Category: Child Development

Abstract

Children have an innate propensity to learn; however, they still need a teacher to guide them on their path to successful knowledge acquisition. Adults are responsible for providing a favorable learning environment allowing children to experiment with real-life materials and situations, ask questions, and find answers. Teachers should guide children from instructive to independent learning. To develop and enrich childrens knowledge and skills, teachers should adhere to the principle of ongoing professional development.

Introduction

Children are curious from their infant years and demonstrate an unceasing willingness to cognize the world. However, when they start learning, they need to get motivation from their immediate surroundings that should provide opportunities for developing and enriching knowledge and skills. Children should be encouraged to learn through communication and exploration. Thus, the role of the educator is to guide children on their path to success from assisted to independent learning using a system of challenges and rewards (Kolb, 2014).

The paper at hand is going to analyze the unique ways children develop and learn as well as the role of adults in this process. Some ideas concerning ongoing professional development in the sphere are also provided.

Recognizing and Supporting Unique Ways Children Develop and Learn

Studying such theorists as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Erik Erikson helps people who are directly involved in teaching understand the sequence of stages a child has to pass through in knowledge acquisition and shape their learning experience by the specific needs arising at each stage. This knowledge produces a huge impact on teachers professional philosophy making them rely on practices that are deeply grounded in research (Spodek & Saracho, 2014).

Children have an innate propensity to learn and tend to follow their interests in choosing directions of world cognition. Leaning for them is not linear and therefore cannot be reduced to a simple input-output model. On the contrary, it is an unceasing process of meaning-making through hypothesizing and experimenting. It involves various environments featuring diverse materials that they can explore. Learning and development are closely interrelated. Different scholars view them as sequential (development precedes learning), simultaneous (or even indistinguishable), or as separate entities that co-evolve (Kolb, 2014). I support the first approach promoted by Piaget since I believe that learning is superimposed over the inborn ability of a child to develop.

Adults are responsible for providing favorable learning conditions allowing children to experiment with real-life situations, ask questions, and find answers. Adults should guide children from instructive to independent learning. Moreover, they should encourage childrens collaboration with others at the same time stressing their individuality.

’As a lifelong learner, I would like to find an answer to the following questions on the topic:

• To what extent should adults control childrens learning?
• At what age should children learn to generalize their knowledge?
• What are the key aspects of successful learning?
• What obstacles can children face at different stages of learning?

Expanding my knowledge and Continuing my Professional Development

The teachers ability to help the child develop and learn largely relies on his/her professional competency. The following key components of ongoing professional development can be singled out (Moon, 2013):

• collaborative action (sharing experiences with other teachers);
• active involvement (creating and participating in activities);
• development of a deeper understanding of the curriculum and teaching strategies;
• sustained, uninterrupted learning;
• freedom of choice to identify personal priorities;
• flexibility (ability to introduce modifications to the curriculum);
• support from teaching communities.

All these elements taken together provide educators with an opportunity to develop concurrently with their teaching practice.

References

Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT press.

Moon, J. A. (2013). Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. London, UK: Routledge.

Spodek, B., & Saracho, O. N. (2014). Handbook of research on the education of young children. London, UK: Routledge.

Introduction

Many scientists and researchers involved in studying child psychology have come up with many theories that attempt to explain how children develop. These theories have shown that children play an active role in their development. Papalia, Wendkos, and Feldman (2007) say that some theories have pointed out that the development of children can occur in a continuous process or a discontinuous process, and the latter is explained by Piagets theory.

This research paper focuses on the three main development theories, their main concepts, major differences, and similarities. It also explains the interaction of cognition, emotional and physical development in child development and its importance. It also reveals the significance of understanding the development of children and adolescents and why they should be assisted so that they can realize their full potential. The three theories discussed in this paper are the Theory of Social Development, Stage Theory of Cognitive Development, and Social Learning Theory.

Three Main Concepts of each Theory

The Theory of Social Development

This is a theory that was developed by Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who lived between the years 1896-1934.

According to Vygotskys Theory of Social Development, it has got three major perspectives. One important factor in his theory is that it is laid on constructivism.

The Three Main Concepts

1. In the process of cognitive development of a child, the way he or she socially interacts with others is very fundamental. Vygotsky felt that what a child learns socially is the one that comes before development. He said that Every aspect of a childs cultural development surfaces twice: initially on the social point and afterward, on the individual level. This means that development is inner psychological or between people and intrapsychological that is within the child (Vygotsky, 1978).
2. The More Knowledgeable Other is abbreviated as MKO. This acronym MKO refers to any person who has a better understanding than the learner in a certain task or process. The MKO can be a teacher, older adult, peers, or even computer.
3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is the expanse between a learners ability to carry out a particular task alone and under peer or adult supervision and the learners ability to solve the problem without supervision or independently.

Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist and biologist came up with the Stage Theory of Cognitive Development.

The Main Concepts

In this theory, he said that the cognitive development of children can be grouped into four distinct groups.

1. Sensorimotor stage: This occurs when a child is between 0-2 years. The child understands how things work and herself or himself by the social interactions with the environment.
2. Preoperational stage. This is when a child is aged between 2-4 years. At this level, a child cannot recognize concepts rather he or she demands a physical situation.
3. Concrete operations. This occurs when a child is aged between 7-11 years. At this level, the more the child accumulates experience, the more he or she accommodates. At this level, a child starts to think, get concepts, and reason logically based on previous physical experiences.
4. Formal operations. This develops between the years 11-15. At this level, cognition has developed fully. At this level, the teen does not rely on concrete items to make logical and rational judgments.

According to Piaget, development through these four stages relies on the organization. Through the organization, a child can create cognitive structures. Cognitive structures can be defined as systems of thinking that tend to incorporate more precise images of reality. The other perspective is that of adaptation where an infant adjusts to any new information in his or her environment. After that, the infant takes the newly acquired information in such a way that they assimilate it into their cognition. Then after that, they learn ways of accommodating it. Equilibrium is important at this stage because it dictates the transition from assimilation to accommodation. If there is a problem between the transitions, the child tends to be uncomfortable since there is no balance.

The Social Learning Theory

This theory was developed by an American Psychologist, Albert Bandura.

The Main Concepts

According to Bandura, children or people learn through observation. In this theory, it is possible for learning to occur without alteration of behavior. Another important factor is that in this theory, cognition plays a great responsibility in the learning process. Bandura carried out Bobo doll studies (Bandura, 2001). For instance, if the children saw that the adults treated the doll well, they too treated it well.

This indicates that there is a behavior observation and modeling process involved (Bandura, 2001). From this theory, the following has to be incorporated for learning and modeling processes to occur. These are:

1. Attention- someone has to be keen so that they can learn. Learning takes place when one observes a model. In this case, a model can be a teacher or an adult, or even a peer.
2. Retention: this is the ability of one to retain the information that they have learned from the modeling or learning process.
3. Reproduction: this is the ability of a person to behave or display the information that they learned and retained.

Three Major Points of Difference

The differences between these three theories are very clear. According to Banduras theory stresses that cognitive processes are the most vital in child development. As children grow, they observe and learn, look at models and then they retain that information and can reproduce a pattern of their own. From the feedback that the children get from their parents, teachers, and peers, they develop standards against which they judge their actions. Again they are bound to look for models that have the behavior that they would want to imitate. This is when they develop the confidence and sense of efficacy and this often dictates the success in their later lives.

However, Piagets theory shows some form of discontinuity and distinctiveness of the minds of the children as they grow. According to Piaget, the mind of an infant is not an adults mini-mind. This theory implies that if you take a person out of the view of a two-year-old, then the child tends to think the person no longer exists which is not the truth. His theory shows that cognitive learning is not continuous.

Vygotskys social-cultural theory points out that the growth of cognition of a child is a collaborative process. It is laid on constructivism. According to this theory, language is a very important part of learning and it greatly influences the way children think and learn in the world. If children are given support in what they do, they can learn, and later on, they can be able to do that alone. Vygotskys theory implies that cognitive growth requires guidance from an elder person, teacher, or coach. This is known as scaffolding.

Similarities of the Three Theories

All three theories are based on many similarities. The first one is that learning of any individual whether infant, young child, or adult is based on cognitive processes. The growth of the cognitive processes is very dependent on the cultural context. This means that the individual is part of the environment and that same environment is responsible for shaping an individuals behavior.

The other point of similarity is that learning is a continuous process. This means that as time elapses the way a child thinks and looks at issues changes. This is why the way a seven-year-old child will think is quite different from the way a fifteen-year-old teen will think. The more children grow older the more rational they tend to think.

All theories rely on information processing. The approach of processing information tries to illuminate the fact that cognitive growth occurs through several mental procedures which are usually involved in handling and recognizing information. According to these theories, people are actively thinking about the environment they are in, and by so doing they learn also information from it. This means that as a child grows from infancy to the age of 15, the efficacy of mental processing and speed increases. Also the complexity and the amount of information the mind can keep increases. Some information processing models have shown that there is a possibility that as a child grows; they tend to configure their minds physically so that they can accommodate the unconscious and conscious memory.

The interaction between physical, emotional, and cognitive development in child development

Child development can be defined as cognitive, physical, and psychological changes that take place from the time of conception up to the terminus of adolescence. Child development is a gradual and continual process whose key characteristic is changing. Through change, children can develop from the simple levels of communication when they babble words, cry to a complex echelon where they think, feel, and move and interact with others independently.

The physical development of a child is the key to the proper growth of any person. Physical development encompasses various aspects of the human body like gross and fine development of the motor system, growth of the size, and increase in strength. For every child to develop physically, he or she should be provided with a balanced diet, protected, and well cared for. At the same point, the child should be raised in a safe environment that fosters and nurtures his growth and development. This is by Banduras Social Learning Theory that states that children tend to base their behavior on what they observe. Also, a child should be encouraged in such a way that it will stimulate him or her to discover their world and put their motor skills into practice.

When a childs physical development is nurtured well, the emotional and cognition processes are bound to develop too. Emotional and psychological development is very important since a child develops a sense of self. The various aspects of emotional and psychological development are emotional regulation, development of self-worth, and sense of trust. Others are the development of feelings of responsibility, socialization skills, confidence, and the ability to interact with others. It is crucial that in the early years of a child, they should be accorded love and support so that their psychology can develop well. It is important to note that social skills and the behavior of children are based on what they see their caregivers do and they imitate it. Whatever the adults do is very powerful and it greatly influences the personality and behavior of a child.

Cognitive or intellectual development refers to language development and the way that a child learns and thinks (Smith, 2002). The cognitive development of a child comes through interaction and socialization with others, play, and learning settings that are formal like schools. The experience and knowledge that a child earns at this point are very important since they help him or her to nurture their confidence and curiosity. Language development of a child occurs during the early years of child growth. A child develops language from what he or she sees, hears. As they see and hear they try to imitate. Language and cognitive development occur when a child listens, talks, sings, reads, and has the overall interaction with other children and caregivers.

Acquisition of knowledge when the child is young is governed by a set of key principles and these same principles are the ones that may constrain the cognitive development of that child in the future. Some key constraints which can alter cognitive development are the environment, the adults or caregivers, and the physical well-being of the child. This is why emotional and physical developments are very important and dictate how a childs cognitive process will develop.

The importance of comprehending Child and Adolescent Development

Every child has got his or her unique characteristics and potential. However, for them to attain their full potential, all children need to be nurtured, well cared for, and fully supported. Every child needs to be accepted and treated with respect, given their basic needs, and given a supportive environment that fosters learning. This is very significant in fostering the growth of a child.

Every caregiver should accept that every stage of development of a child from infancy to adolescence presents new challenges to both the caregiver and the child. It is therefore very important to understand and offer them full support and help because this is where a child has shaped especially the personality. If not supported they become frustrated and resentful which can dictate their character in later life. This can also affect how they relate with others both at home and at formal learning centers like schools.

The needs of the childlike food, a safe environment, love, and support have to be met at all times. The health of the children is important because ill health hampers cognitive, language, and emotional development. This can help the child to develop attitudes towards self and others that are positive and help them to cope and learn in the larger world. As they grow, children should be taught to share, appreciate others, and teamwork. Whatever that children learn in their everyday life is very vital and plays a great role in shaping their minds and cognitive skills (Papalia, Wendkos, & Feldman, 2007). Offering a child a supportive learning environment, encouraging them to try can help children to realize their potential.

References

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.

Papalia, D.E., Wendkos,S.O. & Feldman, R.D. (2007). A Childs World: Infancy through Adolescence. 11th ed. London: Mcgraw-hill.

Smith, L. (2002). Piagets Model. In Blackwells Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development, ed. U. Goswami. Oxford: Blackwells.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Personality has been defined as a set of psychological characteristics that differentiate one person from another. Personality starts developing soon after birth and continues throughout life. Many psychologists believe that personality is determined by early childhood development involving both experiences and growth environment.

Personality involves a set of constant and consistent traits that make each individual unique (Mischel, 1999). The study of personality development is quite complex and various theories have been developed towards this subject. While the theories have some differences, they all agree that personality is determined by early childhood development. This paper looks at the various theories of personality development and how early childhood growth contributes towards an individuals personality.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Psychosexual Development

This theory was proposed by Sigmund Freud who argued that human behavior is determined by unconscious urges. He suggested that human personality is composed of three distinct parts: The id, ego and superego (Bem, 2002). He argued that each human being contains a fixed amount of libidinal energy. This energy creates an internal imbalance that is reduced by releasing this energy thus giving rise to pleasure. According to Freud, at childbirth personality is only composed of id, and all libidinal energy is directed towards it (Engler, 2006). The id enables human beings to meet their most basic needs and operates fully unconsciously. Freud further reported that the id operates under the pleasure principle, seeking satisfaction without any considerations to the prevailing situation or the needs of others (Engler, 2006).

As the child grows and has more interaction with the world, the ego begins manifesting itself. The egos main task is to manage the id and ensuring its impulsive desires are kept in check. During the initial stages of egos development, its only purpose is to ensure the needs of the id are being met. The ego operates under the reality principle; it constrains the id according to rationality and the reality of the surrounding environment (Dicaprio, 1983).

The last to develop is the superego. According to Nye (1981) the super ego begins to develop at the age of six or seven. The super ego develops due to lessons and constrains placed on children by their parents. The superego is mainly linked to guilt as it serves to restrain the basic impulses of the id. The superego is also irrational striving to fulfill societal values and principles as taught to the child without any regards to the well-being of the individual. The ego thus serves to balance the needs of the superego and the id with consideration to the restrictions imposed by the world (Hall & Lindzey, 1978).

Freud also argued that a childs needs and desires are connected to various erogenous zones. He identified three erogenous zones; the mouth, the anus and the genital region. Freud reported that fixation or frustration in any of these stages will determine the future personality of the child. The oral stage begins soon after birth when the child is being breast fed (Rogers, 1961). A child who is not breastfed on demand or was weaned early will be frustrated. The characteristics linked with this individual involve suspicion, envy, sarcasm and pessimism. A child who was overindulged will be fixated and will develop several characteristic. These characteristics include; optimism, gullibility and excessive admiration of other people (Leach, 1997).

The anal stage begins at around age two, when the child is being taught how to use the toilet. This stage entails a conflict between the id (deriving pleasure) and the superego (meeting the wishes of the parents) (Leach, 1997). A child whose parents are lenient will be derive pleasure in expulsion and thus will develop an anal expulsive character. The individual is likely to be more careless, defiant, messy, reckless and carefree as an adult. On the other hand, a child may develop an anal retentive character as a result of being reprimanded about unsuccessful toilet training experiences. This individual is likely to be more neat, careful, orderly, stingy and passive-aggressive as an adult (Lerner, 2002). The phallic and genital stages occur later in life after the early childhood phase.

Psychosocial theory

This theory was proposed by Erik Erikson and has become one of the most recognized theories in developmental psychology. He identified eight stages through which human beings undergo through from infancy to adulthood. Each stage is described by a crisis which an individual is required to solve in order to successfully proceed to the next stage (Gross, 1987). Three of these stages are very important and take place in early childhood while the rest occur during early to late adulthood.

The first stage is that of hope, taking place immediately after birth until the child attains one year of age. This stage deals mainly with how a childs basic needs and desires are being satisfied by the primary care givers (Ryckman, 2004). At infancy, an individual mainly relies on the parents for food and comfort. During this time, the childs view of the world solely depends on the interactions between the child and the parents. A child exposed to warmth, constant affection and dependability, the child will develop a trustful attitude towards the world. If the child is however neglected, he/she will develop an attitude of mistrust and will generally view people as undependable (Ryckman, 2004).

The second stage is that of will and takes place between the second and third year. The crisis involved in this stage is that of autonomy versus shame and doubt (Hart, Atkins & Fegley, 2003). During this stage, the child begins developing motor skill and control over bodily functions. The child at this stage is still very dependent on parental security in order to affirm their will. Parents who are patient and offer encouragement will cultivate autonomy in the individual. Parents who are restrictive and hinder self-sufficiency in the child will lead to the child to develop doubts about their own capabilities of solving life problems (Bem, 2002).

The third stage that takes place in early childhood is purpose. This stage involves the conflict of initiative versus guilt. During this stage, the child aims to improve upon autonomy by learning basic principles of science. During this stage, a child endeavors to undertake actions in order to fulfill a purpose. A child learns how to speak and count with ease, tie his shoe and even button up shirts. At this stage a child also begins experiencing guilt (Hart et al., 2003). This guilt however may arise even when it should not logically exist such as when actions undertaken by the child do not yield the expected results. According to Ryckman (2004), this stage is mainly entails attaining a sense of judgment.

During this stage, it is common to observe aggressive behavior and risk-taking behaviors. Aggressive behaviors arise due to frustration arising from being able to successfully undertake a task (Gross, 1987). A child whose care-takers are supportive and also help in guiding them towards realistic choices, while be independent and initiative while undertaking tasks. A child who is neglected and lacks support or is overly protected from carrying out independent activities will lack initiative and will generally accept things as they are. The child is also likely to experience guilt about their desires and will abstain from activities that are generally meant to assert independence (Gross, 1987).

Social-Learning theories/ Behaviorist Theories

Freuds theory on personality development was highly criticized mainly because it relied solely on sexuality. As a result, various psychologists endeavored to put forth theories that could be scientifically proven. Dollard and Miller proposed a theory of personality development mainly based on learning. They argued that each individual is born with a set of natural needs that include water, oxygen, food and warmth. During early life this needs had to be provided but as people grow they can perform the necessary actions to attain them.

When young, individuals are driven into action in response to basic drives (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). If a given stimulus takes place repeatedly when a basic drive is functioning, then that stimulus may result into a behavior (secondary drive). One example is anxiety that may develop if a child is neglected or lacks the basic need of security. An important issue in this theory is reinforcement. According to the two theorists, reinforcement involves all activities that decrease the response level (Dicaprio, 1983). An individual will always repeat the response that minimizes primary drives.

According to the two theorists, personality is mainly based on learning experiences. It is made up of habits that develop from early childhood to adulthood. Unlike Freuds theory, Dollard and Miller argue that personality is subject to change depending on future experiences. Their theory can also be tested by comparing similarities and difference between individuals who have had similar life experiences.

Another behaviorist theory was proposed by F. Skinner who believed that personality is as a result of interactions between an individual and the environment (Nye, 1981). Skinner believed that during early childhood, children simply replace responses in order to achieve a satisfactory reaction. Once a response is reinforced, the child is very use the same response for an identical situation. This theory argues that children develop two basic notions that determine their future personality.

The first notion is that of generalization whereby a child learns to produce responses to a range of similar situations (Nye, 1981). The second notion is that of discrimination whereby a child learns when it is appropriate to respond to a situation and when it is not (Nye, 1981). According to skinner, these responses are reinforced through general reinforcements such as parental approval.

Social Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories hold that personality is dependent on cognitive process. Bandura presented a theory of social learning which he argued that individuals learn mainly because of the effects of reinforcement. His theory has three main elements: behavior, the environment, and self-efficacy (Emde & Hewitt, 2001). Bandura argued that reinforcements determined whether a response was carried out and not whether it was learned.

According to Bandura, individual responses to a given circumstance may differ due to different previous experiences in similar circumstances (Engler, 2006). Bandura carried out an experiment in which he showed a group of young children a video of a teenager beating up a doll. When these children entered the playroom full of toys and hammers, they began beating up the dolls (Lerner, 2002). According to Bandura, the child saw an older child carrying out an activity without being reprimanded. They then entered an environment with the same dolls and tools. Since they were able to carry out what the boy in the video was doing, they responded in the same manner.

Trait Theories

Many studies carried out in modern times have stressed on the importance of hereditary factors in determining the personality of an individual. Basic traits such as emotional tone and temperament are mainly determined by hereditary factors (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000). These theories hold that traits are consistent, unique and largely influence an individuals behavior. Some hereditary factors influencing personality act as a result of the environment.

Child who are born with learning difficulties or poor mental capabilities may become shy due to how others perceive them and as a result how they see themselves (Emde & Hewitt, 2001). A child who is often ridiculed or humiliated because of his/her inadequacy may become violent in order to compensate or may become shy due to diminished self esteem. Children especially girls who have big bodies in a culture where slenderness is considered attractive may feel inferior or ugly and as a result develop a personality that always seek attention or hides away.

Conclusion

Personality is as a set of psychological characteristics that differentiate one person from another. According to many theorists, a child personality has three main elements: temperament, character and environment. Temperament is a set of hereditary traits that determines how a child views the world. It forms the basis through which a child learns and interacts with the world and how the child will develop future personality traits. According to Freud, the id, ego and superego form the childs temperament. Other theorist believe mental and physical characteristic, unique to each individual form the hereditary basis of a child personality.

The second component that most theorists agree on is the environment. A child responds according to the surrounding environment and as a result develops a distinct personality. The most important aspect of the environment is parental care as a child usually interacts a lot with the parents during early childhood. The final component is character and it involves behavioral and cognitive patterns that a child learns during the course of development. Character determines how a child responds to various situations and it continues to develop throughout life. Character is mainly determined during early childhood and while it evolves, people rarely deviate from their initial childhood character.

Most of the theories proposed have several differences. One of the biggest arguments about personality development is the effect of nature versus nurture. Arguments about whether people are unique or similar at birth have also been presented. While the basic tenets of personality i.e. temperament, environment and character are widely accepted, it can be seen that this subject is a diverse one requiring more exploration. Personality develops throughout an individuals lifetime but it is during early childhood that an individuals personality is determined.

References

Bem, A. (2002). Personality Theories: Development, Growth, and Diversity. Harlow, UK: Allyn & Bacon.

Bjorklund, D. F., & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology. Child Development, 71: 1687-1708.

DiCaprio, N. S. (1983). Personality Theories: A Guide to Human Nature (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Emde, R. N. & Hewitt J. K. (2001) eds. Infancy to early childhood: Genetic and environmental influences on developmental change. London: Oxford University Press.

Engler, B. (2006). Personality Theories. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Gross, F. L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Hall, C. S. & Lindzey, G. (1978). Theories of Personality. New Jersey: John Wiley.

Hart, D., Atkins, R., & Fegley, S. (2003). Personality and development in childhood: a person-centered approach. Monographs in Social Research on Child Development. 68(1): 1119.

Leach, P. (1997). Your baby and child: From birth to age five (5^th ed.). New York: Knopf.

Lerner, R. M. (2002). Concepts and theories of human development. New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Mischel, W. (1999). Introduction to Personality (6^th ed). Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace.

Nye, R. D. (1981). Three Psychologists: Perspectives from Freud, Skinner, and Rogers, 2nd ed. New York: Brooks/Cole.

Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ryckman, R. (2004). Theories of Personality. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth..

Shiner, R, & Caspi, A. (2003) Personality differences in childhood and adolescence: measurement, development, and consequences. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. 44(1): 232.

Introduction

At different stages of adulthood, children tend to display their attachment to their parents in different ways, and a critical examination of these patterns provides insight into the functional development of an individuals social and cognitive skills. A qualitative understanding of a particular stage of growing up in terms of attachment relationships helps the parent, caregiver, or guardian to build communication with the child more effectively. The central thesis is that childrens attachment relationships with adults are dynamic, and learning about these relationships has complex benefits for the childs harmonious development. The present critique letter seeks to explore this issue.

Attachment Relationships in Children

It is essential to shed light on how childrens attachment to adults is viewed and why it is considered the norm. Bakermans-Kranenburg (2021) writes that attachment relationships should provide security, increasing the childs chances of survival and reproductive fitness (p. 2). The founder of attachment theory, on the other hand, is traditionally considered to be English psychiatrist John Bowlby, who pointed out that a childs attachment to parents serves a significant function in helping to socialize the childs personality (Reisz et al., 2018). Bowlby believed that children are born biologically programmed to seek attachment among adults because it provides protection and human development. Evolutionary theory noted the property of monotropy in which there is a single figure of a significant adult who is the object of attachment in the eyes of the infant (Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2021). Indeed, the status of a significant adult may change over time between different people, but if such a person is ignored by the child, it becomes a cause of severe psychological trauma in the future.

This knowledge was supplemented by Mary Ainsworth, who conducted a series of experiments showing that there are four types of attachment. The first of these, secure, occurs when there is harmonious communication between a significant adult and the child, and the child receives care and attention from that parent (Cherry, 2020). The second, anxious-avoidant, consists of the absence of any care at an early age, with the result that the child, growing up, does not seek affection. In between is a third type, ambivalent, in which the child trusts a significant parent but also understands that he or she may not be around at a critical moment. Finally, Ainsworth identified a fourth type of child attachment: disordered, in which the individual does not tend to show specific patterns: the child either seeks attachment or does not.

Attachment Development in Children

A childs attachment varies according to the different phases of a toddlers maturation. One foundational classification theory is the Canadian Dr. Neufelds six-stage model of attachment development (Neufelds six stages, 2019). Hence, up to the age of two, a child becomes attached to people through the senses, meaning that the baby needs touch and smell: these actions help him or her feel that a significant adult is nearby. Studies show that early petting by a significant adult has a positive impact on the development of a babys emotional intelligence (Botero et al., 2019). Notably, by age two, a baby typically begins to be mobile, meaning that he or she can run away from an adult. However, the toddler will return each time for another portion of care and attention. In this context, the maternal deprivation effect described by Bowlby, according to which the systematic separation of a child from a significant adult leads to stressful conditions in the future, becomes particularly relevant (Le Pierrot, 2018). When viewed in the context of Ainsworths methodology, this deprivation is either anxious-avoidant or disordered attachment. Statistically, about 30% of children experience erratic and unstable attachment to an adult (Booth & Wark, n.d.). As a consequence, these children are more likely than others to exhibit depression, anxiety, and stress.

The second level (up to the age of 3 years) consists in the childs conscious effort to copy those adults whom he or she loves. Children at this stage often parody, even unconsciously, the behavior of their parents. The third level (up to age 4) is realized when the child starts to experience emotions of loyalty and devotion to the adult. The fourth level is realized before the age of 5 when the child develops a sense of self-importance and independence. Attachment at this stage is realized through the childs desire to have a significant adult who cares about him or her and is attentive to his or her interests. The penultimate fifth level (up to age 6) consists in the childs understanding of the complex meaning of love: at this stage, adults encourage the child to show their love for the infant in every way by spending time together. Finally, the sixth level of infant attachment, when the child seeks to share his or her secrets and be understood by a meaningful adult. Parents in this phase are advised to be attentive to the childs needs and to monitor the childs moods.

Conclusions for the Adult

When the various phases of a childs attachment development no longer seem obscure, it is essential to note that these signs do not necessarily have to be pronounced in a toddlers behavior until age six. Every child is different, and so is every family, so there is no doubt that children may miss or linger on certain phases. Notably, if a child has been placed in an orphanage by a parent, adoption leads to an increased perceived sense of safety (Raby & Dozier, 2019). In addition, there is a pattern in such adoptive families that specific attachment patterns can be passed down from generation to generation, meaning that the adopted person transfers the adoptive adults parenting skills to themselves.

Otherwise, one can conclude from these studies that care and attention from a significant adult is undoubtedly important, but it is at an early age that they are most critical. Lack of trust in the adult as a consequence of maternal deprivation, according to Bowlby, leads to serious problems with the perception of attachment in later life. This refers to psychological problems related to anxiety, undermined trust in people, and feelings of loneliness. Given the function of attachment, it is the love from a significant adult that allows the child to feel secure.

Finally, an exciting conclusion of this work is the property of constant change of the personality of the significant adult in complete families. Thus, if in the first years of life the child pays more attention to the mother, which is quite natural, given her nursing function, the father should not resent the child. Moreover, research shows that when a father is present in a childs life  the father effect  children become more emotionally mature and capable (Krisch, 2018). Over time, the mothers authority may diminish, and the fathers authority may increase: in this environment, the child spends more time with the father. When children become teenagers, they often enter a state of coveted independence and freedom, and this is where an attachment is perceived as a feeling from which the child can escape. This knowledge helps parents build a more effective relationship with their child and understand how important the role of this or that adult is to the child at that moment.

References

BakermansKranenburg, M. J. (2021). The limits of the attachment network. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 18. Web.

Booth, P. B., & Wark, L. (n.d.). Childrens attachment relationships. AAMFT. Web.

Botero, M., Langley, H. A., & Venta, A. (2020). The untenable omission of touch in maternal sensitivity and attachment research. Infant and Child Development, 29(2), 1-24. Web.

Cherry, K. (2020). The different types of attachment styles. VeryWell Mind. Web.

Krisch, J. A. (2018). The science of dad and the father effect. Fatherly. Web.

Le Pierrot, G. P. H. (2018). Silent voices-attachment formation in twelve foster-reared mothers and their children [PDF document]. Web.

Neufelds six stages of attachment at bedtime. (2019). Heather Boyd. Web.

Raby, K. L., & Dozier, M. (2019). Attachment across the lifespan: Insights from adoptive families. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 81-85. Web.

Reisz, S., Duschinsky, R., & Siegel, D. J. (2018). Disorganized attachment and defense: exploring John Bowlbys unpublished reflections. Attachment & Human Development, 20(2), 107-134. Web.

School-aged children need regular evaluation and analysis of their development. This assessment is necessary to identify physical or mental problems and prevent their growth and influence on a persons future life. However, a child of five, nine, and twelve years old are at entirely different stages of development, so adults need to apply approaches that are more appropriate for children to evaluate their health.

A typical assessment of the physical state among school-aged children follows a similar pattern with slight differences. A nurse checks the height and weight of the child, observes the development of body parts and skin visually, palpates internal organs, and listens to the lungs and heart. A conversation is also held with the child to establish a trusting relationship and superficially check the level of development.

However, parents of young children are more often to answer questions about the behavior and health of the child, while older kids can describe their feelings by themselves. I would suggest a screen for older children to improve the assessment techniques, since some children may already be embarrassed by their nakedness in front of their parents. It is also necessary to focus on conversations with school-aged children as they cannot trust a stranger and feel discomfort during the examination, which can cause them a fear of doctors in the future.

Children of different ages demonstrate abilities that characterize their development, and the following indicators can evaluate a seven-year-old child. The child is active, attracted interested in the outside world, and becomes emotionally responsive to the problems of others by trying to understand their feelings (Mercer, 2018). At this age, children usually begin to lose their baby teeth, and rapid growth is also observed.

The speech also becomes more developed; the child can build long sentences, understand the different meanings of one word and a joke (Mercer, 2018). A child knows the numbers and can read, as well as analyze simple situations. In social terms, children also acquire new communication skills: they understand the general rules of behavior and morality, perceive comments, and can give feedback (Mercer, 2018). Children make new acquaintances with other children easily and form a social circle gradually.

Moreover, the development of school-aged children can be estimated according to Piagets theory. This theory is not based on specific indicators of intelligence, such as IQ, but on the childs ability to perceive the outside world and learn. Children 5-12 years old fall immediately under three stages of development, according to Piaget: preoperational, concrete, and formal operational stage (Crain, 2015).

It is necessary to communicate with children in the preoperative phase in simple terms and ask if the child understands the meaning of the adults words, and if he or she distinguishes game and reality and abstract concepts from concrete ones (Crain, 2015). If a child communicates freely with an adult, understands the essence of surrounding things, and tries to see them from the adults side, then his or her development is age-appropriate.

Assessment of children at a concrete stage can occur by using logical tasks and questions. For example, the inspector may ask about a girls feelings if the child breaks her favorite toy, or how to cross the river without wetting ones legs.

In the first case, children at this stage of development must understand the feelings of another person, and in the second, apply logic to answer the puzzle. Children of 12 years old can already think hypothetically, so an adult can evaluate its development by creating situations related to moral choices, or questions about the future of the child (Crain, 2015). Thus, the development of the children can be estimated by evaluating the overall ability of thinking, according to Piagets theory.

In conclusion, the assessment of the development of the child should be guided by the general physical and mental indicators characteristic for a certain age, but with consideration of individual characteristics. Such an approach will help adults adequately assess the health of children without causing them harm or discomfort. Besides, the timely determination of developmental delays prevents problems for people in adulthood.

References

Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: concepts and applications (6th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Mercer, J. (2018). Child development: concepts and theories. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Introduction

After reviewing the third and fourth chapters of the attached book, I chose the four most attractive concepts. Next, I will reveal each of them and justify my choice based on specific preferences. The main criteria by which I chose these concepts are efficiency in practice, versatility, and depth. My choice fell on the following concepts: The whole child concept, the children with diverse abilities concept, the behaviorist theory concept, and the ecological theory concept.

The Whole Child Concept

The whole child concept says that all areas of a childs development are interconnected. Each period of growth is affected by and influences every other development area (Gordon & Browne, 2017). For example, looking at how a child moves or interacts with others, one can tell about their mood and internal state. Teachers quickly learn what makes each child unique and what they look like when they move their bodies, change expressions, or assume a posture (Gordon & Browne, 2017). That is why this concept works; it is practical and usable. The above facts about the versatility of this concept impress me. This way, I can deeply understand the child and find the problem if it is present; that is why I want to remember it.

Children with Diverse Abilities Concept

The concept of children with different abilities is that all children are other, and this depends on certain factors and conventions, such as genetic makeup, gender and race differences, and learning styles. It also includes various special needs in children due to differences in possible disabilities. I am impressed by the essence of this approach because each person is unique and requires a unique approach to oneself. Having studied this topic more deeply, I can consider more details and subtleties. With this knowledge, it will be possible to find an approach to any child, considering how much they differ. I plan to study this concept further, as it includes many conventions, the knowledge of which will be helpful in the future.

Behaviorist Theory Concept

As I understand it, the concept of behaviorism is directly based on the idea of a childs behavior. It lies in that learning, for the most part, is acquiring a habit. For example, if the parents of a child smoke, then with a high probability, in the future, the child will also smoke, repeating their parents behavior. Any behavior can be learned by watching it, from language listening to others talk to fighting and watching violence on television (Gordon & Browne, 2017). The most impressive fact about this concept is that I can indirectly influence the child if the child does not make contact. Using this concept, I will be able to influence the childs parents since the childs behavior model directly depends on the parent.

Ecological Theory Concept

The ecological theory concept is that many different spheres influence a childs development. Its structure consists of a microsystem, a mesosystem, an exosystem, a macro system, and a chronosystem. The main advantage of this theory is that it covers all spheres of influence on the childs development. The forces among these systems are critical to acknowledge: just as in nature, activity in one part affects all the other parts (Gordon & Browne, 2017). I believe that this concept describes what and how it affects the child in the most detail; it expands my thinking about the possible affecting causes. This theory is complex, and I will do a deep study for subsequent application. This concept is most applicable when I will be trying to determine which sphere of influence is most important at a particular stage of a childs development.

Conclusion

Summing up, I can say that the chosen concepts are responsible for different approaches to study and practical application in practice. Furthermore, at the same time, intersections can be noticeable in them. The whole child concept, the children with diverse abilities concept, the behaviorist theory concept, and the ecological theory concept, when considered, have shown themselves to be fascinating and valuable methods. With these theories and practices of education, it is possible to become a real specialist in working with children.

Reference

Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2017). Beginnings & beyond: Foundations in early childhood education (10^th ed., pp. 70-147). Cengage.

Introduction

Different theories of child development and learning came to existence at different periods in history. Their existence is as result of the work as well as the findings of different theorists such as Jean Piaget, Albert Bandura and Vygotsky among others. They try to explain the different stages as well as behaviors that a child may portray as he/she grows up.

Each theory offers an important contribution to the life-span development puzzle (Swim 3). Although the theories assume different approaches, they tend to complement each other. They allow us to predict, describe, explain as well as influence many aspects of childrens behavior. This paper entails a comparative analysis of the biological, behavioral, cognitive and socio-cultural approaches of childhood development and learning.

Piagets cognitive-developmental theory states that children play an active role in constructing their understanding of the world and go through four age-related stages in understanding and adapting to the world that they live in. The four stages are sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational. The theory postulates that childrens different way of understanding the world brings the difference in the four stages.

According to this theory, children employ the processes of organization/assimilation and adaptation in understanding their world. Assimilation occurs when an individual incorporates new information into his/her existing knowledge. Once children adapt to the new information, they are able to accommodate different aspects in life. He theorized that when children can assimilate new events to their old schemes, they are experiencing a state of cognitive harmony-equilibration (Rathus 18). Some things may happen that do not fit along and when such happens it causes a disturbance to their equilibrium thus they will act to restore the equilibrium. The changes are subject to a childs biological development.

Description of the different types of educational theories

Vygotskian sociocultural theory explains the impact that the social aspects of a given community have in shaping the behavior of a child. He argues that a childs behavior results from the integration of the socially as well as culturally constructed forms of mediation into human activity (Mcleod 1). The theory points out that social interaction precede development yielding cognition and consciousness. Vygotsky employed four basic principles in building the theory. The first principle states that language plays a pivotal role in mental development.

Secondly, social interaction is responsible for the systematic changes in the minds of children, which influence their way of thinking as well as their behavior. According to Mcleod, Vygotsky believes that this is responsible for the variation of the behaviors of children from different social settings (5). The third principle states that any form of learning leads to a childs development. A child will embrace all he/she learns creating a basis for behavioral changes of the child. Finally, Vygotsky believes that children construct their knowledge from the lessons they get from their interaction with other members of a society. Generally, the Vygotskys approach holds that social interaction is the single most important factor in the process of a childs cognitive development.

Behaviorism focuses on experimental methods that have an impact on child development. The theory emphasizes on the impact that ones environment has in modeling ones behavior. It points out that for a child to portray a given behavior, he/she has to undergo a modeling process that has four stages namely attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Boeree 3).

A child has to pay attention to a given observation as well as be able to store it either in form of images or verbal descriptions. Reproduction entails the translation of the images and verbal descriptions into real behavior. For one to portray a given behavior repeatedly, he/she has to get some motivation. Some forms of motivation include past reinforcement, promised reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, past punishment and promised punishment among others. It also holds that children are able to regulate their behavior depending on their environment.

Unlike the other theories discussed above, the biological theory holds that development is a rather natural process. It postulates that a child undergoes automatic predictable stages in a systematic sequence over time. According to this theory, genetic as well as physiological changes play a pivotal role in child development and learning. The proponents of this theory believe that children will acquire knowledge automatically in the course of life thus no need to guide them in most aspects of life (Swim 4). Consequently, naturalists believe that a childs underperformance is not a major concern only that he/she requires more time to acquire the knowledge and skills to be able to perform at the same level with his/her age mates.

A comparison of the theoretical approaches to child development and learning

The theoretical approaches have some similarities. They acknowledge that a child is actively involved in the construction of understanding though this may happen in different ways. For instance, both Piaget and Vygotsky believe that childrens curiosity drive their behavioral and developmental changes. In addition, the theories give a positive approach in explaining the behavioral as well as the developmental changes that children exhibit as they grow.

They also point out some of the aspects that compel certain developmental changes in the children. All the theorists tend to agree that development advances when children have an opportunity to practice newly acquired skills and when they face challenges that are above their level of mastery. Additionally, they acknowledge that development occurs in predictable functions towards advanced organization, internalization as well as complexity. The theories explain why children at different ages have different levels of understanding. However, the approaches differ significantly.

Vygotskys theory differs from Piagets theory in some ways. For instance, Vygotsky lays more emphasis on the effect of cultural and social structures in shaping an individuals behavior whereas Piaget has a universal view of the development of children. Additionally, Vygotsky believes that external forces compel child development while Piaget believes that development is a self-initiated discovery.

The biological theory holds that development is an automatic process that is universal which contradicts the other theories. For instance, the Vygotskian as well as the behavioral theory do not acknowledge the universality of the processes of child development. The theories differ in the processes or rather stages that they offer in explaining development in children. Unlike the Vygotskian and the behavioral theory, the other two theoretical approaches do not give the role that language plays in the development of children.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the theories play an important role in addressing the emotional, psychological as well as the social development of children. Although they offer different explanations to the changes that children experience during development, they help in describing, predicting as well as explaining the various aspects of childrens behavior. All the theories acknowledge the active role that children play in constructing meaning from different aspects of their life. They all address the various aspects that cause learning in children.

Works Cited

Boeree, George. Albert Bandura. Personality theories, 2006.

Mcleod, Saul. Vygosky. Simply Psychology, 2007.

Rathus, Spencer. Childhood: Voyages in Development. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

Swim, Terry J. Theories of Child Development: Building Blocks of Developmentally Appropriate Practices. The Professional Resource for Teachers and Parents, 2008. Web.

Teratogens are chemicals that can cause physical or functional abnormalities in a human embryo or fetus is exposed to a pregnant mother. Examples of such drugs include alcohol and cocaine. The duration of exposure, the amount of teratogenic chemical present, and the stage of development in which the embryo or fetus is at the time of exposure all impact the fetus or embryo. Teratogens can harm an embryo or fetus in various ways, including physical deformities, behavioral or emotional difficulties, and a drop in the childs intellectual quotient (IQ). Teratogens can also harm fetuses and lead to premature labor, spontaneous abortions, and miscarriages.

Next, Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development should be considered. It supposes that children go through four stages of mental growth (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). His thesis is concerned with not only how children gain information but also with the nature of intelligence. There are, in general, four Piagets stages, demonstrating the development of man in general. The sensorimotor stage, lasting from birth to two years, is the initial one. The concrete operational stage (between the ages of seven and eleven) is when children reason about actual occurrences. The formal operational phase, which lasts from 12 onwards, starts thinking abstractly and figuring out hypothetical situations. Teens begin to consider moral, intellectual, ethical, social, and political questions that need theoretical and abstract thinking, and conceptual cognition arises. They also start to use deductive logic, which is the process of reasoning from a general concept to specific data.

As for Vygotskys position, the correct answer is that Michelas state and behavior are healthy, temporary, and beneficial. The essential nature of this phenomenon is expressed in the fact that the child develops external cognitive functions through internal dialogue (Topolewska-Siedzik et al., 2018). Imaginary friends represented by dolls represent the internal dialogue. Childrens language gradually becomes their primary instrument for intellectual development, first as loudly or private speech to direct and regulate their behaviors, and then as silent self-talk or inner speech.

IQ or intelligence quotient is a number used to indicate a persons relative intellect. There are several IQ tests available, and the first of them is calculated by multiplying the ratio of mental age to chronological or physical age by 100. Mental age, often known as MA, is the chronological age at which a specific level of performance is considered average or usual (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). The French psychologist Alfred Binet, who established the IQ test in 1905, was the first to define mental age. Mental ages cannot effectively evaluate childrens fundamental abilities of different chronological years since the difference in results for other age groups taking graded exams grows roughly in proportion to the increase in age.

Attachment theory is concerned with human interactions and attachments, particularly long-term ones between parents and children and romantic partners. The first attachment theorist was British psychologist John Bowlby, who defined attachment as a long-term psychological bond. Bowlby claims that even feedings did not alleviate the fear that youngsters felt when they were away from their primary caregivers (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). Secure, anxious-ambivalent, disorganized, and avoidant attachment styles influence actions later in life.

Hostile and instrumental aggression are two types of aggressiveness that have distinct characteristics. Allow the individual to concentrate on hostility before learning the meaning of these two types. Aggression is defined as aggressive conduct or ideas directed towards another person. When someone reacts aggressively, it indicates that the individual behaved or replied was violent. Hostile aggression is done to inflict hurt. Anger is a common motivator for aggressive attacks. On the other hand, instrumental aggression is not driven by rage or the desire to harm others.

The identity status interview is an interviewing system developed by James E. Marcia. Identity status interview is a semi-structured interview approach for psychological identity study that examines an individuals level of inquiry and commitment across many life domains (Benson, 2020). When evaluating the information supplied in this interview, four possible results are using a scoring system produced by Marcia and colleagues. Foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity attainment were the four identity situations identified by Marcia.

References

Benson, J. B. (2020). Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development. Elsevier Gezondheidszorg.

Topolewska-Siedzik, E., Cieciuch, J., & Strus, W. (2018). Personality underpinnings of identity: The role of metatraits and traits in identity formation modes. Self and Identity, 18(5), 529549.

Kail, R., V., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2016). Essentials of human development: A Life-Span view (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning.

Introduction

The surrounding environment has the potential to impact the mental abilities and overall wellbeing of young children. The attributes and opportunities available at the home setting will determine a persons experiences and opportunities. Parents and relatives who provide appropriate support, resources, and guidelines will ensure that most of their children develop healthy and functional brains. When the home setting is safe, the young individuals will grow physically, experiment with new ideas, explore, and eventually learn. Proper solutions are needed since home environments characterized by domestic violence, reduced income, single-headed, and overcrowding disorient the overall academic, mental, and economic developments of young children.

Background Information

The home setting plays a huge role in the cognitive, mental, physical, and emotional development of a child. In a study by Selvik and Thjømøe (2021), it occurred that dwellings characterized by poor support, abuse, or ignorance led to negative cognitive outcomes. Some notable challenges identified in the study included poor academic performance, reduced language abilities, and behavioral problems (Selvik & Thjømøe, 2021). In another report by HHS (2021), it was reported that the domestic setting of a given children could contribute to specific long-term results, such teen parenthood, employment opportunities, personal health, and possible graduation. These observations support the notion that the quality of the home environment will have significant implications on a persons life achievements.

Scientific inquires have offered unique views regarding the nature of child development and how it relates to the home setting. For example, Huang et al. (2021) revealed stressful households led to poor brain development in most of the affected children. In families with poor income levels, the subsequent economic challenges made it impossible for these young people to focus on their goals. Some of these individuals would experience negative developmental abilities and reduced social interactions. Without proper support mechanisms, most of the affected individuals would find it hard to lead better lives as adults, thereby failing to provide better environments to their children in the future.

Research Process

To complete the intended study, the investigator identified parents and guardians with diverse backgrounds and issued them with questionnaires. The respondents were guided to offer their views regarding the nature of the home environment and how it affected their respective children. Due to the limited nature of the available time, the individuals were only required to provide a summarized response detailing the challenges and opportunities most of the children encountered (HHS, 2021). The completed interviews were essential towards providing adequate information and insights for completing the research paper. Based on this information, it is notable that the primary interest was to learn more about the risks most of the children had to experience in their respective home settings.

Findings

The identified respondents presented unique views and ideas that exposed specific challenges and risks affecting many young individuals. To begin with, one of the interviewees identified herself as someone who was in a troubled and violent marriage. Her husband was abusive and created unfavorable home environment that made it impossible for the children to focus on their academic goals. The individual was convinced that the existing disturbance affected the time available to the learners (Huang et al., 2021). Such children were observed to perform poorly in class since cases of absenteeism remained high. These findings supported the argument that chaos and domestic violence were capable of affecting the promoted home environment negatively.

The second respondent identified herself as a Latino whose family had been living in the selected urban centers for around two decades. Being a single mother, she was compelled to provide for her two children without any form of external financial support. Poverty remained a major challenge that affected this family and its ability to achieve most of the anticipated goals. The situation appeared to disorient the overall experiences and outcomes of the children. The absence of resources discouraged the individuals from competing directly with their fellow schoolmates (Niklas et al., 2021). These individuals lacked books, learning materials, and childcare that could result in improved brain development. Additionally, the respondent revealed that she lacked adequate time to empower her children. These challenges led to negative educational, social, and cognitive development for the two young children.

Another respondent revealed that her family lived in an urban setting characterized by overpopulation and insecurity. Most of the children in this town were able to access or interact with strangers and neighbors with diverse opinions regarding life. The interviewee was keen to blame overcrowding since it led to poor educational outcomes. Numerous forces appeared to work synergistically to influence the overall outcomes and experiences of most of the children (Niklas et al., 2021). For example, the respondent revealed that majority of the people lacked adequate time to bond with their children. This gap was associated with poor child monitoring, lack of timely instructions, and absence of disciplinary mechanisms.

The final respondent identified for this exercise focused on the issue of family structure or type. The individual blamed single-headed families since they lacked adequate resources to meet the changing needs of more people. Most of the children from such backgrounds had increased chances of recording poor health, risky behaviors, drug abuse, alcoholism, behavioral issues, and truancy challenges (Levy, 2022). In families characterized by two parents, it was possible for most of the children to receive personalized guidance and instructions, thereby being able to become responsible adults.

Discussions

Youth people are usually delicate members of the society since their brains are still under development. During early childhood, children would be keen to monitor a wide range of issues and behaviors recorded in their homes and start to replicate them. They will rely on the common words used by different family members to communicate with each other. This human attribute would explain why most of the young children would tend to exhibit most of the behaviors or tendencies that are associated with the other members of the family (Levy, 2022). In nuclear families, the involved parents would provide timely instructions and disciplinary mechanisms to shape behaviors, communication systems, and critical thinking abilities. The absence of such strategies, as it is the case with single-headed families, means that most of the young children would borrow inappropriate ideas from elsewhere.

In most cases, some homes tend to be associated with various challenges that put most of the young people at risk. For example, the completed exercise has revealed that children from families characterized by poor income levels and poverty would experience numerous problems. Some of them would include lack of resources to support learning processes and absence of personalized guidelines (Holmes et al., 2019). Most of the parents from poor families might spend more time looking for money while ignoring the welfare of their children. This behavior or trend worsens the situation for these children, thereby being unable to pursue their academic goals.

The problematic issue of domestic violence remains a major concern for young children who plan to pursue their social and economic goals. Levy (2022) supports most of the ideas gained from the completed interviews by revealing that domestic violence could have detrimental impacts on a young persons development. Specifically, majority of the affected individuals might become disoriented and unwilling to continue pursuing their academic goals. They will remain unhappy and withdrawn even when in the class setting. The absence of social support and adequate resources to meet the changing needs of the affected children would increase their chances of reporting additional behavioral problems, such as truancy. The situation would worsen if most of the parents are unemployed or lack stable sources of income.

Congested urban settings are known to present unfavorable home environments for most of the children. Most of these neighborhoods expose young individuals to drugs and misbehaviors at a tender age. Most of the parents find it hard to offer direct instructions or support to their children due to the problematic issue of peer pressure. School going children will be compelled to copy inappropriate behaviors from their classmates, such as smoking, binge drinking, and drug abuse (Huang et al., 2021). Most of these individuals will have increased chances of becoming addicts, thereby being unable to complete their education or pursue their career objectives. In most of the crowded neighborhoods, crime, violence, and inappropriate behaviors tend to be the norm (Holmes et al., 2019). Young children growing up in these environments will be compelled to copy some of the malpractices. The described outcomes could have detrimental impacts on their future life experiences and goals.

Lessons Learned

The completed investigation has presented numerous lessons that could guide stakeholders to address the risks affecting many young people. First, the exercise has revealed that there are different groups and populations that lack adequate social protection and support. This problem exists because cases of domestic violence and child abuse remain common in different communities. Second, the investigation has indicated that federal and local governments have done very little to cushion young people who are living in poor neighborhoods (HHS, 2021). The specific gap has led to higher cases of poverty and poor economic outcomes. Majority of the affected individuals find it hard to provide for their children who might eventually decide to quit school.

Third, the recorded observations present a strong case for the government to appreciate that most children are facing a wide range of risks that eventually disorient their behaviors. The absence of personalized support and measures to tackle inequality could explain why most of the outlined problems exist. The involvement of all key stakeholders could help mitigate most of the outlined risks, such as politicians, economists, social workers, government officials, policymakers, and community members (Huang et al., 2021). The effort will allow more children to grow up in favorable ad supportive home environments.

Conclusion

The competed study has identified numerous challenges and risks associated with many young people in this country. These individuals could be unable to pursue and achieve their economic and career goals due to the experienced home environment. Some households associated with violence, inadequate resources, overcrowding, and absence of resources would worsen the situations for most of the children. Family structures could dictate the experiences and opportunities available to most of the children. A renewed approach that integrates all key stakeholders is recommended to mitigate the identified risks and empower more children to succeed in their lives.

References

HHS. (2021). Protecting youth mental health: The U.S. surgeon generals advisory. Web.

Holmes, C. J., Brieant, A., Kahn, R. E., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2019). Structural home environment effects on developmental trajectories of self-control and adolescent risk taking. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(1), 1-13. Web.

Huang, X., Hua, L., Zhou, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, M., Wang, S., Qin, S., Chen, J., & Wang, X. (2021). The association between home environment and quality of life in children and adolescents in Hangzhou City, China. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(1), 1416-1427. Web.

Levy, S. (2022). Behavioral problems in adolescents. MSD Manual. Web.

Niklas, F., Cohrssen, C., Lehrl, C., & Napoli, A. R. (Eds.). (2021). Childrens competencies development in the health environment. Frontiers Media SA.

Selvik, S., & Thjømøe, C. (2021). Children fleeing domestic violence to emergency accommodations: Education rights and experiences. Journal of Family Violence, 36(5), 1003-1015. Web.

Annotated Bibliography

Brand, J. E., Moore, R., Song, X., & Xie, Y. Parental divorce is not uniformly disruptive to childrens educational attainment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116.15, 2019. 7266-7271. Web.

Children with divorced parents typically perform worse academically than children with married parents. However, not every child reacts the same way to their parents getting divorced. Researchers have concentrated on how the likelihood of parental divorce and its effects on childrens educational outcomes varied. They discovered that parental divorce had a significant detrimental impact on children whose parents were unlikely to split on academic achievement, particularly college attendance and completion.

Harold, Gordon T., and Leslie D. Leve. Parents as partners: How the parental relationship affects childrens psychological development. How Couple Relationships Shape Our World. Routledge, 2018. 25-56. Web.

The importance of the relationship between spouses in creating either favorable or bad child development outcomes is highlighted in this chapter. In the past, the main goal of family intervention has been to encourage good parenting habits and reduce the harmful effects children may experience from damaged family relationships. Children of all ages are known to be at risk for adverse psychological effects when their families break down. Research has identified various household effects as risk factors for childrens deficient psychological growth.

Hashemi, Ladan, and Halleh Homayuni. Emotional divorce: Childs well-being. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 58.8, 2017. 631-644. Web.

The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS) and the Aggressiveness Survey were used to measure the rates of depression, anxiety, stress, and hostility in children as a result of parental emotional separation. Compared to children of parents who were legally divorced, children of psychologically divorced parents had a much greater degree of emotional and behavioral problems. They reported higher levels of anger, tension, anxiety, and depression. As a result, it was determined conclusively that an emotional divorce is more detrimental than a formal divorce. The contrasts between families who are officially and emotionally divorced, as well as the range of behavioral and emotional responses in their kids, are examined.

Hadfield, K., Amos, M., Ungar, M., Gosselin, J., & Ganong, L. Do changes to family structure affect child and family outcomes? A systematic review of the instability hypothesis. Journal of Family Theory & Review 10.1, 2018. 87-110. Web.

As their parents enter and exit relationships, many children go through many family changes. According to the instability hypothesis, stress is a mediator of family transitions, and it affects childrens development negatively. To assess the strength of the supporting evidence for this theory, researchers conducted a systematic review. There was some evidence in support of the instability theory, but several studies also found no proof or evidence that only applied to particular groups, types of transitions, or outcomes. The findings point to the need to undertake this research in a more extensive range of circumstances, examine the effects of fathers changes, include more varied sorts of outcomes, and empirically and conceptually distinguish relationship creation from breakdown.

Kunz, Jenifer. Parental divorce and childrens interpersonal relationships: A meta-analysis. Divorce and the Next Generation: Perspectives for Young Adults in the New Millennium. Routledge, 2018. 19-47. Web.

Fifty-three publications that examined the interpersonal connections between kids from divorced homes and kids from permanently entire dwellings were included in this meta-analysis. Compared to complete households, children from divorced families had more positive sibling connections. Children from mixed-race samples had more negative associations with other kids than kids from white pieces. Older children from divorced homes had better mother-child relationships than younger children did. Comparing individuals born in more recent decades to those studied more recently, the quality of relationships is poorer. More robust evidence for a lower level of interpersonal interactions was produced by representative datasets and research using attitude measurements.

Schaan, V. K., Schulz, A., Schächinger, H., & Vögele, C. Parental divorce is associated with an increased risk to develop mental disorders in women. Journal of affective disorders, 257, 2019. 91-99. Web.

Young adults well-being has been shown to be negatively impacted by parental divorce. However, as research utilizing organized clinical interviews is lacking, it is uncertain whether this conclusion is therapeutically applicable. The purpose of this study was to determine whether young adults with divorced parents are more likely to experience mental health problems. Youngsters of divorced and non-divorced parents were compared in terms of parental care, social connectivity, chronic stress, and traumatic events. Compared with younger people with non-divorced parents, young adults with divorced families had an increased chance of disorders.

van der Wal, Reine C., Catrin Finkenauer, and Margreet M. Visser. Reconciling mixed findings on childrens adjustment following high-conflict divorce. Journal of child and family studies 28.2, 2019. 468-478. Web.

Despite significant progress, scientific research on the effects of parental separation is conflicting. It varies significantly in its assessments of the severity, longevity, and detrimental effects of parental divorce on their post-divorce development. Researchers propose that effective and dysfunctional recovery following parental separation may not necessarily be an exclusive attempt to elucidate the wide range of data. Children performed self-reported assessments of the adjustment and traumatic effects of divorce. These findings imply that although children exhibit resilience, slightly elevated divorce poses a risk for the affected customer.