervention for different purposes like fetal monitoring, for delivery medication, and different techniques used for delivery like instrument delivery, induced labor method, and cesarean methods are discussed here. Various types of birth complications like oxygen deprivation and low birth weight are also dealt with in this chapter. It also focuses on the various biological process taking place in an infant’s life.
Conclusion
From these three chapters, it is clear that a child’s development starts from its mother’s womb. Child’s physical and mental characteristic depends on both the hereditary and environmental factors.
This essay summarizes three chapters 2, chapter 3, and chapter 4. These chapters illustrate various stages of child development.
Summary of chapter 1
Chapter 1 deals with different fields of child development and different development issues with the help of different theories. It also discussed the influence of biological and environmental factors on child development.
This chapter broadly discussed the various child development studies conducted in the history, in the last century, and recent studies. In the last century’s study about this topic was discussed with the help of social learning theory, Erikson’s theory, and Freud’s theory, Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory. Recent studies were discussed with the help of information processing, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory., which discuss the influence of the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and an ever-changing system in child development.
This chapter further dwells on a comparison between various child development theories, and different methods for collecting information related to child development. It also mentioned the cultural influence in child development and different social issues related to child development and their health.
Summary of chapter 2
Chapter 2 broadly focuses on the biological and environmental factors that influence the development of a child.
The process of a child’s development starts right from the stage when it is cocooned in its mother’s womb. In other words, it begins from the formation of a zygote. A zygote is developed as a result of the fusion of two sex cells – the sperm and ovum. As a result of meiosis occurring in the sex cells the normal chromosome number reduced to half. After fusion, however, it regains the normal chromosome count, which is 23 pairs.
A human chromosome contains 23 pairs. One is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. The basic element of a chromosome is DNA and gene is the major component of the DNA. Chromosomes are multiplying as a result of mitosis. So each cell in an infant body contains an equal number of chromosomes and the same genetic information. Genes give instructions for the development of proteins, which help the character development of a child.
After the formation of a zygote, chromosomes begin to pair up and multiply. Then the chromosomes next to one another exchange the segment through a process called crossing over. As a result of this process, new genetic combinations are formed. This is the reason why offspring of the same parents display both similarities and dissimilarities.
The 23 chromosome pairs contain 22 similar pairs called autosomes, and the remaining pair determines the sex of the child. Two forms of the gene inherited from mother and father placed at the same place on the autosome are known as alleles, whose relationship determines the traits of a baby. Among these two forms, one is dominant and one is recessive. Dominant determines the character of a baby while recessive has no effect.
Sometimes, the structure of the DNA may change due to mutation which results in genetic disorder in the baby. This chapter also dwells on parental diagnosis methods and health issues of a newborn baby.
Apart from hereditary, the environment has a great role in the development of a child. The most important environmental factor is family. Basic character building starts with the family. Some things from the family atmosphere directly influence the child while some others have an indirect influence. Society and culture are other two factors that affect a child’s development. The lifestyle of the society, the financial status of the parents and the circumstances in which the child is developing, education level of the society, etc will also influence the development of a child. Neighborhood and school are two other important factors affecting the child’s development.
In short, both biological factors and environmental factors have equal importance in the development of a child
Summary of chapter 3
Chapter three deals with the prenatal development of a child. In this modern world, parents have full freedom to decide whether they want to have children or not. It has many advantages and disadvantages. In the recent period, there has been a huge reduction in the birth rate. The number of nucleus families has increased. Children get more benefits in a small family than in a big family. In a small family, parents get more time to spend with their child and they do have more financial stability. This facilitates better care for the child and this way they get a favorable atmosphere for their development. However, sometimes, children from small families become selfish and spoiled.
This chapter also mentions how the fusion of male sex cells and female sex cell happens and how the union of sperm and ovum takes place besides discussing its further development stages. It also deals with the growth of the brain at these stages.
This chapter further dwells on various environmental influences during the prenatal period and explains what are the effects of harmful factors like drugs and pollution in the development of a child during the prenatal period. It also discusses the significance of prenatal healthcare and prenatal parenthood life.
Summary of chapter 4
Chapter 3 mentioned the birth and the infant. A child’s birth has three stages. The first and second stage has two parts. In the first stage dilation and enhancement of the cervix occurs and in the second part comes the transition. In the second stage, pushing is the first part and the birth of the baby is the second part. The third stage is the delivery of the placenta.
This chapter also mentions the appearance of an infant and different types of approaches to childbirth. Different kinds of medical intervention for different purposes like fetal monitoring, for delivery medication, and different techniques used for delivery like instrument delivery, induced labor method, and cesarean methods are discussed here. Various types of birth complications like oxygen deprivation and low birth weight are also dealt with in this chapter. It also focuses on the various biological process taking place in an infant’s life.
Conclusion
From these three chapters, it is clear that a child’s development starts from its mother’s womb. Child’s physical and mental characteristic depends on both the hereditary and environmental factors.
When speaking about such issues as love, hate and reparation, one is to keep in mind that such emotional responses seem to be the most common ones. It should be pointed out that these emotional manifestations are born in mind and, thus, influence people’s behavior.
However, the most important fact, which should be highlighted, is that the above-mentioned emotional responses are comprehended by people in different ways. In other words, one is to understand that individual perceptions of various feelings determine the way people conduct themselves in relation to others.
The body
Love, hate and reparation: the fundamentals
Of course, it is obvious that love seems to be a good feeling or an emotional response. Feelings of love can be associated with security and safety, (when a person is in love with smb., he or she feels safe and calm), i.e. there are no exogenous irritants, which can cause negative feelings.
On the other hand, it is also necessary to keep in mind that, sometimes, a strong feeling of responsibility is also caused by love. For instance, when speaking about the child and the adult, it becomes evident that the adult wants to protect the child from numerous destructive issues.
However, the most interesting fact is that love and hate are controlled by unconscious centers of our mind. For this reason, one can suppose that such emotional responses seem to be mostly intrinsic. Still, when speaking about the child, it is necessary to point out that the baby’s response (love) is spontaneous, and it is recognized to be the so-called feedback.
On the other hand, making reparation is also an important element of love, which is to be analyzed. Thus, there is a need to point out that the feeling of guilty, which occurs when a person injures somebody, impacts on our desire to be forgiven. Even when a person feels good, there is the so-called unconscious feeling of guilty, which makes us feel uncertain.
Another interesting aspect, which should be analyzed, is associated with infancy. Infantile thinking, however, seems to be appropriate kind of thinking not only for children, but also for adults. In other words, one can make a conclusion that there are some cases, when childish thoughts appear in mind of the adults. “It must be
recognized, therefore, that in a certain sense psychoanalysts do attribute infantile thinking to grownups, while, at the same time, distinguishing between the adult and the infantile personality and mode of thought” (Klein & Riviere 6). Taking into the above-mentioned statement, it becomes obvious that when the emotional responses are expressed individually, their origin is in our mind, i.e. there are unconscious reactions, which cause a certain behavioral response.
The same can be said about hate. It may sound strange, but pleasant feelings can also be caused by such emotional manifestations, as aggression and hate. They say that the struggle for existence is determined by both positive and negative emotions. So, hate, as such, may guarantee that a person will overcome certain obstacles, in order to achieve a certain aim. Generally, one is to keep in mind that love, hate and reparation are considered to be self-preservative feelings.
The conclusion
Experiencing love, hate and reparation seems to be one of the most important dynamics in people’s interpersonal relations. The above-mentioned emotional responses are considered to be the so-called constituents of a family law. The way people express their feelings or emotional manifestations depends upon both conscious and unconscious processes, although, the origin of the psychological responses is mostly unconscious.
Works Cited
Klein, Melanie, and Joan, Riviere. Love, Hate and Reparation, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1964. Print.
The attachment theory is a theory of child development and a creation of the British psychiatrist by the name John Bowlby. According to this theory, children are born in a state of immaturity and have to receive care and protection from adults for many years. Infant mother behavior promotes the survival of a child and becomes a part of all humans through natural selection.
Some of these behaviors include the cry of a child due to hunger or cold; the cry alerts the mother who responds to the infant’s distress. The mother’s actions of responding could include holding, feeding or consoling the infant. These actions comfort the infant and stop its crying and may lead to the baby smiling or laughing. However, if the mother chooses to respond by ignoring the infant, it is bound to continue crying.
Object relations theory argues that interpersonal relations within the family, especially between the child and its mother shape the life or motivate the individual. Object relations theory relates to Bowlby and Ainworth’s attachment theory in the sense that both portray human beings as relationship seeking creatures.
Both theories reveal that a child or individual seeks relationships by identifying with certain objects in order to achieve dependency and/or attachment. In addition, both demonstrate that there can either be positive or negative reinforcement. The two theories contrast because attachment theory starts from birth, when the child performs actions like suckling and crying and continues into adulthood.
However, object relations theory is only applicable when a child gains knowledge. This means that it begins after the infant is a few months old and has the ability to differentiate. We use the example of a new born infant to explain the two theories. When the child is hungry, chances are high that it cries to express the hunger. The mother picks it and breastfeeds it, and it stops crying and tends to play or sleep off due to the satisfaction after feeding.
In addition, if another woman who is not the baby’s mother picks it up and feeds it; the child still feels the satisfaction of being full and reacts in the similar manner that it does with the mother. However, when the child is over six months old, it has the ability to recognize its mother. Therefore, if it cries only the mother or certain close members of the family can pick it. Since the child has the ability to recognize strangers, it continues to cry if another woman tries to breastfeed or even hold it.
Behaviorism operates on the basis that an individual’s reaction to stimuli shapes the person. It focuses on the observable actions, arguing that something in the environment occurs that elicits the behavior. The differences in David and Chelsea are a result of how differently their mother treats them even in the same circumstances.
When she takes the children to the day care centre she hugs David warmly but when Chelsea tends to cling, she reprimands her. At the zoo, she comforts David when he is scared of a lion but not so to Chelsea when she runs away from a stranger. In this situation, the mother is the determinant factor; therefore, she is the environment that makes David and Chelsea behave the way they do.
Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment theory is related to evolutionary psychology because it has an evolutionary perspective, which is based on the theory of natural selection, established by Charles Darwin in 1859. It suggests that evolution processes such as natural selection aid in survival and reproduction of living creatures including human beings.
Natural selection implies that organisms that are best suited pass down their traits. In other words, individuals with attributes that the society regards as affirmative pass their genes at greater frequencies than alternatives (Confer, Easton, Fleischman, Goetz, Lewis, Perilloux, & Buss, 2010). Bowlby believed that attachment has an evolutionary benefit, i.e. it helps a child to survive by assuring it of protection from predators and providing it with its basic needs.
Evolutionary theory of attachment proposes that children come into the world biologically prepared to form bonds with others, since this will help them to survive. The infant displays inborn behaviors such as smiling and crying that encourage inherent care giving reactions from adults. The determinant of attachment is care and responsiveness but not food (MacLeod, 2009).
According to Karen Horney’s Psychoanalytical social theory, cultural and social circumstances especially experience in childhood shape one’s personality. Horney’s theory like attachment theory argues that attachment develops in the same manner across all human cultures whether the child is reared by its parent or in day care.
Horney’s theory argues that individuals whose need for affection and love are not met during their upbringing become hostile to their parent and suffer from anxiety. The anxiety makes these individuals react in three ways. They either move towards, against, or away from people. In Justin’s situation, the lack of love and affection from his parents make to react with aggressiveness when his girlfriend Angela feels bothered by his calls and contacts.
His clingy behavior is due to a feeling of rejection and a need for affection and approval. Both theories argue that experiences during childhood have a long lasting influence on an individual’s behavior. The behavior Justin exhibits results from the cold treatment he gets from his parents. He tries to compensate for this by expressing his desperation to be close to Angela.
References
Confer, C. Jaime., Easton, A. Judith., Fleischman, S. Diana., Goetz, D. Cari., Lewis, G. David., Perilloux, Carin., & Buss, M. David. (2010). Evolutionary Psychology: Controversies, Questions, Prospects, and Limitations. In American Psychologist. American Psychological Association, 65(2), 110-126.
The development of cognitive capacity in a child is often influenced by maternal depression. The early environment, a child is exposed to, especially the maternal care environment influences the brain and affects the cognitive functioning of the child. Depriving a child of maternal care at an early stage limits improvement even at a later stage, thus highlighting how sensitive an offspring can be when it comes to exposure during a particular stage in development. This paper is a summary of the study on this subject and its findings.
The Enumeration of the Article
The study sets out to establish and identify the linkage between the environment and brain development. The article borrows from early studies that the related rodents and their brain development are connected to the postnatal environment they live in (Evans et al., 2012).
Although the findings from the study of rodents indicate a positive outcome, this particular study determines whether the same can be said of human beings. It is not advisable to generalize the findings of this study to human beings. Instead, a complete study should be performed to be sure that the human brain, just like that of rodents, is susceptible to the external surroundings as it grows.
Before drawing a general conclusion, the researchers notice that brain development in primates begins even before the birth, unlike in rodents. Additionally, ethical and practical restraints limit the early manipulation of the environment in humans. A study closely relates to the manipulation of the environment in the case of rodents, but this time relating to humans is picked to determine the extent of the implications (Evans et al., 2012).
The article referes to the study conducted in the Romanian orphanages where comparisons are made between the children looked after in the local families and those fostered in the institutional care. The findings of the Romanian study identify the fact that children brought up in the foster care at an early age of four-and-a-half years already show significantly higher IQ scores. This is in contrast to their counterparts who grow up in the poor environment often provided by the institutional care (Evans et al., 2012).
There is a positive indication that fostering between 0 and 2 years of age is critical in as far as the IQ score is involved. However, the initial 2 years are not considered as part of the study’s truly sensitive period with regard to the cognitive development because the age of fostering remaines confounded by the duration spent during the institutional care (Evans et al., 2012).
The article outlines that depression in women occurs commonly during the period when they bear children (Evans et al., 2012). According to several longitudinal research studies quoted in the article, the children born of mothers who suffer postnatal depression (PND), register a poor cognitive measure score during the early stages of their development. In particular, this effect is more pronounced among the male offspring. The studies, however, fail to confirm whether these early effects on development continue unabated as the child matures.
A different study conducted in Cambridge concludes that the direct effects cannot be traced in children aged 5 years. Nevertheless, the scenario changed at the age of 16 when it is actually concluded that PND affects the boys’ school performance. The greatest influence comes about with regard to the mother-child interaction and effects of the early development.
Another study conducted in South London, which entails a comparatively more disadvantaged sample in terms of socioeconomic standing, discovers variations in IQ based on the maternal PND. The related findings show apparent positive relations at the ages of 11 and 16 (Evans et al., 2012).
Generally, the linkage between a child’s lower IQ and PND are more evident when considering the high risk samples as opposed to the low risk ones. These findings highlight the fact that social disadvantage plays a critical role in moderating the relationship involving postpartum depression, on one hand, and the child’s cognitive advancement, on the other hand. Adverse effects are depicted in children who grow up in the backgrounds that are disadvantaged socioeconomically.
With this general position adopted in the article, however, the authors are quick to note that depression patterns at the pregnancy time, as well as the initial postnatal years, differ noticeably among women. While some pregnant women may only encounter single episodes, others may face recurrent episodes, including the chronic depression.
Over half of the women, who register high scores in depression symptoms postnatally, will have registered high scores in the early or late pregnancy. Depression risk remains high after the initial postnatal year, resulting in many women experiencing chronic depression patterns. In return, the pregnancy depression extends to the child’s initial years of development (Evans et al., 2012).
Research Results
Maternal PND that occurs during the first year of a child’s birth shows no independent influence on a child’s cognitive function, particularly at the age of 8. The authors note that postnatal period shows no sensitivity in as far as maternal depression exposure is concerned. PND does not cause long lasting effects on the severity noted in the community samples used in the studies.
It is not true that PND suffered by children immediately after their birth dates would show the effects on cognitive power later at the age of 16. While an earlier study established these characteristic as part of its finding, the small sample size affects the result.
Both maternal socioeconomic circumstances and the child’s gender do not matter in the outcome of the results on cognitive power and PND (Evans et al., 2012). Additionally, there is no specific age, at which a child’s IQ power is noticeably affected by PND. Instead, all children who suffer PND exhibit virtually the same low IQ uniformly and throughout their lifetime.
Continued depression experienced by mothers after birth involves other risks that are not part of this study. This is why the children involved equally suffer from poor IQ stance. Among the other risk factors not involved in this study, one should consider common genetic vulnerability, as well as maternal antisocial lifestyle. These two factors have a significant potential of influencing a child’s cognitive development (Evans et al., 2012).
The presence of depression after birth is more critical in affecting a child’s IQ than the same condition occurring at some other time. Children who have suffered the most severe conditions of depression equally exhibit stronger effect on their overall IQ power. The happenings that occur during the pregnancy period affect postnatal development and the general health as well.
Personal Opinion on the Research
The findings of this research, which indicate that the environment in which a baby is brought up, affects its IQ power, are correct. Several of the findings covered in this article point to the same result that a poor environment of the mother and the baby in the initial years of birth often affects brain development. The direct proportionality of the depression period and extent of a child’s brainpower further highlights the significance of the research findings.
However, there are other factors, apart from mere postnatal depression, that affect brain development and brainpower of a child. While this research appears to indicate that PND is more critical in determining a child’s IQ, this fact is disputable and requires further research.
The article identifies other risk factors, including genetic issues and antisocial character on the part of the mother. However, the authors appear to consider the factors only as less sensitive ones. It is important to carry out more research in this area to verify the extent, to which PND influences brain development in children.
Conclusion
The development of a child’s brainpower is directly related to the pregnancy conditions of the mother and the postnatal depression that the child undergoes after birth. Children who brought up in comfortable life conditions show a more developed IQ comparing to those who grow up in a highly depressing environment. The same conditions are also notable in other animals, including rodents.
It is critical to point out that the human brain development begins in pregnancy, thus even depression suffered by a pregnant woman is likely to extend to the IQ of her offspring. These effects, however, do not manifest themselves in children with specific genders, or at some specific ages. Both male and female children will exhibit the same level of low IQ power as long as they encountered depression in their initial years of development. However, the poor IQ level is directly proportional to the extent to which a child is subjected to depression.
Reference
Evans, J., Melotti, R., Heron, J., Ramchandani, P., Wiles, N., Murray, L., & Stein, A. (2012). The timing of maternal depressive symptoms and child cognitive development: a longitudinal study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(6). 632-640.
Normal development among children encompasses a concurrent physical, cognitive and social development. This implies how one expects children of various ages to have different levels of cognitions, social attachments and physical characteristics. However, the development of every child stands out unique and theoretically complex.
Various factors including environmental and experiences that children go through amongst others play key roles in influencing how they go through the sequences of development. Consequently, all children may fail to develop based on some predictable sequential development steps at the same time: normally divided in terms of years. The project seeks to make an observation of four-year-old and a seven-year-old child to unveil the conformance of the widely anticipated developments at the stages with the actual field observations.
Observations for a four-year-old
The child has intensive desire to know what cause some certain feelings such as sadness or anger. She talks out the causes of her sadness, for instance, claiming that her momma has beaten her up and attempts to deal with her anger by copping strategies such as drawing pictures.
The child interacts with his/her friends through plays portraying sympathy especially when the friends are hurt. She also attempts to suggest mechanisms of resolution of conflicts. The child was particularly interested in leaving the parent to explore the world with her friends.
However, she seemed concerned with the whereabouts of her parents. Physically, the child can run around as she involves her friend in hide and seek games. She also seems to have perfected galloping, hoping and jumping skills. She approaches the world with lots of curiosity and enormous imagination in an attempt to build on her abstract cognitive abilities.
Observations of a seven-year-old
Emotionally, the child has an enormous ability to understand his peers feeling. The child observed tended to set off from his friends when it comes to anger management through requesting the peer members to leave him alone. This is perhaps indicative of the desire to manage his emotions independently. Socially, the child participates proactively in games governed by rules. He/she also takes time to limit certain actions of his friends that he thinks would hurt his person.
Physically the child seems to have perfected combination of motor skills such as walking rhythmically according to musical beats. The child’s cognitive ability is concrete with the ability to identify numbers, sounds, words usage and association of music with moods. The child was able to identify objects within his environment with the capacity to extend his knowledge on three-dimensional objects.
Is the seven year old on track developmentally?
Children development experts posit various developmental anticipations of children at various ages. At seven years, one expects the child to have developed cute linguistic and mathematical abilities. The observed child, can recognize, sum up and perform various mathematical tasks. He/she can also identify words and attach meaning to certain sounds. Based on these criteria, the child is on track in terms of cognitive abilities. Emotionally, the child can appreciate his/her friends feeling.
He/she also considers independent resolution of his emotional turmoil. His/her involvements in games are more of dictated by rules, as he/she treats his/her friends in accordance to the rules of the game.
This is indicative of being in track developmentally. In terms of physical development, children development experts anticipate that children at the age of seven have a perfect ability to combine their motor skills such rolling after jumping. The observed child walked rhythmically according to musical beats indicating compliance with sequential development anticipation.
This assignment is a discussion on the topic of giftedness and talent development. The discussion explores the topic by defining giftedness and how it’s related to talent. It archives this through looking at the socio- affective characteristics and personalogical development of the gifted child, and how they interact to assist or hinder the development of talents by the gifted children.
In the assignment therefore, the argument is that both socio- affective characteristics and personalogical development of the gifted child may have positive or negative effects on the gifted child, depending on how the parents, teachers and guardians respond to his or her needs.
Those children, whose giftedness is properly nurtured, are able to develop the relevant skills and vice versa. The discussion is based on Francoys Gange’s model of giftedness as well as on various other readings.
Discussion. The Gifted Child
Many scholars have for some time been grappling with the question of who really is a gifted child. Giftedness has usually been confused with talent, with some scholars like Joseph S. Renzulli, and Robert Sternberg using both giftedness and talent as synonyms (Rensuli, Smith, White, Callahan, & Hartman, 1976).
Some of the pioneers of the field of giftedness in education include Terman and Hollingworth. These two are believed to have been the first to notice the remarkable differences between the gifted individuals and the general population (Hollingworth, 1926).
After the pioneer work by the above scholars in mid 1920s, other scholars like Tannenbaum Witty, Benbow and Stanely took the discussion on the topic a notch higher by establishing the differences between the gifted individuals and the general population in terms of aptitudes, temperament, family backgrounds and ability levels (Witty, 1930) and (Benbow &Stanley, 1983).
In recent years after the works of these scholars, psychologists developed some scales to measure and rate these characteristics in an attempt to quantify the most prominent behavioural indicators of giftedness.
As recent as 2000, Francoys Gange developed what was referred to as Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) which is also referred to as the developmental theory.
In the theory, Francoys Gange argues that giftedness is a pre-requisite of talent development and therefore a person may not become talented without being gifted in the first place. However, according to him, a person may just retain his or her giftedness without developing a talent but the reverse is not true (Gange, n.d).
In DMGT, giftedness is simply defined as a natural ability which is not necessarily innate, but has some genetic linkages. However, scholars are yet to unravel the mystery of the linkage of giftedness to genetics. Giftedness may also refer to an above average intellectual ability among the peers as well as a high cognitive ability than that of the peers.
Talent on the other hand is defined as skills, competencies and expertise acquired through the process of learning. Talent may or may not emanate from giftedness; with talent emanating from giftedness being more versatile than the one emanating from normal learning.
Talent may also refer to various forms of excellence like in technology, sports or arts. In the words of Francoys Gange giftedness and talent may be differentiated as follows;
‘GIFTEDNESS designates the possession and use of outstanding natural abilities, called aptitudes, in at least one ability domain, to a degree that places an individual at least among the top 10% of age peers’ (Gange, 2005. pp. 98-119).
‘TALENT designates the outstanding mastery of systematically developed abilities, called competencies(knowledge and skills), in at least one field of human activity to a degree that places an individual at least among the top 10% of age peers who are or have been active in that field’ (Gange, 2005. pp. 98-119).
Francoys Gange goes ahead to conclude that as, I quote, ‘talent development corresponds to the progressive transformation of gifts into talents. According to the DMGT theory, talent development constitutes of five components namely gift, talent, talent development, intrapersonal and the environment catalysts designated as G, T, D,I and E respectively.
The interaction of these five components may either assist or hinder the transformation of giftedness into talent(s). In the following section, I will discuss in brief these five components of talent development (Gange, 1998. pp.87–95).
Components of Talent Development
The gift (G) component
This component constitutes of other six sub components namely the creative (GC), intellectual (GI), social (GS), perceptual (GP), motor control reflexes (GR) and muscular (GM) abilities.
According to Francoys Gange, these natural abilities may be observed in children as they perform various tasks like understanding mathematical concepts, reading and learning a foreign language, speaking, composing a song or a poem, writing a story, social abilities in interactions as well as physical and perceptual abilities like dancing, doing crafts and sculpture work (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
Francoys Gange argues that these gifts manifest themselves in young children mainly because at that age, systematic learning is usually absent. It therefore follows that the more the children are exposed to systematic learning, the more these gifts are transformed into various talents during adulthood (Van Tassel- Baska, 1983. pp.139-144).
The Talents (T) Component
The World-of-Work classification of occupations classifies talents into nine sub-components, six of which are based on John Holland’s well-known Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC) classification of personality, with the other three namely games, academic (K-12) subjects, and sports serving as complements of the other six in RIASEC.
In DMGT, most of these talents are easily measured using various scales like exams, standardized achievements as well as various assessments in various occupations and fields of excellence. In the DMGT model, there is no room for elitism, which attributes talent development on learning, education and qualifications, but rather, a presence of giftedness and talents in many individuals in the general population (Sternberg, 2004. pp.79-95).
The Talent Development Process (D) Component
This process is believed to begin as soon as an individual, either a child, an adult or an adolescent enters a systematic talent oriented development program mostly through the process of identification. This component is composed of other the sub- components namely progress (DP), activities (DA), and investment (DI). The main components of talent development activities include the curriculum offered in a specific format (DAF) and specific content (DAC).
The learning environment or format may either be structured, for example in school or unstructured, also known as autodidactic learning. In the DMGT model, the development of a talent takes place in a gradual and progressive manner, moving from novice, advanced, proficient and expert (Colangelo & Davis, 2003).
During this process, which is mostly a longitudinal one, the teacher or coach is able to note the peak of the talentee during various activities or occasions like death of a loved one, manifestation of love and excellent performance in various fields by the talentee which becomes outstanding and unique.
Talentees may also be unique in the manner in which they spend their money, time and psychological energies, with most of them recording outstanding and unique approaches to these issues (Gange, 1999.pp.109-136).
Intrapersonal (I) component
This component is also referred to as the intrapersonal catalyst and constitutes of two other sub-components namely the physical and mental traits and the goal oriented process. The physical traits include things like race, ethnicity and chronic illness while the mental traits include things like personality and temperament.
These traits, both physical and mental may positively or negatively impact on the individual’s ability to develop talents from natural giftedness (Heller & Kurt, 2000.pp.67-79).
The goal oriented process constitutes of three other sub-components namely motivation (IM), awareness (IW), and volition (IV). Awareness of their personal strengths and weaknesses enables the talentees to adequately plan the development of goal identification activities.
The talentees are also motivated by the achievement of some goals, which makes them specialize on such areas thus developing specific talents. Failure in some areas leads to less interest and lowered motivation in those fields, thus a low probability in developing talents in those areas (Gross, 2004).
The Environmental (E) component
This component is also referred to as environmental catalyst and constitutes of three other sub-components namely the individuals (EI), milieu (EM), and provisions (EP).
EI sub-component constitutes the talentees’ social environment, and more so, the influence of the significant others like siblings, parents, teachers, public figures, mentors, and trainers as well as peers on the taletees. The actions of these significant others may influence the talent development by the gifted individuals either positively or negatively (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
The EM constitutes of physical, social and economic environments in which the gifted individual find himself or herself in. Physical environment may include things like climate and the nature of the neighbourhood which may be either a rural or an urban setting.
The social environment may involve things like the social and cultural environment of the general population in the place where the gifted child grows in while the economic aspect may include things like the financial status of the parents and family of the gifted child (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
EP sub-component constitutes the talent development programs and services and is sub-divided into two sub-categories namely administration and enrichment , with enrichment referring to some specific talent development curriculum while administrative provision referring to the part time or full time grouping, grade skipping, early enrolment in schools as well as the advanced placement programs (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
Chance
Apart from these five components of the development process, psychologists have identified another component referred to as chance and the role it plays in the development process. According to Francoys Gange, chance ‘represents the degree of control that talentees have over environmental influences’.
According to John William Atkinson, chance becomes relevant in the DMGT model in that we are not able to control the backgrounds in which we are born as well as our genetic make-up, yet, these two greatly influence the G and I components in the DMGT model.
Chance therefore plays an important role in talent development because giftedness is influenced by genetic makeup, as well as the social, cultural, physical and economic backgrounds in which we find ourselves in (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
After discussing the talent development process, I will now turn to the socio- affective characteristics and personalogical development of the gifted children and how they influence their talent development. I would like to mention at the outset that giftedness is a natural ability, which may positively or negatively affect the gifted individual depending on the environment in which he or she grows in (Gange, 2003.pp.60-74).
Many scholars in gifted education have argued that gifted children have special needs, which must be addressed so as to enable their natural abilities to be transformed into useful talents, as well as mitigate any negative effects of their giftedness.
Many countries, led by the United States seem to have recognized the needs of the gifted children, and have thus established specialized schools and training for the gifted children with a view of nurturing their natural abilities so as to transform them into very useful talents.
These countries also believe that there are many gifted children and if well nurtured, their natural abilities may be transformed into excellent talents which may put them well ahead of other countries in various fields like technology, commerce, sports and the fight against crime (Mills & Jackson, 1990. pp. 410-422).
Before discussing the characteristics, I would like to point out some of the issues which must be born in mind when discussing these characteristics. One of them is that it is not all gifted children who will portray these characteristics, meaning that some will exhibit specific characteristics but not others.
It is also important to bear in mind that these characteristics are developmental, meaning that some children may show them as early as during childhood while others may show them during later stages of development. Also important to note is that some of these characteristics only appear when the gifted children are engaged in an aptitude or some areas of interest (McMillen, Eckert & Little, n.d).
The Characteristics of Gifted Children and How They Assist or Hinder Talent Development
Preference of independent work
Many gifted children prefer working alone in many activities, even those which require partnership with other children. This may be attributed to their ability to manage their issues properly without any assistance.
It shows their exceptional ability to come up with appropriate solutions to problems or challenges as well as their ability to think abstractly, so as to come up with solutions to many challenges which may need group efforts to solve (Neither,Reis,Robinson & Moon, 2002).
This characteristic may affect the child in a positive manner in that if the child is assisted and guided by a mentor or instructor, he or she becomes motivated to come up with solutions to his or her personal problems, thus becoming an independent minded person.
Such nurturance may also lead to enhanced creativity, which is a pre-requisite of innovation. When they are left to work in groups, this may inhibit their ability to think independently and come up with new and independent ideas. It may also inhibit their reasoning by the fear of appearing too exceptional among their peers (Silverman, 1993).
If gifted children are not properly nurtured, they may develop antisocial behaviour, which may lead to their isolation by their peers. This is because their ability to develop and carry on with the unique behaviour of working alone may lower their self-esteem through perceiving themselves as abnormal instead of exceptional to others.
There is therefore the need for care givers to motivate the gifted children to be more independent by informing them that they are not being deviant, but rather, are doing very constructive and important work for themselves and the society at large (Cox, Daniel & Boston, 1985).
Multiple interests
Gifted children are unique in that they are able to have multiple interests at the same time unlike the other children who usually have their interests in a prioritized manner. This is attributed to their high cognitive abilities, which enables them to have the energy to pursue and concentrate in several areas of interest at the same time.
In situations where the gifted children are given the opportunity to explore various aspects of life, they are able to develop and master multiple talents. On the other hand, the lack of enabling environment for exploration may lead to frustration of the children, which may in turn lead to slowed development in their various aspects of life.
Emotional intensity
Usually, children are not supposed to have emotions like love, grieve or embarrassment. In contrast, gifted children portray emotional intensity at very early ages in life. They are able to have emotional feelings triggered by death or the absence of something which they adore. Their emotional sensitivity makes them suitable for theatre activities which is itself a talent.
However, if other children realize that they are overly sensitive to various emotions, this may become a problem because the other children, out of ignorance would often disturb the gifted children by evoking such emotions in them, which may hinder the development of the respective talents in them due to lack of the enabling environment to do so.
Perfectionism
Many gifted children are overly concerned about being perfect in everything instead of being excellent. They like to be perfect in academics, social life as well as in their decision making. They feel very angry when they make a mistake no matter how slight it might be.
This tendency may be a resource especially because it makes the child work hard so as to be perfect. This may result in his or her excellence in various fields which in turn develops into various skills and talents.
However, perfectionism may lead to anxiety and fear of failing to accomplish what they want in the way they want it. This may in turn lead to developmental challenges among the gifted children in that it leads to a feeling of guilt, which interferes with their maximum development.
The gifted children therefore need to be nurtured and made to understand that while it is a virtue to work hard, it is good to understand that it is unrealistic for them to be perfect in everything they do, and therefore, the goal of being perfect should be replaced with the goal of achieving excellence. This can go to great lengths in transforming their hard work into useful talents in their areas of interests.
Altruism and idealism
Gifted children have strong passion in helping and working for others at early ages in life. They are very interested in helping their parents and friends as well as peers. They also like doing volunteer work in hospitals or in various humanitarian organizations or initiatives. This rather puzzling passion forms a basis for a career in various humanitarian fields like advocacy, charity work, philanthropy and diplomacy.
However, if the goals of the parents and significant others are not compatible with those of the gifted child; they may not be collaborative and supportive to the child. Similarly, in social cultural environments which do not embrace altruism and idealism, the child may inhibit such a talent and may as well develop the opposite, thus becoming rebellious, cruel and in extreme cases, a sadist.
Good sense of humour
Many gifted children are able to play around with their social environment, using words, gestures or actions which transform a painful or tense situation to a friendly and humorous one, thus defusing any tension either within themselves or in others.
This ability comes from their natural ability to understand various situations and their opposites, thus able to construct jokes, talks and actions which echo the painful or harmful situation, but in an opposite or less painful or harmful version.
This ability, if well nurtured, especially in environment which encourages theatre and comic satires may help the gifted children excel in theatre work. However, if the socio cultural environment does not embrace humour, the child may not develop this particular talent.
The other negative side of a good sense of humour is that it can sometimes lead to more developmental problems, especially if the child uses it to cover up his or her developmental challenges or weird personality traits. This is because the weird personality traits or developmental challenges are camouflaged, and continues to build up without being discovered as early as possible, so that the necessary steps are taken to deal with it.
Strong attachments and commitments
Many gifted children usually form more intense friendships and attachments to people who are order than them than with their peers. This may be attributed mainly to their natural ability to emulate others and excel in various fields or areas of interest.
They are also overly committed to their work, more so during adulthood. This characteristic is useful for them, especially if they grow in environments which value mentorship of young children by their older counter parts.
If assisted to attach themselves to people who are respectable and who have excelled in career or in some talents, the gifted children may develop good talents at their adulthood.
However, in environments where there are few or no good role models to emulate, gifted children may end up emulating or attaching themselves to people with poor and undesirable characteristics, thus acquiring and perfecting bad behaviours, morals and values.
The power of concentration
Many gifted children display an exceptional ability to concentrate and an ability to deal with a specific problem for a long time than their peers. If they are given an ample time to concentrate without inference, they are able to excel in that specific field(s), be it science, mathematics or technology, which may form a strong foundation for their future career in those areas of interest.
However, if disrupted or denied the time to learn how to concentrate at early age, this may hinder their later excellence in these areas of interests.
Ability to generate original ideas
The gifted child is able to come up with original ideas, which are free from any external influence either alone or in partnership with others. The ideas may be in one field, like in technology or in multiple areas, like in technology, mathematics or social studies. This ability is useful in that it may lead to the specialization of the child in a single or multiple fields.
However, there is the need for the parents, teachers and siblings to support the child psychologically so as to reinforce the ability to generate these ideas. If the gifted child grows in an environment where nobody seems to recognize his or her ability, this may compromise his or her abilities to excel in these areas of interests in future life.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this discussion has explored the topic of giftedness and talent. It has emerged that giftedness leads to the development of various talents. The talent development process has also been discussed whereby it has emerged that it is composed of five main components namely giftedness, talent, talent development process, intrapersonal and environmental catalysts.
Various characteristics of giftedness have also been discussed and how they interact with the socio cultural environment to either assist or hinder the development of talents by gifted children.
What has emerged in all the characteristics is that giftedness is not a guarantee of talent development, but rather, it can lead to the acquisition of good or bad talents depending on the manner in which the gifted child is brought up and whether giftedness is nurtured so as to develop into the respective talent(s).
If gifted children are left alone without guidance and nurturance, their natural abilities may be reduced to burdens to themselves or to the society, but if they are properly nurtured, such natural abilities may be tapped and transformed into useful skills and talents, which can help many countries in their development.
It is for these reasons that many countries have established specialized schools and trainings for gifted children, so as to identify various natural abilities at the very early ages, and nurture them into useful talents through giving the gifted children the necessary motivation and setting the necessary learning environment for them to fully develop such talents.
However, research is still going on in order to identify relationship between genetics and giftedness so as to adequately understand the needs of the gifted children in order to reap the maximum talents from them (Terman,1925).
References
Benbow , C.P &Stanley J.(1983). Academic precocity. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
Colangelo,N &Davis, G.A.(2003).Handbook of gifted education (3rd Ed.). Baltimore, MD: Allyn and Bacon.
Cox, J., Daniel, N., & Boston, B.O. (1985).Education Able Leaners. Programs and learning practices. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Gange, F. (1998). A proposal for subcategories within the gifted or talented populations. Gifted Child Quarterly, 42, pp.87–95.
Gange, F. (1999). My Convictions about the Nature of Abilities, Gifts, and Talents. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1999, pp. 109-136.
Gange, F. (2003). Transforming gifts into talents: The DMGT as a developmental theory. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis(Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (3rd Ed.), pp. 60-74. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Gange, F. (2005). From gifts to talents: The DMGT as a developmental model. In R. J. Sternberg and J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2nd Ed.), pp. 98-119. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gange, F. (n.d). The differentiated model of giftedness and talent (DMGT). In J. S. Renzulli, E. J. Gubbins, K.
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Mills ,J.R & Jackson, N.E.(1990).Predictive Significance of Early Giftedness. The Case of Precocious Reading.Journal of educational psychology, 83(2), pp.410-422.
Neither,M.,Reis,S.M.,Robinson,N.M & Moon,S.M.(2002).The social and emotional development of gifted children ;What do we know ?Waco, Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Rensuli, J.S., Smith, L.H., White, A.J., Callahan, C.M & Hartman, R.K.(1976).Scales For The Rating of Behavioural Characteristics of superior students. Mansfield centre CT: Creative learning press.
Silverman,L.K.(1993). Counselling the gifted and talented.Denver: Love publishing
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Terman L. (1925).Genetics Studies of Genius (Vol. 1).Stanford CA: Stanford University Press.
Van Tassel- Baska, J. (1983). The 1982 Midwest talent search finalists. Gifted child quarterly 27(3) 139-144.
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The psychology of child development is of major importance to psychologists, and as a result numerous theoretical concepts have been developed. One of the most important concepts concerned with child development is the psychosocial theory developed by a renowned German social psychologist, Erick Erickson. Erickson’s psychosocial theory is one of the most popular modern theories of human development.
It highlights eight progressive stages through which an individual develops. Erickson proposes that an individual ought to successfully go through all the stages while mastering critical skills at each stage. While these skills enable one to acquire essential virtues, mastery of these virtues is inhibited by inherent challenges at each developmental stage.
As such, Erickson’s theory has become very popular due to the fact that not only does it highlight progressive stages through which personality develops but also highlights key challenges that inhibit such development.
Erickson’s theory goes further and proposes alternative counteractive measures through which individuals navigate crisis inherent in each of the developmental stages. It is imperative to note that the dominant crisis within the entire theory seems to be trust vs. mistrust, which forms the basis of discussion herein.
This paper aims at evaluating major issues pertinent to child development in one of the developmental phases from birth up to 12 years. During this period, an individual develops key skills that not only shape outcomes in later life but almost irreversibly shapes ones personality.
Of the eight stages identified by Erickson, four of them account for personality development for the first 12 years of existence, highlighting the significance of the psychology of child development. The eight stages are categorized as follows: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 2 years), Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (2 – 4 years), Initiative vs. Guilt (4 – 5 years) and lastly Industry vs. Inferiority (5 – 12 years).
Each of these stages is crucial towards the development of a healthy personality. Erickson has identified certain skills acquired at each. Since this paper aims at evaluating one of the critical stages from birth to 12 years, Erickson’s fourth stage, Industry vs. Inferiority, is the focus for this assignment.
Major assumptions are tested against the life experiences of a 7 year old boy, whose real identity cannot be revealed for security and confidentiality.
Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development
While Erickson provides eight stages of human development, half of them encompass human development during childhood.
Erickson’s first four stages are identified as Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 2 years), where a child develops a sense of hope and trusts; Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (2 – 4 years), where a child develops a sense of rebellion; Initiative vs. Guilt (4 – 5 years), where a child learns to set goals, and lastly Industry vs. Inferiority (5 – 12 years) where competency in basic skills is gained.
While there are traces of overlap in child development within these stages, it is imperative to note that each of them is distinct and significantly influences outcomes in later life (Erickson, 1950). In Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development, it is stipulated that the ability to navigate all the eight stages seals the development of a healthy personality.
Additionally, Erickson’s eight stages “characterizes an individual advancement through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating either his or her biological and socio-cultural forces” (Crain, 2011 p. 34). Biological forces are characterized by normal biological changes while socio-cultural forces are indicative of the prevailing social setup.
Description of the subject
John is seven year old boy, and the only child of his mother, a divorcee. John’s mother divorced his father when John was two years old. She remarried an abusive man prompting John’s custody to be given back to his biological father. Due to his step father’s abusiveness, contact between John and his mother has been severely curtailed.
This seems to have confused John, further severing the relationship between mother and son. From afar, john appears to be a normal boy, but upon interaction with him, a different picture of him emerges. John is rebellious, rude, finds problem paying attention and portrays lack of interest in life; this significantly affects John’s performance in class.
His anxiety level is also high, and seems to dread meeting his mother. He also has a tendency to portray anger outbursts, most of which is directed towards his parents; he thinks that his parents are the cause of his misery since they do not love him as they ought to. Such a negative sense of self has negatively affected John’s interaction with others, especially his peers.
He is usually aloof and alone, and as such has no close friends. It is ironical however, that John seems comfortable in the company of adult strangers; he is usually seen talking to strangers on his way to and from school. Nevertheless John attempts to improve relationship with his parents and peers; he is overly kind to his school mates and does anything to impress them.
He also gets presents for his mother and step sister. All this nevertheless, appear to be efforts in futility. His attention span is also very low due to his tendencies to daydream. As a result of this, John has problems not only finishing his school work, but also with household tasks.
He also finds it difficult to concentrate for long hours on any task assigned, be it schoolwork or housework. As a result, John has discipline issues both at home and in school.
Industry vs. Inferiority
According to Pillay (2009) the age between 5 and 12 years marks a period in which a child essentially enters into life. Pillay’s (2009) assertions can be attributed to assertions made by Erickson (1950) that a child develops key competencies during this stage. As such whether a child “can make it in the world of people and things” becomes they key existential question for children aged between 5 and 12 years.
During this age, a child becomes extremely industrious due to increased awareness about the self. 5 to 12 year olds focus on unique skills and abilities. Marotz (2003) further adds that 5 to 12 year olds achieve significant milestones in cognitive development, the result of which is the enhanced understanding of key concepts such as time, space and logic.
Other concepts crucial to a child development and which are learned during this stage include the concept of cause and effect, morality, culture and motivation. Additionally, acquisition of other complex skills such as competency in reading and writing as well as accuracy in telling time are the major preoccupation for 5 to 12 year olds.
According to Chapman (2009), industriousness is precipitated by the confidence gained in the use of ‘method’. By method, Chapman (2009) refers to purposeful and meaningful ways through which children at this age utilize their skills and abilities, to achieve a certain goals.
Assertions made by Chapman (2009) with regard to attainment of goals concur with those made by Erickson (1950) to the extent that goal setting is a major developmental milestone for children aged between 5 and 12 years.
Shaffer (2008) adds that goal setting is associated with increased awareness of the concept of hard work, cause / effects relationship as well as the need to do things right. In addition to this, children at this stage are likely to portray rebelliousness. However, this should not be misconstrued as indiscipline and instead be treated as an expression of expressing independence.
Additionally, rebellion at this stage can be associated with low self esteem as well as lack of motivation. Erickson (1950) adds to this by stating that the school and the playing field are common environments through which major transactions are made for children aged 5 to 12 years.
This implies that, as Kail and Cavanaugh (2004) suggest, 5 to 12 year olds form the most significant relationships not only with parents and their siblings but also with class mates, teachers and neighborhood friends. Schoolwork, child play and competitive sports form the major activities for 5 to 12 year olds.
Erickson theory of psychosocial development is based on trust; trust is the main ingredient in which relationships are built on. Trust determines not only the nature but also the extent of human relationship as well as an individual’s interaction with the external environment. If trust is severed, human relationships as well as the relationship with the external environment are irreparably severed.
Erickson (1950) asserts that lack of trust during this stage can be disastrous in later life, and may create psychosocial problems such as homosexuality and neurosis. Additionally, Chapman (2009) states that lack of trust leads to feelings of failure, be it in the social setup or in school work, and is likely to develop into low self concept.
This leads to the development of inferiority complex. According to Rathus (2012) while inferiority complex is associated with racism and any other form of discrimination and biases, feelings of rejection are likely to aggravate the condition, leading to maladjustment.
As Pillay (2009) asserts, “a negative evaluation of self as inferior compared to others is extremely disruptive at this stage and since this stage is a rehearsal for being productive and being valued at work in later life”, the development of inferiority complex is almost irreversibly catastrophic (p. 33).
Case study
The major question for John seems to be whether he can make it in life, amid the lack of trust for his parents, relatives, peers and teachers. Lack of trust is mostly demonstrated by his tendency to go out of his way to buy gifts for his parents, his lack of close friends at school as well as being excessively nice to his peers.
While this seems to be John’s way of compensating for lack of love and trust, it is also indicative of John’s maladaptive tendencies. Maladaptive tendencies refer to forced behavior characterized by impulsiveness (Breger, 2009).
A maladjusted child shamelessly engages in activities “without proper consideration of his or her abilities to accomplish those activities” and are mostly aimed a helping the child fit in social situations (Pillay, 2009 p. 30).
Lack of trust can be associated with a number of things, but as Rhodes (2000) asserts, the “development of mistrust is often seen in people who had their parental attachment stretched or broken by adoption, abuse or neglect in infancy” (p. 9).
Rhodes (2000) assertions should be taken Vis a Vis claims by Erickson (1950) that mistrust develops during infancy and generally intensifies as the child grows, to the extent that it not only shapes human relationships but also general life outcomes during adulthood.
Additionally, it is commonly assumed that children easily overcome divorce and broken family relationships. However, bearing this in mind, it is evident that divorce, abuse and broken family relationships severely affect a child psychosocial development.
The effects can also be evident long after divorce, as is in John’s case. Divorce, abuse and broken family relationships also seem to affect children aged between 5 and 12 more than it does to parents.
In addition to this, broken family relationships, preferably those caused by divorce and abuse by parents not only lead to delayed psychosocial development but also development of mistrust. Mistrust can be extended from parents to peers and other grown ups and in John’s case to the entire environment.
While mistrust seems to primarily affect the relationship between child and his parents and peers, Watts, Duncan and Cockcroft (2009) assert that mistrust can also have significant effects on the child; it affects the way the child perceives himself.
Rhodes (2000) alludes to assertions made by Erickson (1950) that mistrusting others can also lead to lack trust in the self to the extent that the child becomes shameful and doubtful of himself, as evidenced in John’ case.
In this case shame and doubt, while emanating from lack of motherly love, manifests itself as the tendency to be generally uninterested in life; a child who is generally uninterested in life is most likely doubtful of his abilities. Aloofness is the child’s way of avoiding shaming himself.
Crain (2011) adds that the development of inferiority complex is preceded by shame and doubt about the self. A child experiencing a sense of inferiority among peers demonstrates low perceptions about self. This is evidenced in John whose low self concept emanates from lack of parental love. According to Rhodes (2000) this leads to loss of attachment to parents.
Correspondingly, this can be evidenced in John’s case; he appears aloof and spends much of his time alone. Rhodes (2000) notes that there are certain behaviors characteristic of children with low self esteem, which include inability to control ones emotions. John inability to control anger can be perceived as an emotional problem, and is an indication of low self esteem.
According to Erickson (1950) children aged between 5 and 12 years are characteristically industrious, and are driven by the need to gain competence in certain skills. However, Newman and Newman (2009) assert that loss of trust, referred to as development of mistrust by Erickson (1950), curtails a child’s industriousness. In effect, it impinges on the acquisition of competencies in psychomotor skills.
As such, a child’s performance in sports and school work significantly deteriorates. Disinterest in sports, child play and low academic grades are the resultant effects. John’s lack of industry can be attributed to low self esteem.
Additionally, based on assertions made by Erickson (1950) as well as Newman and Newman (2009), his poor school grades can be attributed to development of mistrust, doubt and shame about the self. This implies the development of mistrust takes back a child’s personality development to the Initiative vs. Guilt stage.
According to Rhodes (2000) children experiencing Industry vs. Inferiority crisis develop resilience as a way of dealing with the crisis. While resilience seems to be a form of defense mechanism, it does not result to development of a healthy personality.
Instead, it leads false perceptions about the child’s growth. Correspondingly, John seems to have developed a sense of resilience amid the Industry vs. Inferiority crisis occurring in his life. This is evidenced by his overt kindness towards his peers and his assumedly unloving parents.
John’s parents as well as teachers seem to be unaware of the existing crisis, and instead falsely accuse him of indiscipline. As a result, John is usually punished. Regardless of this, resilience enables John to continuously love his peers and parents despite lack of reciprocal love.
Amid the Industry vs. Inferiority crisis, the development of resilience can also be attributed to what Erickson (1950) refers to as increased awareness of the relationship between cause and effects and the need not only to be good but also to do what is right.
This alludes to the enhanced development of a child’s moral faculties, which enables 5 to 12 year olds to gain a deeper understanding of the concept of vice vs. virtue, and the ability to choose virtue over vice. In view of this, and despite the increasingly hostile social environment, John seems to have chosen virtue over vice, the result of which is overt and extreme kindness towards his family and peers.
However, this ought not to be misconstrued as an enhanced sense of goal setting, which is characteristic of children between 5 and 12 years. On the contrary, John seems to have retrogressively developed as far as goals setting abilities are concerned. This is due to the fact that his life revolves around trying to please those close to him, rather than doing things that are of value to his personal life.
Conclusion
The major question for 5 to 12 year olds is whether they ‘can make it in life’, amid the increased sense of self importance. This occurs amid the prevailing Industry vs. Inferiority crisis. John’s current life is characterized by Industry vs. Inferiority crisis, the effects of which are apparently dire.
The prevailing social cultural forces in John’s life, characterized by abuse, loss of trusts, separation and severed family relationships, seem to have precipitated the development of inferiority complex. Such conditions effectively obscure opportunities through which industriousness is attained.
This occurs amid John’s maladaptive tendencies, which in this case refers to force behaviors developed to enable him survive an assumedly hostile environment.
John’s case approves Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development, especially in the development of a healthy personality for children aged 5 and 12 years, and indicates that the development of trust is a significant determinant of whether a child attains industriousness or inferiority.
Reference List
Breger, L. (2009). From instinct to identity: the development of personality. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
Chapman, A. (2009). Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. Web.
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of development: concepts and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Erickson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. Belmont: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Kail, V. and Cavanaugh, C. (2004). Human development: A life-span view. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Marotz, L. (2003). Developmental profiles pre-birth through twelve. Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Newman, B. and Newman, P. (2009).Development through life: a psychosocial approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Pillay, K. (2009). Mahatma Gandhi: a psychobiographical study. Web.