Category: Child Development

Human exceptionality: School, community and family by M. Hardman et al.

Exceptionalities and Family

In this chapter, Hardman et al. (2010) study how families can get to deal with people with exceptionalities. In most cases, these children are usually ahead of the rest in terms of learning and understanding things related to their exceptionalities. In this regard, Hardman et al. (2010) recommend that families should create a viable environment rather for the growth of child exceptionality than for discouraging these individuals.

An initiative like meeting a guidance counselor or other professionals may help to create a more comfortable environment for the student as well as open new doors into thinking realms. Studies have it indicate that it can also allow for further understanding of their skills and how they can progress in what they do.

In essence, the teaching process of such students is bound to be more varied as compared to the regular education of other students. In some instances, this may lead to problems with the family members, especially if teaching or learning processes involve special treatment by the others. Hardman et al. (2010) say that families should learn to accommodate such issues and view it positevly.

Learning Disabilities and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a condition that has been increasing dramatically over the last few decades. Because of this dramatic increase, some see ADHD as a current epidemic. However, the symptoms of the disorder were noticed first in the likes of Heinrich Hoffman in the 19^th century.

As for today, ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed childhood psychiatric disorder in America and other continues. It is exponentially growing affecting millions of people.

Generally speaking, the cause of ADHD is unknown but to discover it, research indicates two areas of study which are biological (including genetics and neuroanatomy) and neuropsychological. Nonetheless, Hardman et al. (2010) opine that ADHD is mostly caused by the lack of opportunities to express oneself in attention-oriented games in the field as was the case in the ancient times.

Hardman and his fellow scholars also look at our overall culture including diet and nutrition; family structure and lifestyle; change in lifestyle of children; modifications in the education system; and childhood abuse and trauma as all the possible factors for increase in the diagnoses of ADHD.

In many ways, ADHD affects the manner in which we socialize, communicate or express ourselves. It is based on these reasons that Hardman et al. (2010) find it responsible for the increased level of learning disabilities across the world. For many reasons, diagnosing ADHD is a complicated process. This is in part due to the fact that the direct cause of ADHD is unknown.

Studies, however, suggest that the best way of diagnosing the disease is through an interview. In this interview, the doctor asked the child or his/her parent about a variety of risk factors related to genetics, birth complications, family relationships, anxiety, and environmental conditions, such as exposure to certain toxins. If detected, it is important that relevant measures are taken immediately. It is only by doing so the learning disabilities caused by ADHD will be reduced.

Emotional/Behavior Disorders

According to Hardman et al. (2010), diagnosing and treating emotional or behavior disorders can be quite tricky based on the fact that the outward symptoms used to identify them are often attributed to other diseases. However, experts in the theoretical and practical studies of behavior, cognitive and emotional theories can easily identify these disorders and recommend great treatments. According to this reason, making periodic checks to doctors, therapists and counselors is often considered important even if one does not actually suffer from any emotional or behavioral disorder.

In this chapter, Hardman et al. (2010), through various reports and arguments, seek to give a comprehensive analysis of these disorders to create an understanding of the behavior of people who suffer from these disorders, highlighting their plights and measures that can be made to help them.

As per the reports in the chapter, Hardman et al. (2010) assert that even though emotional/behavior disorders are common among the youth and adults; small children and old people can also develop these conditions. Depending on the emotional/behavior disorder one has, Hardman et al (2010) recommend to seek help from professionals.

Intellectual and Development Disabilities

In discussing the articulations of Hardman et al (2010) on this chapter, I am reminded of an 18 year old girl whose performance and learning ability was dismal in spite of her hard work in her studies. After an assessment by some doctors, it was suggested that her low intellect in class was caused by mistreatment of her guardians at a tender age when she had failed which resulted in trauma. So, every time, she was in class doing her exams, she kept on remembering that bad experience thus not concentrating on the task. As a recommended way of treatment, she sought solace in canvas and brush because she loved drawing.

Her paintings were used as method of emotional ventilation of the bad things, while expressing her appreciation and thankfulness for the good things in her life. Soon, the negative feelings harbored in her head were gone, and she started performing well at school. This is more-or-less similar to the recommendations in this chapter by Hardman et al. (2010) who say that a majority of intellectual and developmental disabilities can be solved by finding ways of revealing emotions or feelings. This way, our conscience sets free from the negative stuff, thus creating room for positive feelings that often encourage productivity and good results.

Communication Disorders

According to Hardman et al. (2010), when and if a student is experiencing communication problems, he or she is not able to articulate ideas or express himself/herself in an effective way. As a result, this robs them of their confidence and, if not sorted out, it can lead to other negative feelings like self-hate, lack of self-worth and worthlessness which, in turn, can result in a myriad of many other problems. When you have discovered that you have communication, try to get to the bottom of the disorder by seeking for professional help. This is because some communication difficulties represent large problems in the neurological system which may need urgent solutions.

If you are a friend to someone with such a disorder, Hardman et al (20100 say that comforting the individual by helping one look past their disorder and focus on ones strengths can be of great help especially if the communication disorders are a result of solvable issues, such as fear of crowds.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

In essence, autism is a neurological condition that influences peoples communication and mode of expression. In most instances, this ability to communicate and interact with people is hampered by repetitive and restricted behavior. Once this happens, the individual is not able to behave effectively as it is required or expected of them.

As emphasized by Hardman et al. (2010) in this chapter, people suffering from autism need a lot of attention, care, patience and understanding from family members and caregivers since autism poses several challenges.

According to Hardman et al (2010), there has been great progress made by researchers in regard to autism and how both the victims and people around them can handle it. Nonetheless, more researches are still required, especially since the exact causes and modes of treating the condition are still under debate by various scholars and a consensus is yet to be reached.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities

When talking of severe disability, Hardman et al. (2010) simply refer to those disorders which, if not treated, can lead to great health ramifications or even death. On the other hand, multiple disabilities refer to instances when one is suffering from any given combination of disabilities. As a general rule, the more disabilities you have, the more damages they tend to cause, thus increasing the likelihood of worse health consequences. In some instances, multiple disabilities result form one or several disabilities.

If one is suffering from multiple disabilities, the best way to get healing is by treating each disability individually. However, according to Hardman et al. (2010), this should be done under the guidance of doctors or other relevant professionals just in the same way treatment of severe diseases should be done cautiously. The sooner you seek for professional help for severe and multiple disabilities; the better it is for you in terms of getting treated and avoiding eminent consequences like paralysis or even death.

Sensory Impairments: Hearing and Vision Loss

Usually when we talk of senses, reference is normally made to the senses of touch (by the hand), taste (by the mouth), smell (by the nose), sight (by the eyes) and hearing (by the ears).

In most cases, all these senses work side-by-side. It is based on the same principle of working together that most sensory impairments related to hearing and vision loss are usually connected to one another. In such instances, solving one sensory problem usually paves way for the solving of the other.

However, in times when the hearing and vision loss sensory impairments are caused by different things, Hardman et al. (2010) recommend that you seek for help from doctors with specialization in your particular problem, for example, getting an optician to check your eyes and not your ears which is, probably, an earia where he/she knows nothing.

Often, people who have hearing and sight problems are very sensitive to their environment. When teaching such students, it is recommended that the instructor keenly tailors the learning environment to meet the needs and wants of the special needs students.

Physical Disabilities, Health Disorders, and Traumatic Brain Injury

In this chapter, Hardman et al. (2010) talk about the above medical conditions that affect humans variably. Physical disabilities include blindness, deafness, or being crippled. On the other hand, health disorders refer to any disorders that are related to ones health.

Finally, traumatic brain injury refers to a serious injury in the head which, probably, has resulted in some neurological damage. All these conditions are caused and treated differently. The only instance that they can occur together is in a serious accident. If one suffers any or a combination of the above, ensure that he/she seeks for medical help.

Social and emotional development of gifted children: What do we know? by Thurston et al.

Social and emotional issues for exceptionally intellectually gifted students

In this chapter, Thurston et al. (2010) simply talk of finding a way of tapping into the social and emotional endeavors of exceptional intellectuals in order to make them sharper. As an example, Thurston et al (2010) recommend that learning endeavors can be creatively incorporated in social endeavors such as games.

Since humans are said to be emotional beings, incorporating the learning endeavors into things like games will focus on better understanding and more willingness to participate in the venture. For instance, you can encourage mastery of words through a social and emotionally involving game like scrabble.

Perfectionism in gifted children and adolescents

In this section, several issues are discussed in relation to the ability of gifted children to do extraordinary things. However, Thurston et al. (2010) observe that, despite their gifted nature; these talented individuals are merely human beings like other people. In the bid to encourage good performance and use of their skills, teachers, parents and other opinion leaders should, therefore, not push them much and try to force perfection out of them. As a matter of fact, even the geniuses of this world have their flaws. The efforts to get the best out of the talented students or adolescents should thus be channeled in a balanced and healthy way.

Gifted Children and Depression

Depression is simply a state where a person has low moods and mostly negative thoughts, feelings and behavior. Most people become depressed at times, and gifted children are no exception. In many instances, simple rest or a couple of professionally prescribed medicine can help in reducing depression.

However, there are some gifted children who, due to one reason or another, become intensely depressed.

In severe cases of depression in gifted children, the individuals are unable to perform regular functions, they easily lose concentration and appear unable of sound judgment, especially if the giftedness is reduced. For such people, psychotherapy is highly recommended by Thurston et al. (2010).

While doctors offer instant treatment, the chances are pretty high that the persons depression will recur in future. However, with psychotherapy, the treatment usually results in the patient having positive thought, attitude, and generally a positive outlook on life.

Patients who have successfully gone through psychotherapy have the highest chances of improving their lives, and the lowest chances of depression to recur. There are other treatment methods, like deep brain stimulation and exercise in the form of yoga. However, they are not as effective as the above two.

Delinquency and Gifted children

In regards to delinquency and gifted children, there are two broad categories (Thurston et al., 2010). In the first group, there are the super-smart and gifted children who are aware of the consequences of ill action. As a result, they shy away from these destructive agendas. However, there is the flip-side which involves those who engage in delinquent activities because of issues like peer pressure or simply because they can do it thus want to feel the thrill of going against the law.

A very common concern for gifted children in the destructive activities is that of school dropout. Once a patern or guardian starts noticing that his/her homework is not prepared, low or failing grades and other delinquent activities, he/she should offer help to a child immediately. This is because waiting can make the situation worse.

As a parent, teacher, relative, brother or even a friend, it may be frustrating at times to understand what is going on in childs head when his/her behavior abruptly changes. However, creating an open communication forum can hugely assist in solving this. Regular communication with school teachers, parents, and other opinion leaders in the society can also help monitor the activities of a child, thus knowing whether or not some help is required.

Gifted Students Who Are Gay, Lesbian or Bisexual

In this chapter, Thurston et al. (2010) delve deeply into the parenting experience where parents learn that their children (adolescents) are gay or lesbian. The study majorly focuses on exploring parents or guardians discovery of gay tendencies in their adolescents, the psychosocial effect it has on them, and how they deal with the discoveries as well as its effects.

On the parents side, Thurston et al. (2010) note that feelings of shame, loss, guilt, cognitive and emotional dissonance are some of the major forces that have, so far, been reported to regulate the lives of parents in regard to the discovery as they embracethe gay or lesbian lifestyle exhibited by their gifted children

Remarkably, Thurston et al. (2010) state that irrespective of whether they are talented or not, issues, such as gayness, should be handled based on ones own principles regarding the same.

Racial Identity among Gifted African American Students

According to Thurston et al. (2010), giftedness usually occurs in an individual irrespective whether one is black, white or any other cultural orientation. Essentially, this is the reason people from various parts of the world are talented in various issues. As a matter of fact, Thurston et al. (2010) recommend that there should be a combined effort in the endeavors of gifted people. By doing so, overall efficacy and multicultural learning will take place across the world.

Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities

On special occasions, we find gifted students with learning disabilities. For such, great care should be given to such students. In order to do so, Thurston et al. (2010) say that childs guardians or parents play a major role in scrutinizing and evaluating his/her learning activities. The Special Education teacher is of key importance among these caregivers. This teacher will be with a child for most parts of the day. She/he will impart knowledge, instill values and motivate, when necessary. It, therefore, goes without saying that this individual should possess genuine qualities that allow him/her to perform his/her duty. Such qualities would include compassion, passion, organization skills, patience as well as intelligence.

Models and strategies for counseling

Here, Thurston et al. (2010) emphasize that endeavors, such as counseling, can greatly help in improving childs talent and skills. One positive strategy to help improve the exceptionalities in such individuals is by giving extra work or studies that can help sharpen their skills. Also, they can take sessions with their guidance counselors to talk and advise them on best career choices that will suit them most or assist in improving their exceptional skills.

The child who never grew by Buck

What would you do if one of your children or a member of the family cannot communicate or socially interact, or if he/she is hyperactive and hardly pays attention to anything? Would you be scared and distance yourself or would you stil be a caring and loving parent, friend, brother or relative to the child? Having such a person in the family is quite challenging. It is based on the difficulty in handling such people that Buck gives several points and important considerations that can help people cope with the difficulties associated with these children. Some of these important issues are summarized below.

To begin with, Buck (1992) states that special needs child means that a child is either mentally or physically challenged, has learning disabilities, behavioral issues or even development disorders. Therefore, when it comes to his/her education and general home care, extra caution has to be taken by a parent/guardian.

The people in charge of caring for special needs children should also be intelligent because, in as much as these children are mentally or physically challenged, it does not mean that just any teacher would manage it. If anything, these teachers and caretakers have twice the workload that his counterpart in General Education has. The caretaker, teacher or guardian should, therefore, not just be knowledgeable in dealing with such children, but he/she should also learn about the best ways of effectively communicating with the special needs children.

Moreover, recent studies indicate that approximately half of all students who are identified with learning disabilities are now educated in the regular education classroom. Although these numbers suggest that the battle is nearly halfway won, there are still 50% of children with disabilities who are currently not included in the regular classroom environment. Since the No Child Left behind Act of 2001 mandated that all the students should master the general education curriculum, participate in standardized assessments, inclusion programs have become greatly adopted across the world. Buck says that giving your child a chance of interacting with others through such programs would also be a great way of encouraging the growth and development of that child.

After everything has been said and done, raising a special needs child comes with something Buck (1992) terms as the inescapable sorrow. We, therefore, have to be willing to take the extra step required for these children despite the challenges and difficulties that we may face. As a matter of fact, dealing with special needs children is harder when you take the responsibility for them. The world is full of individuals, groups of people and organizations that are ready to help, if they are asked to.

So, the next time one needs help, Buck (1992) says that all one has to do is just ask. By doing so, a parent/guardian will not only lighten his/her burden by sharing it with the others but also guarantee that his/her child gets to interact with other people; something which is very elemental if the child is to grow and develop healthily as required.

Refrigerator Mothers video

Essentially, the Refrigerator Mothers video is an emotional and highly-moving presentation of several mothers (parents) and how they get to deal with the discovery that their children were suffering from Autism. Even more importantly, the video gives an insight into the plight of autistic individuals including: how to know whether your child is autistic, the challenges these individuals face and some of the methods that parents or relatives of autistic people can use to ensure that people suffering from thsi condition fruitfully and enjoyably live their lives in spite of the many challenges.

From the video, the following useful information comes up. To begin with, autism is a neurological disorder that can be caused by several issues. Some of the causes include lack of attention for the children during birth, some mental or brain diseases that affect the individuals neurological system, and some psycho-physical factors, among many other reasons. Before 1970, there was a misplaced perception propagated by Bruno Bettelheim that autism was solely caused by lack of attention by parents. This made most of the refrigerator mothers blame themselves greatly; that was something that worsened the situation for the parents as well as the autistic individuals. However, with time, new information and researches came up regarding the causes of autism, thus changing the perception by these parents.

Whenever one suspects that his/her child presents autistic tendencies, it is extremely important to seek for professional help. The sooner it is confirmed whether the suspicions are true or not, the better and easier it will be in dealing with the issue. If a person finds that his/her child, friend or even relative is autistic, it is expected that one somehow feels shocked or even surprised. However, an individual must remember that nobody chooses to be autistic; it just happens. Based on this reason, it is necessary to learn to accept the news as they are.

As was stated by several parents from the video, autistic people are just individuals like us. The only difference is that they express themselves differently, have their own logical way of doing and interpreting different things, and they get to do things differently (sometimes better or worse than we do). So, instead of shunning them away or isolating ourselves from them; we should strive to learn the things they are trying to say, their manner of communication and ways of expression  just in the same way we would do when we meet someone from a different culture.

Undeniably, it is tedious to learn and sometimes get to do repetitive things for/with the autistic children. However, the joy that comes with the feeling that you are doing something caring and loving for someone is worth every effort put into interaction with the autistic people. And just in the same way, as we get to try again and again to achieve our goals, it is advisable to do the same with these individuals. It takes a lot of heart, but giving up is never an option.

Based on studies done by several scholars, there is no treatment for this neurological condition. However, there are some essential issues, protocols and endeavors which, if followed, help in communicating and bettering your relationship with autistic individuals. Often, people with the autism condition tend to suffer from depression  especially if they are scolded or punished for mistakes that they cannot control. In such instances, getting professionally prescribed medicine for depression helps a lot.

The use of reading, visual and hearing aids, like the ones shown at the beginning of the refrigerator mothers video, are also a great way of sustaining communication with the autistic people. It has also been observed that repetition is a great tool for building and sustaining communication with neurological disorders. By routinely repeating certain activities or even expressions, a lot of learning and mastery usually take place.

However, the best option, which was in fact emphatically encouraged by most refrigerator mothers, is treating the autistic individuals with a lot of care, compassion, and love. Often, these individuals go into psychotic breaks that make them destructive, noisy and stubborn. In such instances, parentd should be very understanding and tolerant.

The process of learning from autistic individuals is a lifelong commitment that calls for a lot of dedication and keenness. This is because something you learn from these individuals, even in 10 minutes, is enough to change the entire outfit of communication by making you understand them in a better way. Furthermore, there are different levels of autism, and sometimes, it can go from bad to worse. Being around them will thus enable you to learn and know what to do in such instances. This, however, is not to say that they should be guarded and monitored 24 hours a day since a good number of them are able to survive on their own while engaging in their own endeavors.

Finally, parents and guardians can opt for special schools and centers  especially if they are usually busy at work or do something that does not allow them to give much attention to the autistic individual. However, do not use this an excuse for spending less time with them because love, care and concern mean a lot to these individuals.

Summary of 6 articles

Sachs, D., & Schreuer, N. (2011). Inclusion of students with disabilities in higher education: performance and participation in students experiences. Disability studies Quarterly, 31 (2). Web.

In this article, Sachs and Schreuer (2011) observe that there have been significant changes in terms of the curriculum that is provided for students with exceptionalities. The changes widely encompass the change in the environment by which they will receive instruction. Furthermore, they state that there are differing views regarding the full inclusion of students with disabilities with regular or general education classes. There is currently no final consortium when it comes to the best practices in terms of securing the best curriculum for children with special needs. This is essentially the reason Sachs and Schreuer (2011) propose that more research should be done on this issue and a consensus should be arrived upon.

As a wayout, Sachs and Schreuer (2011) recommend that there should be development of programs or provision for students with special needs that enable them to safely interact with other normal students. Through such initiatives, the individuals with exceptionalities will be able to better their communication, forge useful friendships and gain many other skills that are needed to develop not just as students, but also as individuals. This is in contrast to the opinion by most scholars that these individuals should be isolated from the community.

According to these two scholars, such backward opinions as isolation worsen the lives of individuals with exceptionalities instead of helping them and making them better individuals.

Finally, these scholars observe that a good number of recent studies recommended that disadvantaged students, who constantly interact with and are instructed by effective teachers, are slowly able to catch up with their advantaged peers. This is, probably, the reason many learning institutions have made amendments, such as staffing each school with a good number of special education teachers in order to address these disparities. As schools and states aim to improve their academic results, students with disabilities become the center of their focus. In this regard, a critical assessment and consideration of the learning, growth and development of individuals with exceptionalities are to be done appropriately.

Krahe, B., & Altwasser, C. (2006). Changing negative attitudes towards persons with physical disabilities: an experimental intervention. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 16: 59-69.

According to Krahe & Altwasser (2006), many researchers have often attempted to look at the intricacies of individuals with disabilities and exceptionalities. However, most of them have only managed to present theories without details in the necessary practical and workable aspects of focusing on positive change. As it is known to most people, the main purpose of learning an individual is the acquisition of basic skills, values, and attitudes necessary for life through the development of intellectual domains of motor, cognitive, social, communication and adaptive behaviors. However, learners experiencing learning difficulties are faced with a number of challenges acting as impediments in achieving this objective.

As per the studies and reports represented by Krahe & Altwasser (2006), efficiency in the learning process is usually hindered by many reasons  with one of the main reasons being the negative attitude towards individuals with exceptionalities. Wth this dire need in mind, the paper presents some home and classroom-based adaptive measures which can be used by people at home to change the negative attitudes.

As for the state on 2001, it was approximated that in Germany alone, 4.5 million people suffered from various disabilities. If the gap between these people and the rest were to be bridged, the two scholars opine that the government would be expected to directly address the educational needs of each. As an example, they say that direct legislations and policies need to be put in place to transform the negative perceptions.

Also, people who look down on the individuals with exceptionalities should be fittingly punished. By doing so, there will be a reduction in the negative way in which most people view the disabled or individuals with exceptionalities.

Milsom, A. (2006). Creating positive school experiences for students with disabilities. Professional School Counseling Journal, 10 (1), 66-72.

In this article, Milsom (2006) compels education leaders  especially school administrators  to design a system of accountability in which the experiences of special students can be regularly assessed. According to Milsom (2006), most studies indicate that the behavioral attitudes of most students and school personnel tend to be negative. As a result, the overall experience appears to be not very good, thus necessitating the placement of relevant measures to address these experiences

In this regard, Milsom (2006) observes that one of the major concerns for any educational reform is the possibility that schools will employ superficial changes in terms of the content, objectives, and structures of the requirements, instead of implementing an internal change, wherein culture, role behavior, and instruction are properly aligned with legislation. This heightens the need to have provisions for evaluating the impact of the implemented programs  especially those that are directly focused on increasing student achievement.

In addition, the article stipulates that there is need to make sure that the rules, regulations and changes set down in regard to the experiences of the students contribute appropriately to the goal of bridging the gap between special and non-special student groups.

As a matter of fact, evidence compounded from various scholarly quarters indicates that good experiences encourage good performance of individuals in schools or even at work. It is, therefore, important that relevant measures are put in place to ensure students with exceptionalities, as well as the rest, enjoy positive learning or working experiences.

Brown, S.W., Renzulli, J.S., Gubbins, E.J. Siegle, D., Zhang, W. and Chen, C. (2005). Assumptions underlying the identification of gifted and talented students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49 (1), 68-78.

In essence, this article by Brown et al. (2005) seeks to highlight some of the assumptions and misconceptions about gifted and talented students. By doing so, the readers will be able to know the truth about such students and how to deal with them. To begin with, the assumption that all gifted students have gifted parents or all gifted parents have gifted children was ruled out as false. Although a good number of studies have indicated that most gifted students had gifted parents, and vice versa, there are many gifted children who do not have gifted parents, just in the same way, there are talented parents who have ordinary children.

Based on their studies, Brown et al. (2005) establish that being gifted comes as a result of several factors including (but not limited to): the learning environment, genetics of an individual and a myriad of psycho-physical factors. Other factors ,such as the general education curriculum in a place and the ability of teachers or tutors that surround an individual, also contribute greatly to giftedness.

Brown et al. (2005) also remark that whereas it is commendable to require highly qualified teachers and special schools for the talented and exceptional students; doing so is not mandatory. This viewpoint is in contrast to the common assumption or belief that gifted students can only be taught or educated by teachers who are as talented they are.

To further drive the point home, Brown and his fellow scholars report that a good number of talented students have been able to get proper learning and education by simply being taught by ordinary teachers. This revelation is good news to parents of talented students since they can take their children to any good school without worrying about finding special institutions for them. Also, this will help solve the problem of a downward spiral in the number of special needs teachers.

As an important note, the studies by Brown et al. (2005) do not try to discredit the role played by special schools for special students. Instead, the paper merely tries to offer viable alternatives while offering insightful information on the identification, nurturing and promotion of better learning forums for the talented and gifted children.

Selwyn, D. (2007). Highly qualified teachers: NCLB and teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education 58 (2), 124+.

In the article, Selwyn (2007) asserts that teachers play a crucial role in educating special and ordinary students. Based on this reason, Selwyn (2007) states that if efficacy is to be witnessed in the education sector, it is elemental to understand these roles while we intermittently focus on implementing salient measures that can help improve the efficiency of these teachers.

Furthermore, Selwyn (2007) notes that one of the major focus areas of the NCLB Act is the requirement for highly qualified teachers. Highly qualified teachers are hired in order to help students get the best education. Generally speaking, a highly qualified teacher is one who has obtained full state certification as a teacher or has passed a state teacher licensing examination. The teacher should also have relevant teaching licenses depending on the country in which he/she works. Moreover, it is advisable for such teachers to have dual certification for both the special education and the core subjects they theach. Such requirement is applicable, regardless if the special educator teaches in a regular classroom, a resource room or any other setting.

Selwyn (2007) stresses that despite the fact the vision of NCLB for special education included the requirement of highly qualified teachers and encouraged the empowerment of parents to change their childs school, there are positive developments for the countrys education system. The implementation of NCLB cannot fit the children with disabilities because it is far easier to have low expectations for such students. Nonetheless, there are many benefits realized by students taught by highly qualified teachers. All schools should thus encourage the employment of such teachers.

Katsiyannis, A., Zhang, D. Ryan, J., & Jones, J. (2007) High-stakes testing and students with disabilities: Challenges and promises. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 18(3), 160.

According to Katsiyannis et al. (2007), when placed full time in mainstream classrooms, students with disabilities  especially beginners  tend to lag behind. Based on this reason, the scholars recommend that in such instances, there is a need for appropriate and individualized instruction to be given in order to achieve absolute success in study by such students

However, the biggest challenge pointed by Katsiyannis et al. (2007) is the negative attitude of most people towards the special students. As a result, most special or disabled individuals choose to alienate themselves from the others. If this is happening for a long period of time, it is bound to have a negative impact on the learning ability of such students since socialization plays a key role in the growth, development and overall learning of the special needs students.

Commendably, there has been an improvement in many countries regarding how people with disabilities are treated. For example, ever since the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was implemented in the USA; many states have become more receptive to programs like inclusion of students with special needs in schools. With such noteworthy developments, it is hoped that the future of special needs people will be better.

References

Brown, S.W., Renzulli, J.S., Gubbins, E.J. Siegle, D., Zhang, W. and Chen, C. (2005). Assumptions underlying the identification of gifted and talented students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49(1), 68-78.

Buck, P. S. (1992). The child who never grew. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

Hardman, M. L., Drew, C. J., & Egan, W. M. (2010). Human exceptionality: School, community and family (10^th Ed.). Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

Katsiyannis, A., Zhang, D. Ryan, J., & Jones, J. (2007) High-stakes testing and students with disabilities: Challenges and promises. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 18(3), 160-167.

Krahe, B., & Altwasser, C. (2006). Changing negative attitudes towards persons with physical disabilities: an experimental intervention. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 16: 59-69.

Milsom, A. (2006). Creating positive school experiences for students with disabilities. Professional School Counseling Journal, 10(1), 66-72.

Sachs, D., & Schreuer, N. (2011). Inclusion of students with disabilities in higher education: performance and participation in students experiences. Disability studies Quaterly, 31(2). Web.

Selwyn, D. (2007). Highly qualified teachers: NCLB and teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education 58(2), 124-137.

Thurston, C. M., Neihart, M., Reis, S., & Robinson, N. (2010). Social and emotional development of gifted children: What do we know? Washington D.C.: Prufrock Press.

Introduction

The society highly values children. Childcare is currently a shared responsibility. Parents, teachers and all other stakeholders have a role to play in ensuring that a child grows up in an environment that is conducive for its growth. As Hansen (2007, p. 76) states, a child requires a lot of attention, especially at early stages of life because it is at this stage that a child starts to comprehend the immediate environment.

At an age of six to seven, a child would be learning a lot from the immediate environment and from the people he constantly interacts with. As Aristotle (1998, p. 89) notes, a child would try to practice what it sees the adult doing, or what it watches on movies. A parent therefore has a responsibility to regulate what a child consumes at this age.

The issue of childcare requires a collaboration of the parent, the teacher and the teaching assistant on a very close basis. The parent is always with the child in the evening, on weekends and other holidays. During this days, Nussbaum (2002, p. 56) observes that a parent has the best opportunity to monitor the behavior of the child and understand it better.

For this reason, he is in the best position to inform the teacher and the teaching assistant some peculiar behavior of the child or some important information that would help the teacher and the teaching assistant manage the child to the expectation of all the stakeholders. Zipes (1997, p. 67) says that the teacher and the teaching assistant has the opportunity of being with the child for the better part of the day.

They have the opportunity of monitoring the child closely, especially without its awareness. From this, they are able to detect the general behavior of the child that would be of concern. Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p. 89) say that this message should be communicated to the parent so that the parent knows his or her child better and therefore be in a better position to handle it when at home.

Learning at this stage is at its very basic level. The teaching assistant has the role of ensuring that these children learn the basics in various subjects like Science, Mathematics and Languages. According to Cogan and Webb (2002, p. 54), children at this age may not be able to learn things that require deep reasoning, for example irony.

They can only learn basic facts that can be observed within the immediate environment and be understood under such normal context (Ward 1999, p. 130). They may not comprehend why some natural things occur (for example death), or their importance. But they can understand basic logics like simple Mathematical calculation or language. As Bolman and Deal (1997, p. 31) state, learning at this stage can greatly be improved when teaching aids are used.

Teaching aids are items that can be used to show the learner the practical example of a learning experience. The researcher was involved in a practical session with students in a classroom set up and other outdoor learning activities. Various learning materials were used to help in this session. The session incorporated the teacher, the parent and the researcher, as the adults and knowledge imparters, and children as the knowledge receivers.

In this paper, the researcher reports on how he would have improved the learning process stated above.

The Childcare Center Activities

As stated above, the teaching assistant was involved in a practical session with students in order to help in improving their learning. In this process, the teaching assistant, in junction with the teacher organized a forum where the learners were introduced to various teaching aids to help enhance various subjects.

Three subjects were involved in this research. In Mathematics, several aspects were put to test using various plastic materials (McCarthy & Carter 1994, p. 129). The intent was to help the student learn basic additions, multiplications and subtractions. In Science, the learning sessions involved use of the school garden.

This was to help the learners understand the immediate environment. As Gardner (2006, p. 76) says, at this stage, learning can be enhanced by incorporating it as part of their play. Children of this age enjoy playing. The easiest way of ensuring that children learn some of the basic knowledge in to involve play in learning process.

Leithwood and Steinbach (1999, p. 78) agree with this point. This scholar says that from very early stage, learning has always been viewed as a form of punishment, or an oppressive procedure that one has to undergo in order to achieve benefits that at that stage may not be comprehendible.

By involving plays in the learning process, Austin (2007, p. 57) says that a child may not realize that he is subjected to a learning process. Literature was learnt through the use of Chinese New Year dragon story, while language was enhanced through the telephone call.

Effectiveness of the Process and the Role of the Teaching Assistant

The process used in this process was very effective in imparting knowledge on the children.

In the first activity that involved the use of timer and bottles, the effect of the experiment on the children was appropriately felt by the learners as was evidenced by their response to the various questions that followed the process (Hakim 2000, p. 69). The teaching assistant main role was to help the learners by issuing various instructions on how to use the timer and how to hold the bottles.

The teaching assistant had to ensure that learners understand the basic concepts that the lesson had planned to achieve. He would keep in touch with the concerned teacher in ensuring that the learners achieved the most out of this process (Bailey, Doherty, & Jago 2005, p. 60). The assistant would intervene in case a certain group of student found difficulty in using any of the timers or the bottles. The teaching assistant also ensured that learners were safe in the entire process

In the second case that was meant to help the learners understand how to measure liquids and how volumes differ. This would help them appreciate some basic applications like the amount of water an individual would need to take in a day (Baum, Viens, & Slatin 2005, p. 120).

In this learning process, the researcher worked hand in hand with the learners in ensuring that the bottles they had were of the expected size and with the right number of holes. Because the students were too young to be left to use the scissors and other sharp objects required to create holes, the teaching assistant and the class teacher worked hand in hand to help the learners create the holes and cut the plastic bottles to be of the right size. It was important to involve the learners because it would enhance their skills in artistry (Blank 2004, p. 93).

The learning objective was achieved to a fair level as majority of the learners were able to correctly respond to the questions that were asked at the end of the session. However, there were those who could not give the right response to some of the questions (Strauss & Corbin 1990, p. 73).

This could be attributed to the fact that the learners were involved in more than one learning activity hence they failed to comprehend the aim of the session. The teaching assistant noted that many of the children got exhausted with the process of cutting the plastic bottles that they were unable to comprehend the knowledge that was expected of them. The teaching assistant was keen to ensure that these children do not spill water on their clothes as a way of ensuring that they remained worm and tidy throughout the learning process.

In the next activity that involved bowling, the aim was to enhance learners ability to add, subtract or do simple division. This activity was very effective because it took Mathematics to the playing ground. When a pin was knocked down by the soft ball which was thrown at the array of pins, the learners would subtract the number of pins that fell from the original number to get the number of pins that remained.

The process also enhanced the childrens accuracy and sportsmanship. By aiming at the pins and knocking some down successfully, such a learner would be enhancing its ability in sports and other activities that required such accuracy. This was an outdoor activity and as would be expected, children were actively involved in running around (Reynolds 2011, p. 25). Because the activity was carried out on the floor, which is a hard surface, the teaching assistant was keen to ensure that children were safe through the entire process.

The next learning activity was home based and was to be supervised by the parents. This learning process was expected to make the learners understand the objects in the immediate environment. The learners were to be helped by their parent to understand the importance of the immediate objects in the environment, both within the house and in outdoor places.

Parents were given the instruction by the teaching assistant of how to help the learner in this process. Of interest were the kitchenwares or other gadgets in the house that posed danger to the children especially when they were left alone in the house.

The rationale behind this was to ensure that these young children would know the dangers of some of the home appliances and avoid them, unless with an adult (Bottery 2001, p. 79). Success of this learning activity was tested the following day by a question answer session.

It was noted with concern that not all the learners were able to respond the questions correctly. Although this could be attributed to the fact that some of the learners are slow learners, also evident was the fact that some parents either failed to follow the instruction given by the teaching assistant, or others never made the attempt in the first place.

In the Chinese New Year dragon, was done within the school. The main aim of this process was to improve the learners imaginative ability. The session involved singing, dancing and storytelling. The session called for a heavy participation of the teaching assistant (Nardi 2001, p. 79).

Children were shown a drawing of a dragon and then told a specific story about the Chinese Dragon. A cardboard, a plastic and paints were used in designing the dragon. The teaching assistant, in close collaboration with the teacher, ensured that children were safe from the paints, and that they did not soil their clothes.

The intended knowledge was passed in three fold. First, it involved through listening to the story told about the dragon. Then they were to read about the dragon by themselves. Finally, with the help of the teaching assistant, but through their own creativity, they were to make the dragon using the available materials. This process was a big success.

Although some of them were not able to come up with the right drawing due to their tender age, it was evident that they could create an image of this creature in their mind. Most of the learners found this session very enjoyable and they actively participated on the entire process, either by asking questions during the initial story telling session, or by coming up with a creature that would resemble the one in the story.

In the next activity that involved the math scavenger, learners were to be tested of speed. Again it was to sharpen their Mathematical abilities. This activity was designed to appear to be more of a game than a learning process. By introducing the competitive aspect to it, the teacher and the teaching assistant intended to make the students do their best in achieving the desired result. This activity required heavy intervention by the teaching assistant (Bush 2003, p. 89).

These children would be running from one location to another, trying to be the best in beating the deadline. It would involve fighting for the bottles, bumping into each other or even real fight, in case one of them feels cheated by the other. Such occurrences are dangerous as it may result in harm to the learner (Cheminais 2006, p. 78).

The teaching assistant had to ensure that he as constantly in motion among the students, averting any possible collusion and ensuring that there was fairness in picking the bottles.

This was important because the process had to be made as competitive as possible. The teaching assistant had to work closely with the teacher, who recorded the results of the students once they completed each stage. This activity was important as it made the children know that life is about struggle and in the struggle, only the best emerge as successful and this would require some form of struggle.

The telephone activity was a rich source of developing listening and writing skills of the learners. Learners would shift roles as a telephone operator or an information seeker. As an information seeker, the learner would be tested of the ability to take notes and their level of precision (Morrison 2008, p. 167).

The teacher and the teaching assistant would be in a position to as to determine the ability of the learner to listen and internalize a piece of spoken information, and then put it down for future references. When a child took the role of telephone operator, the skill to be tested and improved would be expression skills. The teaching assistant would issue instruction to the learners. Because the activity did not involve use of harmful tools and equipments, safety was not a big issue.

Teaching assistant therefore concentrated on ensuring that each learner understood the instruction to be followed in this activity. The rationale behind this activity, besides enhancing the learners listening and writing skills, was to ensure that the learner would be in a position to respond to telephone calls back at home when such a need would arise. The teaching assistant clearly explained to them how to behave, should such occasion arise at home and there is no adult in the house.

The next activity about the garden was to help the learners appreciate nature. Learners were made to understand the effect of plantation on our environment in general. It is a fact that learners at this stage may not be in a position to comprehend the effect of vegetations to our environment in a deeper sense (Darder & Rodolfo 2003, p. 89). However, when limited to the garden level, it would be easier to comprehend because of the limited coverage.

It would be easy to make them know the beauty of the garden and how this beauty brings about pleasure to those who see it. This activity involved using plastic to cover some plants in the garden as a way of making the learners know how to, and appreciate the need to cover plants during winters. Teaching assistant was actively involved in demonstration of how this process is done.

Care had to be taken to ensure that children did not interfere with the plantations (Lindon 2006, p. 145). This was the role of the teaching assistant. The outcome of this learning process was a sign of a big success. Many parents reported that their children were actively participating in tendering the gardens and taking care of other vegetations since the day this activity was carried out.

In the next activity that involved bottle with a hole, the intent was to develop the language skills o the learner. The learners were expected to keenly listen to the instruction given by the teacher and write them down in a note form. Freire (2006, p. 125) notes that note taking is a very important activity in the life of a learner from this early stage to the highest level of learning and to ones entire life.

The teaching assistant ensured that all the learners were comfortably seated in positions where they could comfortable write and still be in a position to keenly monitor the proceeding of the learning activity. The teaching assistant created desired holes on the plastic containers for security purposes, and then set up the place for the activity (Austin 2007, p. 87).

One child would be taking the notes as the other performs the activity, and then roles would be changed. Planning was important because there was need to ensure that all the requirements for this experiment were made available.

The teaching assistant ensured that each of the learners comprehended the instruction at hand and that they would be able to recall this procedure at a later date.

Because the focus of this study was one note taking rather than the experiment itself, teaching assistant closely monitored the spelling and the structure of the notes the learners were taking to ensure that they were as per the expectation of the session. Emphasis was laid on the use of bullets in making clear and concise information. The outcome of this process was appealing. Most of the students were able to take notes as per the instruction given, and with precision that was expected.

As can be observed, this last category was more of class work than a play session. The teaching assistant took this order of activities with deliberate intention of making the youngsters develop a positive attitude towards learning. They were first made to believe that learning is all fun and laughter.

Then the teaching assistant and the teacher made the learners that as they play and have fun, they can as well take notes and relate to various class work assignments. In this last session, it was now play made formal in the context of a classroom. This gradual procedure was important in ensuring that children develop love for class work and learning in general they are made to appreciate the fact that knowledge is everywhere around us, whether at home, in school, in the garden or even at the playgrounds (Griswold 2004, p. 49).

Possible Changes that Would Improve the Above Outcome

This process was a great success. The teaching assistant realized that children of the age between five and sis learnt in a much better way if teaching prompts were involved in the learning process. However, the teaching assistant strongly believes that this process could be much successful if some adjustments could be done on the entire process.

The choice of plastic bottles was a good one because it can be cut and turned into different objects that would meet different requirements (Hurst 2007, p. 50). The way they were used in this learning process was not bad, but the process would have been a bigger success if a few changes would have been implemented. Some of the adjustments that the researcher feels that could be done on the above process include the following:

In the first part of this learning process, the researcher would have considered making the holes on the bottles with the help of the teacher. The learners would not be not be involved in this process because the aim of this research was not to test their artistry skills, but their ability to use the timer and the already improvised plastic material.

This would save time that is spent in class when they are involved in this process (Kohl 2000, p. 67). This would also avert the possibility of the learners getting injuries from the objects used in making the holes, which are obviously sharp and dangerous if carelessly handled.

In order to improve their artistry skills, which is eliminated at this stage if this strategy is employed, the teaching assistant recommends that there should just be a pure practical lesson for this, where nothing is expected of the child, but the possibility of improving his creativity. This would help in focusing on one task at a time. As a teaching assistant, it would be easier to assess the progress of the child in the two areas which are equally important to the childs development.

In the third activity which involved home based learning, teaching assistant would have improved the performance by following up the activity by a phone call. The process was not successful because some parent did not do the right activity with their children, while other parents completely failed to do the activity completely.

In order to ensure that this process received better results, teaching assistant would consider making phone calls to the respective parents just to ensure that they were doing the activity expected of them and that they were doing it right. The follow up would make the parent realize that this process was important and the teacher and the teaching assistant consider it part of a lesson for the learner. This would boost the results of this process.

At this stage of learning, children value games so much. The teaching assistant would have considered a little change in the last activity of the session. The last activity registered a success. However, this success would have been enhanced if they were made to believe that this was a game, just like in the previous occasions.

Although these students were able to perform the activities before them, the setting of this last activity was more of a classroom than a classroom-play ground setting. The teaching assistant would have considered creating a more relaxed atmosphere where the learners would feel not coerced to perform activities at hand. However, the entire process was a success and the outcome clearly pointed out the importance of using such teaching aids.

List of References

Aristotle, 1998, The Nicomachean Ethics, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Austin, J 2007, The Art of Teaching, Noir Publishing, New York.

Austin, J 2007, The Last Snake Man, Noir Publishing, New York.

Bailey, R Doherty, J & Jago, R 2005, Physical Development and Physical education in learning in the early years, Paul Chapman, London.

Crotty, M 2003, The Foundations of Social Research: meaning and perspective in the research process, Sage, London.

Baum, S, Viens, J & Slatin, B 2005, Multiple intelligences in the elementary classroom: a teachers toolkit, Teachers College Press, New York.

Blank, 2004, Teaching qualitative data analysis to graduate students, Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 22, no. 2, pp 187-196.

Bolman, L & Deal, T 1997, Reframing Organizations: artistry, choice and leadership, Jossey Bass, San Francisco.

Bottery, M 2001, Globalization and the UK competition state: no room for transformational leadership in education? School Leadership and Management, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp 34-78.

Bush, T 2003, Theories of Educational Management, Sage, London.

Cheminais, R 2006, Every Child Matters: A practical guide for teachers, David Fulton Publishers, London.

Cogan, D & Webb, J 2002, Introducing childrens literature, Routledge, New York.

Darder, A & Rodolfo, D 2003, The critical pedagogy reader, Routledge, New York.

Freire, P 2006, Pedagogy of the oppressed Continuum International Publishing Group, Wiley, New York.

Gardner, H 2006, Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons, Basic Books, New York.

Griswold, J 2004, The meaning of Beauty & The beast: a handbook, Broadview Press, New York.

Hakim, C 2000, Research Design: Sucessful Designs for Social and Economic Research, Routledge, New York.

Hansen, D 2007, Ethical Visions of Education, Teachers College Press, New York.

Hurst, C 2007, Social Inequality, Pearson Education, Boston.

Kohl, H 2000,The Discipline of Hope: Learning from a Lifetime of Teaching. New York: New Press.

Leedy, P & Ormrod 2005, Practical Research: Planning and Design, Pearson, Prentice Hall.

Leithwood, K & Steinbach, R 1999, Changing Leadership for Changing Times, Open University Press, Buckingham.

Lindon, J 2006, Equality In Early Childhood: Linking Theory and Practice, Hodder Arnold, London.

McCarthy, M & Carter, R 1994, Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teaching, Longman Group, Essex.

Morrison, G 2008, Early Childhood Education Today, Pearson Education, New York.

Nardi, D 2001, Multiple Intelligence and Personality Type, Telos Publications, New York.

Nussbaum, M 2002, For Love of Country? Beacon Press, Boston.

Reynolds, K 2011, Childrens literature: a very short introduction, Oxford Press, Gosport.

Strauss, A & Corbin, J 1990, Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques, Sage Publications, Newbury Park.

Ward, K 1999, Cyber-ethnography, and the emergence of the virtually new community, Journal of Information Technology 14: 95-105

Zipes, J 1997, Happily ever after: fairy tales, children and the culture industry, Routledge, New York.

Christi Crosby Bergin explores the significance of symbolic thinking, physical development, self-regulation, complex thinking, and executive function in Child and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom: A Chronological Approach. She emphasizes how language development involves the acquisition of spoken language and the ability to use symbols and abstract thought to represent concepts. Bergin stresses that symbolic thinking is critical for social growth, as it enables children to take part in abstract conversations and interpret the feelings of others. Additionally, symbolic thinking is essential for the development of problem-solving skills, which are necessary for success in the classroom and in life (Bergin, & Bergin, 2019). Creative thinking is another important skill that is promoted through the use of symbolic thought, as it allows young people to express their thoughts, feelings, and ideas in unique ways. Lastly, Bergin looks at the role of symbolic thinking in the development of adolescents, as it permits them to create a personal narrative to make sense of their experiences and to form a better understanding of themselves and their place in the world.

Executive function is an integral part of child and adolescent development in the classroom. It is the ability to plan and organize, to monitor and regulate behavior, and to self-regulate emotions. It is essential for success in school, helping students to focus on tasks, remember information, and make positive choices. For young children, environmental and social factors largely influence the development of executive function. To promote its development, teachers should provide a supportive and nurturing learning environment. During middle childhood, executive function is an important part of cognitive growth, so teachers should encourage children to set goals and develop plans to achieve them. Adolescence is a time when executive function skills become even more crucial, as adolescents are expected to be more independent and manage a wide range of emotions. Thus, teachers should create a learning environment with structure and clear expectations, promote self-reflection and problem-solving strategies, and emphasize the importance of goal setting and planning ahead. By following the chronological approach of Crosby, teachers can provide the necessary support and structure to help children and adolescents develop strong executive function skills.

Self-regulation is an important part of child and adolescent development, as it allows children to manage their emotions and behaviors in order to achieve their goals. As such, it is important for teachers to understand how to foster self-regulation in their students. Crosbys chronological approach is one of the most effective methods for helping children and adolescents develop this important skill. Teachers can promote self-regulation in their students through Bergin and Crosbys chronological approach, which consists of introducing the concept of self-regulation, teaching techniques and strategies for self-regulation, providing practice opportunities for students to develop these skills (Salkind, 2018). Offering feedback and guidance as students practice and apply these skills, and giving students opportunities to apply their self-regulation skills in real-world settings. Through this approach, teachers can empower their students to manage their emotions and behaviors, and to achieve their goals.

In her book, Child and Adolescent Development in the Classroom Chronological Approach, Bergin, provides a comprehensive look at the complex process of development in children and adolescents. Crosby begins by examining physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development from infancy to adolescence. She then dives into the cognitive development of children and adolescents in the classroom, exploring language, problem solving, and abstract thinking. Crosby emphasizes the importance of the teacher in this process and provides strategies to best facilitate learning. Following this, she examines social and emotional development, providing an overview of the different stages and the importance of relationships in learning and development (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). She emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive and stimulating environment. Finally, Crosby examines the biological development of children and adolescents, providing an overview of the different stages and the role of hormones and brain development. She provides strategies for helping students understand and manage their emotions and develop a sense of identity and self-esteem.

Physical development is an important area of study for educators. It is essential to be aware of the physical changes that occur in children and adolescents as they progress through the three main stages of physical development: infancy, childhood, and adolescence. During infancy, babies experience rapid growth and development in terms of both height and weight, and they gain physical strength and coordination as they learn to crawl, walk, and manipulate objects. As children become toddlers, they develop gross motor skills such as running and jumping. During childhood, physical development is characterized by continued growth and development, and children become more proficient in their gross motor skills while their fine motor skills improve. Adolescence is the final stage of physical development. During this stage, adolescents undergo rapid growth, and they become stronger and more coordinated.

Additionally, puberty occurs during adolescence, which includes the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the development of reproductive organs. In such a classroom, it is advisable to use chronological approach to physical development in child and adolescent development. This way, teachers help their students understand the physical changes that occur as they grow, either by use of videos, books, and hands-on activities. Through these activities, teachers can educate their students about physical development, enabling them to understand the physical changes that happen throughout each stage of development.

References

Bergin, C. C., & Bergin, D. A. (2019). Child and adolescent development in your classroom, chronological approach. Cengage Learning.

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary educational psychology, 61, 101859. Web.

Salkind, N. J. (2018). Child development. Macmillan Reference.

Each stage of an individuals development is important. However, childhood can be regarded as one of the most important periods in a persons life. Children acquire new skills, knowledge and learn how to perceive the world. Five-year-old children experience loads of new things and this is why this period can be regarded as one of the most interesting.

Children at five often start school. They become a part of the society and they understand that they are not as special as some of their relatives may repeat. It is obvious that parenting (or rather the right type of parenting) is crucial for childrens development at that period. The transition from the family into schooling can be challenging for many children and can affect their cognitive, socio-emotional, and even physical development. Hence, it is essential to utilize positive parenting as it has proved to be effective.

In the first place, it is essential to consider peculiarities of the development of a 5-year-old child. At this age, children continue their physical development: they grow and acquire new skills. For instance, at this age, children can run quite fast; they can hop and jump (Berger, 2008). They can hold a spoon and fork. They can hold a pen and pencil. They can draw objects.

Childrens cognitive development is also quite rapid. Thus, children expand their vocabulary, they pronounce most of the sounds correctly, and they use quite complex sentences. They also have a longer attention span. If taught, children can count up to 10 or further, can read simple texts or, at least, words, can do simple sums, can say their name and address.

As has been mentioned above, children often go to school at this age. Hence, they acquire new social skills. They learn how to communicate with peers and adults. They learn how to make friends and handle conflicts that appear all the time. Children learn how to react to this or that action of their peers.

It is clear that this period of childrens life can affect the way their personality develops. Any unresolved conflict can result in emotional or communicational disorders. Therefore, it is essential to make sure that 5-year-olds get the necessary attention and assistance from their parents. Positive parenting can be the best option for parents and their 5-year-old children.

At this point, it is necessary to define the concept of positive parenting. Nicholson, Berthelsen, Abad, Williams and Bradley (2008, p. 227) note that positive parenting involves positive interactional skills such as parental responsiveness, warmth, and sensitivity combined with an absence of angry, irritable parental. In other words, positive parenting is the focus on positive emotions and avoidance of the negative attitude.

This approach has an impact on key factors associated with developmental outcomes (Nicholson et al., 2008, p. 227). It has been acknowledged that children who are exposed to fights and various negative emotions are more likely to develop some developmental disorders (Berger, 2008).

It is also necessary to add that positive parenting has been a matter of debate and research. On the one hand, researchers note that parents can positively influence the development of their children through being role models. Parents can and should encourage a child to live an active life. The child should see that sport plays an important role in his/her parents life. Reading books and going to museums should also be the norm for the family.

Talking, explaining things, and having a lot of good time will help the child develop the necessary cognitive and socioemotional skills (Berger, 2008). Parents should be counselors and guides, not some strict guards. Nicholson et al. (2008) add that music favorably affects the development of positive relationships between parents and their children of all ages. Of course, it is necessary to use this finding in developing effective tools for positive parenting.

It is also important to add that some parents do not utilize this approach correctly. They simply praise their children for everything and even for no reason. They allow the children to do anything and to have anything but this cannot be regarded as positive parenting (Reece, 2013). Parents should employ an approach correctly.

At the same time, some researchers stress that positive parenting is very difficult and even impossible to use approach. Thus, Reece (2013) emphasizes that positive parenting requires too much time and effort. For example, parents should always remain models.

Such a simple example of using bad words is very suggestive. Adults often use some inappropriate words in certain situations and if these words are used in the household the child will simply copy the ways common for the family (Reece, 2013). More so, the researcher adds that some parents cannot utilize it due to many reasons (for example, socioeconomic issues). Sometimes parents need assistance in parenting and there are quite many strategies to help them.

For instance, practitioners have developed particular strategies to utilize positive parenting. Triple P-Positive Parenting Program can be regarded as an illustration of such tools. The program is a comprehensive public health model of intervention aimed at providing parents with the necessary tools to be good parents (Sanders, 2008, p. 506).

The program provides guidance through media (journals, websites, and TV programs), discussions, counseling, training and so on. Parents can help their children develop physically, cognitively and emotionally. Parents are taught about the importance of helping their children to develop and about effective strategies to employ.

Nonetheless, some researchers argue that the program is not as effective as some think it is. Thus, many parents with diverse cultural backgrounds cannot access the program (Morawska et al., 2011). It is noteworthy that the people (when they learn about the peculiarities of the program) find it quite helpful.

However, they also note that there are certain barriers, as they cannot access the training sessions due to lack of time, money and so on. It is clear that the program works but it is not accessible for many people. Therefore, it is essential to focus on the development of a more accessible program for parents based on the existing one.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that positive parenting is an effective approach, especially when it comes to children at the age of five. These children are entering a new stage of their life, and they need their parents support. It is obvious that some parents do not know about effective strategies of positive parenting and, hence, they also need assistance.

This assistance can be provided through an improved Triple P-Positive Parenting Program. The program should be more accessible. Parents will learn how to have a positive approach to parenting. This will positively affect the development of their children.

Reference List

Berger, K.S. (2008). The developing person through childhood and adolescence. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Morawska, A., Sanders, M., Goadby, E., Headley, C., Hodge, L., McAuliffe, C., & Anderson, E. (2011). Is the triple p-positive parenting program acceptable to parents from culturally diverse backgrounds? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(1), 614-622.

Nicholson, J.M., Berthelsen, D., Abad, V., Williams, K., & Bradley, J. (2008). Impact of music therapy to promote positive parenting and child development. Journal of Health Psychology, 13(2), 226-238.

Reece, H. (2013). The pitfalls of positive parenting. Ethics and Education, 8(1), 42-54.

Sanders, M.R. (2008). Triple p-positive parenting program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(3), 506-517.

Introduction

Child development is a fascinating and complex subject that encompasses a wide range of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur during the first two decades of life. From the moment of birth, children begin to grow and develop at an incredible pace, and their experiences and interactions with the world around them can have a profound impact on their future development. One of the key areas of child development that has received significant attention in recent years is the role of early childhood education (ECE). Early childhood education has long been recognized as an important factor in a childs overall development. The years between birth and age five are a crucial time for brain development, as the vast majority of a persons cognitive abilities are formed during this period. As such, the quality of a childs early experiences can have a profound impact on their later success in life. In recent years, a growing body of research has begun to explore the specific ways in which early childhood education can influence cognitive development.

Background

The science of cognitive development is concerned with the ways in which children think, learn, and solve problems. Over the past several decades, researchers have identified a number of key factors that influence cognitive development, including genetics, the environment, and individual experiences (Tucker-Drob & Briley, 2014). Early childhood education, in particular, has been shown to play a critical role in shaping a childs cognitive abilities. Early childhood education programs can take many different forms, but they all have the common goal of providing young children with a stimulating and supportive environment in which to learn and grow. These programs typically include a variety of activities and experiences designed to promote cognitive development, such as playing with puzzles, reading books, and engaging in art and music activities.

Research has consistently shown that children who participate in high-quality early childhood education programs tend to have better cognitive outcomes than those who do not. For example, studies have found that children who attend preschool are more likely to have higher IQs, better problem-solving skills, and greater language proficiency than those who do not. Additionally, children who participate in early childhood education programs are more likely to do well in school and to have successful careers later in life.

Early childhood education has been widely debated for its potential positive effects on cognitive development. Some argue that early childhood education provides a strong foundation for children to build upon in their later years, leading to improved academic performance and cognitive abilities. Others argue that early childhood education can be overly stressful for young children and may actually hinder their cognitive development. Despite these arguments, early childhood education plays a crucial role in cognitive development and has a lasting impact on a childs future success. By investing in high-quality early childhood education programs, parents can provide children with the foundation they need to thrive academically, socially, and emotionally. Through engaging and stimulating educational experiences, early childhood education fosters cognitive growth, helping children develop essential skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity.

There are several arguments for the positive effects of early childhood education on cognitive development. One argument is that early childhood education provides a structured and stimulating learning environment that fosters cognitive development. This structured environment allows children to learn and practice important cognitive skills, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and attention to detail. This can include a wide range of activities and experiences, such as puzzles, games, and manipulatives, that are designed to challenge a childs cognitive skills. Through these activities, children are able to develop important cognitive skills, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity. Another way in which early childhood education can benefit cognitive development is by providing children with access to a wide range of materials and resources. This can include books, toys, and other materials that are designed to engage a childs mind and promote cognitive development. By providing children with access to these materials, early childhood education programs can help to enhance a childs cognitive skills and abilities.

Regrettably, many professionals lack the knowledge to foster learning settings that cater to children of varying ages (e.g., newborns, toddlers, and preschoolers) and stages of development (e.g., cognitive, social, communication, motor) (IRISCENTER, 2022). Infants, toddlers, and preschoolers may grow and develop best in settings that are safe, accommodating, and caring. Interventions for babies and toddlers with recognized difficulties often center on creating a nurturing home environment for the kid. According to IRISCENTER (2022), there are a variety of positive outcomes associated with a setting that is optimized for young childrens learning:

• Encourage staff productivity
• promote childrens involvement
• Promote responsive caring
• Foster young childrens autonomy and self  confidence
• Reduce problematic behavior
• Facilitate acceptable social relationships among children
• Provide system and consistency

The success gap between children from impoverished backgrounds and those from rich backgrounds can be narrowed through early childhood education. For children from low-income families, early education interventions may assist in leveling the playing field by giving them access to resources and assistance they would not otherwise have. Moreover, studies have demonstrated that starting school early might have positive effects on brain development. Additionally, evidence showing that children who participate in early education programs have a greater chance of succeeding in school, graduating from high school, and finding gainful jobs as adults abound. Even in the most developed countries, some children perform worse in education than others due to conditions they cannot control, such as their place of birth and upbringing, their first language, or their parents employment (Unicef, 2016). Children from low-income families often start school behind their classmates, and if inequitable educational practices and policies do not improve their situation, they may fall farther behind. An approach that might help reduce inequality is making high-quality early education and care available to all children.

However, there are also arguments against the positive effects of early childhood education on cognitive development. One argument is that not all early education programs are of high quality, and some may not provide the necessary support and stimulation for cognitive development. According to a study published in the journal Early Childhood Research Quarterly, the quality of early education programs can significantly impact a childs cognitive development (Black et al., 2017). The study found that children who attended high-quality preschool programs demonstrated higher levels of cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving and critical thinking, compared to children who did not attend preschool or attended low-quality programs. Furthermore, the study found that high-quality programs provided a supportive and stimulating learning environment that encouraged cognitive development. Therefore, it is not accurate to claim that all early education programs are of low quality and do not provide the necessary support and stimulation for cognitive development.

Another argument is that some children may be better suited to learning in a more informal and unstructured environment, rather than a structured and formal early education program. It is a common belief that some children may thrive in a more informal and unstructured learning environment, but this claim lacks scientific evidence. In fact, research has shown that children who participate in high-quality early education programs have better outcomes in terms of their academic achievement, social-emotional development, and overall well-being. For example, a study published in the journal Child Development found that children who attended high-quality early education programs had better pre-academic skills, such as vocabulary and pre-reading skills, compared to children who did not attend such programs (Burchinal et al., 2012).

Additionally, a report on the Head Start Program found that children who participated in these programs had significantly higher cognitive test scores and were more likely to graduate from high school and attend college compared to children who did not participate in early education programs (Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach, & Bauer, 2016). While some people may believe that children are better suited to learning in a more informal and unstructured environment, the evidence suggests that participation in high-quality early education programs can provide important benefits for childrens cognitive, social-emotional, and overall development.

Additionally, some argue that early childhood education can have negative effects on cognitive development if it is too intensive and focused on academic achievement. This can lead to a pressure-filled environment that is not conducive to the natural development of cognitive skills. It is not accurate to say that early childhood education can have negative effects on cognitive development if it is too intensive and focused on academic achievement. In fact, research has consistently shown that high-quality early childhood education programs can have positive effects on childrens cognitive development. For example, a recent meta-analysis found that children who participated in high-quality early childhood education programs had better outcomes in terms of cognitive development, including better pre-reading and pre-math skills, compared to children who did not participate in such programs (Joo et al., 2020). Another study found that children who attended high-quality early childhood education programs had better cognitive development and academic achievement in the long term, even into adulthood (Bakken et al., 2017). These studies and others like them demonstrate that early childhood education can be beneficial for cognitive development, as long as it is high-quality and well-designed.

There are many possible future directions for research on the effects of early childhood education on cognitive development. Some potential areas of research could include:

1. Investigating the long-term effects of early childhood education on cognitive development, including studying how it may impact academic achievement and success in later life.
2. Examining the specific types of early childhood education programs and interventions that are most effective at promoting cognitive development, and identifying the key elements of successful programs.
3. Investigating how early childhood education can be tailored to the individual needs of children, including those with special education needs or developmental delays.
4. Studying the impact of early childhood education on the development of specific cognitive skills, such as language and problem-solving abilities.
5. Investigating the effects of early childhood education on the development of social and emotional skills, and how these skills may impact cognitive development.

Overall, the future of research on this topic will likely involve a combination of large-scale studies and in-depth investigations of specific programs and interventions, in order to better understand the complex relationships between early childhood education and cognitive development.

Conclusion

Overall, while there are arguments for and against the positive effects of early childhood education on cognitive development, the evidence suggests that high-quality early education programs can provide important benefits for cognitive development. Through providing children with a rich and stimulating learning environment, access to a wide range of materials and resources, and a foundation for later learning, early childhood education programs can help to enhance a childs cognitive skills and abilities.

References

Bakken, L., Brown, N., & Downing, B. (2017). Early childhood education: The long-term benefits. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 31(2), 255269. Web.

Black, M. M., Walker, S. P., Fernald, L. C. H., Andersen, C. T., DiGirolamo, A. M., Lu, C., McCoy, D. C., Fink, G., Shawar, Y. R., Shiffman, J., Devercelli, A. E., Wodon, Q. T., Vargas-Barón, E., Grantham-McGregor, S., & Lancet Early Childhood Development Series Steering Committee (2017). Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course. Lancet (London, England), 389(10064), 7790. Web.

Burchinal, M., Field, S., López, M. L., Howes, C., & Pianta, R. (2012). Instruction in Spanish in pre-kindergarten classrooms and child outcomes for English language learners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(2), 188197. Web.

Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach, & Bauer, L. (2016). The long-term impact of the Head Start program. Brookings; Brookings. Web.

IRISCENTER. (2022). What can teachers do to make the classroom environment more conducive to childrens learning and development? Vanderbilt.edu. Web.

Joo, Y. S., Magnuson, K., Duncan, G. J., Schindler, H. S., Yoshikawa, H., & Ziol-Guest, K. M. (2020). What works in early childhood education programs? A metaanalysis of preschool enhancement programs. Early Education and Development, 31(1), 1-26.

Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Briley, D. A. (2014). Continuity of genetic and environmental influences on cognition across the life span: a meta-analysis of longitudinal twin and adoption studies. Psychological bulletin, 140(4), 949979. Web.

Unicef. (2016). An Unfair Start: Inequality in Childrens Education in Rich Countries. Unicef-Irc.org. Web.

Introduction

Many aspects of children education affect their development. One of these aspects is the way in which they are taught about gender roles. Gender typing refers to the process through which children acquire certain values, behaviors, and attitudes that are ascribed to either of the two genders (Banks and McGee Banks 139). Children acquire gender-based beliefs due to the influence of gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are usually based on gender roles that children are taught in school, and made to practice at home.

In their early childhood years, children adopt certain gender identities due to the influence of their parents and teachers. In addition, they adopt various gender preferences that shape their development during adolescence and adulthood. It is important for teachers to desist from incorporating gender stereotypes and gender roles in the education of children (Banks and McGee Banks 139). On the other hand, it is important to incorporate roles and tasks that are gender-neutral in order to avoid influencing the development of children in negative ways.

Gender identity and development

During their early development years, children adopt gender roles and behaviors that define their gender identity. One of the most common influences is education. Many teachers teach children to adopt specific roles and identities because they are either boys or girls. Development of gender identity starts at home before children attend school. Before the age of three years, many children possess the ability to differentiate between activities and behaviors that are meant for boys and girls.

This promotes adoption of certain behaviors and attitudes by boys and girls. As a result, boys play more aggressive games while girls play less aggressive games. Gender identification intensifies when children attend school during their middle childhood. Children develop behaviors that are gender-based because of the stereotypes they learn at school, and that consequently adopt (Robles de Melendez and Beck 74). For example, girls observe the activities of their mothers and adopt them, while boys adopt the activities of their fathers. This also applies to behaviors and attitudes. In order to change these stereotypes and promote balanced child development, it is important to provide non-biased education. Education should be free of stereotyped gender roles and activities.

In many cultures, there are established standards that determine desirable gender roles and behavior. For example, males are required to be assertive, competitive, aggressive, independent, and active. On the other hand, females are required to be passive, quiescent, sensitive, emotional, and supportive (Banks and McGee Banks 143). When these standards are incorporated into education systems, they influence the development of children. They thus play critical role in determining the future of children with regard to their perception of gender roles in the society. It is import to desist from teaching children about gender roles and behaviors because it limits their potential and scope with regard to what they can achieve (Robles de Melendez and Beck 75).

Gender bias in education systems

Education is an important developmental aspect that determines the adoption of gender-based roles and behaviors in children. Teachers have a responsibility to teach children in ways that do not promote fixed behaviors and roles with regard to gender. For example, teachers should desist from classifying behaviors and roles based on gender. When children enter school, they receive the same quality of education. However, certain aspects influence their development with regard to gender roles. Gender bias in education refers to the different ways in which teachers treat boys and girls (Robles de Melendez and Beck 77).

Examples of gender bias in education include ways in which teachers respond to male and female students, division of disciplines based on gender, and the depiction of the male gender as superior in learning materials. In many schools, boys are given more responsibilities and attention because they are considered as superior to girls. For example, boys are encouraged to take mathematics and sciences like physics, and chemistry while girls are encouraged to take humanities like arts, languages, and literature (Robles de Melendez and Beck 78). Such practices introduce bias in the education that children receive. They learn to associate simple tasks with the female gender and complex tasks with the male gender.

There is need for revision of school curriculums in order to eradicate gender bias in education. One of the areas than needs review is socialization of gender in schools. Currently, the socialization of gender in many schools creates the impression that girls are inferior to boys. This is evident from the ways in which teachers treat boys and girls. On the other hand, certain behaviors are allowed for boys only because of the mythical statement, Boys will be boys.

Despite recent research studies that reveal that girls are performing better than boys, the socialization scheme has remained unchanged (Robles de Melendez and Beck 79). Teachers should avoid socializing girls towards feminine ideals because they compromise their potential and abilities. The current socialization structure encourages boys to be active and independent while it encourages girls to be popular and quiescent. Gender stereotypes and roles should be discouraged in education. Students should be encouraged to assume all roles and avoid classifying their activities and tasks based on gender.

How to eradicate gender bias in education

First, the current structure of gender socialization should be changed. Boys and girls receive different forms of education because of the gender socialization they undergo (Jyotsna and Page 86). Boys and girls should be taught that they are equal and have the same potential for achievement. Teachers should particularly focus on the plight of girls because they are the most affected. Girls should be encouraged to pursue mathematics and science disciplines because they possess the ability to perform well.

Second, education systems should incorporate gender-neutral aspects when teaching children. This can be achieved in various ways. Teachers should use learning materials that laud the achievements of women (Jyotsna and Page 88). Many learning materials are founded on the achievements of men. For example, a large percentage of books used for instruction in high schools and colleges are dominated by theories and studies that were developed by men. Incorporating learning materials that show the achievements of women in fields such as science, athletics, management, and leadership will help to avoid gender stereotyping. Third, teachers should accord equal attention to both girls and boys, and encourage girls to pursue disciplines that are considered as masculine. Instructors should learn to eradicate their own bias towards gender roles and stereotypes in order for them to make a difference in their students.

In addition, they should distribute their time, attention, and energy equally between male and female students (Jyotsna and Page 91). On the other hand, instructors should avoid classifying students based on their genders because it affects them adversely. Finally, all students should be allowed to perform all types of tasks and activities regardless of the gender stereotypes associated with them. For example, girls should be encouraged to take part in all types of games and athletic activities. Tasks, roles, and activities should not be classified based on gender, and all children should be accorded equal opportunities for development in all areas of learning and instruction (Jyotsna and Page 95).

Summary

Aspects such as gender roles and stereotypes affect child development in various ways. The type of education that children receive plays an important role in shaping their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors with regard to gender. Children adopt different gender roles and behaviors due to gender typing. Gender typing refers to the process through which children acquire certain values, behaviors, and attitudes, which are ascribed to either of the two genders. Children acquire certain beliefs due to the influence of gender stereotypes.

For example, women are believed to be quiescent, weak, emotional, and sensitive. As a result, girls pick and adopt these traits from their parents and teachers. However, this should not be the case because gender stereotyping limits children with regard to their potential and capabilities. Gender neutrality in both education and child development practices should be encouraged in order to eradicate any bias that could affect their development. Education should be used to eradicate gender bias. This should involve consideration of critical aspects like socialization of gender, choice of disciplines that children pursue, and components of curriculums that are related to gender.

Children should be encouraged to pursue activities or disciplines of their choice, not because they are related to their gender but because they are interested in them. This helps to eradicate the negative effect of stereotypes and gender roles on children. Learning materials that encourage gender segmentation should be discarded and replaced with materials that promote a balanced depiction of the achievements of both genders. Children should be protected from the negative influence of gender stereotyping. Education plays an important role in child development. Therefore, it should be free of gender stereotyping and gender roles because they make children adopt certain ideals that limit their talents and capabilities.

Works Cited

Banks, James A., and Cherry A. McGee Banks. Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print.

Robles de Melendez, Wilma, and Versa Beck. Teaching Young Children in Multicultural Classrooms: Issues, Concepts, and Strategies. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

Jyotsna, Jha, and Elspeth Page. Exploring the Bias: Gender and Stereotyping in Secondary Schools. London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2008. Print.

Introduction

Beginning from the 1950s to the present, the number of women entering in employment has increased dramatically. The increase in this number has been accompanied by a great increase in maternal employment. According to Coontz (1997), as on one hand in the course of the 1950s the percentage of children who had mothers in employment stood at 16 percent, on the other hand in the current day this percentage stands at 70 percent. Maternal employment has been considered to bring in negative effects on child development. For instance, it has been considered that mother employment may bring about attachment disorder and may as well affect the childs cognitive development negatively. This paper is going to look at whether maternal employment has negative effects on child development or not.

Effects of Maternal employment and child development

According to Ven, Cullen, Carroza, and Wright, (2001), arguments have been presented by the psychologists that the neglected child of the mother who is in employment may be at a risk of suffering from an attachment disorder. This is believed to be a great casual factor that brings about problems of extreme behavior in the child. According to Eyer (1996), mothers should sit at home to take care of their young children to avoid the risk of carrying out the disruption of the crucial bond that should exist between the child and the mother during the mother-child bonding period. If this bond is not strengthened during this period, it will be hard for it to be strengthened in a later period.

The children who are the victims of this may not be able to succeed; they will be annoying everyone around them, they will turn out to be delinquents in the subsequent periods and in the long run they will turn out to be terrorists (Eyer, 1996).

According to Belsky (1988), the theory of attachment holds it that having the mother separated from her child who is still young reduces the chance for the mother to be able to learn the behavioral patterns of the child and this may make it difficult for the mother to offer sensitive care. This is supported by Crouter Bumps, Maguire and McHale (1999), in their observation that employment brings about a conflict in roles which makes it to be very hard for the mothers to have an affectionate relationships with the children at home.

However, Marks, Huston, Johnson, and MacDermid (2001), have a contrasting perspective to this (role enhancement perspective) which contends that employment does not bring down the level of the quality interactions of the mother with their children for the reason that these mothers can always adjust their time and energy in a manner that is flexible.

Even if there are claims that employment of mothers brings about negative child outcomes, there is no much evidence that indicates that this is true. According to Chira (1998), the research carried out in the recent times gives an indication that those children whose mothers are employed are no less attached than the children whose mothers are not employed. As Harvey (1999) observes, the children whose mothers are in employment do not experience any social, behavioral functioning, and emotional deficits.

Bainbridge, Meyers, Tanaka and Waldofogel (2005), in their study established that mothers who are in employment have a higher tendency to have their children being exposed to the school setting when they are still very young unlike of those mothers who are not in the employment. According to NICHD (2000), studies have given an indication that enrolling children in day care centers as well as exposing them to the school setting tends to be of great advantage for the cognitive development of the children.

However, the effects on the socio-emotional outcomes are yet to be very clear. The attention of the caregivers that might be less sensitive may result in to the children having less social competence, having hyperactivity and physical aggression (Jacobvitz and Sroufe, 1987). However, the care givers who are trained professionally may enable in realizing less hyperactivity among the children.

According to Bowing, Waldfogel, and Brooks-Gunn (2001), Child attachment security to the mother is not the only area of concern in regard to the issue of maternal employment. Other studies in this area have as well focused on the issue of social emotional adjustment and cognitive outcomes in regard to child development. Research carried out in this area has revealed that maternal employment in the first year in the childs life has an effect that is not similar on later emotional adjustments than does employment begun thereafter. Evidence as well exists which reveals that employment that is started in the first year of the childs life may affect cognitive development negatively for some children, but on the other hand, employment that comes after the first year may bring positive effects.

More so, family characteristics from which the child comes can as well influence the effects of early maternal employment. Effects may vary depending on the level of the family income. Greater negative effects of maternal employment in a low-income family tan in middle or high-income family. Families with higher income may be in a position to purchase child care that is of high quality than those with low incomes (Bowing, Waldfogel, and Brooks-Gunn, 2001).

Conclusion

As it has been seen in the discussion, there exist negative effects of maternal employment to child development like lack of a strong mother-child-bond as well as development of hyperactivity in the child. However, these negative effects can be countered especially in the case where the mother can stretch her time and energy to be with the child. This can also be solved in the case where the child is in the hands of a professional caregiver. More so, the argument that maternal employment can affect the childs performance in school negatively might not be true since basing on the research as it has been looked at, there is no clear difference between the performance of the child whose mother is employed and the one whose mother is not employed.

More so, Research carried out in the area maternal employment and child development has revealed that maternal employment in the first year in the childs life has an effect that is not similar on later emotional adjustments than does employment begun thereafter. Evidence as well exists which reveals that employment that is started in the first year of the childs life may affect cognitive development negatively for some children, but on the other hand, employment that comes after the first year may bring positive effects.

Reference List

Bainbridge, J., Meyers, M. K., Tanaka, S., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Who gets an early education? Family income and the enrollment of three- to five-year-olds from 1968 to 2000. Social Science Quarterly, 86, 724  745.

Belsky, J. (1988). The effect of infant day care reconsidered. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 235-272.

Bowing W. H., Waldfogel J., and Brooks-Gunn, (2001), The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Later Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes. Journal of Marriage and family. 336  354.

Chira, S. (1998). A mothers place. New York: HarperCollins.

Coontz, S. (1997). The way we are: Coming to terms with Americas changing families. New York: Basic Books.

Crouter, A. C., Bumpus, M. F., Maguire, M. C., & McHale, S. M. (1999). Linking parents work pressure and adolescents well-being: Insights into dynamics in dual-earner families. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1453-1461.

Eyer, D. (1996). Motherguit: How our culture blames mothers for what is wrong with society. New York: Random house.

Harvey, E. (1999). Long-term effects of early parental employment on childrens cognitive ability and achievement. Social forces 77:257  288.

Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1987). The early caregiver-child relationship and attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity in kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 58, 1488-1495.

Marks, S. R., Huston, T. L., Johnson, E. M., & MacDermid, S. M. (2001). Role balance among white married couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 1083-1098.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Early Child Care Research Network. (2000). The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. Child Development, 71, 960-980.

Ven T. M. V., Cullen F. T, Carroza A. M., and Wright J. P., (2001), Home alone: The impact of maternal employment on delinquency. Social Problems; ABI/IFORM Global.

Introduction

Non-verbal is the first type of communication a child can exhibit. Expressions, gestures, eye contact, and body movement are the aspects of non-verbal communication that a child can employ to express emotions, feelings, desires, or thoughts. Thus, educators are to understand such cues and respond to them accordingly. Working with children implies the formation of a connection, interaction, and reading of the non-verbal aspects of their expressive illustrations of wants and needs. In this paper, the importance of understanding the role of non-verbal communication while working with children will be discussed in relation to perceiving emotions, creating comfortable conditions, and interacting with special-needs individuals.

Perceiving Emotions

Understanding ones emotions is an efficient way for an educator to form a connection with a child. According to researchers, just as adults can perceive the childs inner feelings by paying attention to their gestures and facial movement, a child can perceive the same information in a similar way (Valentini et al., 2019). Thus, it is a two-way communication process in which the participants can interact. An educator can comprehend when a child feels upset and comfort them or change certain external factors affecting the individuals well-being. At the same time, the child can tell when an action is upsetting the educator and change specific behavioral aspects that have led to non-verbal expressions of disapproval. Hence, understanding non-verbal communication facilitates the formation of a relationship between the child and educator in which both parties try to come to a common understanding solely by reading silent cues.

Creating Comfortable Conditions

Another aspect illustrating the importance of understanding the role of non-verbal communication is the correlation with the possibility of creating comfortable circumstances for the child. According to researchers, certain non-verbal cues represent ones perception of external factors. For example, a straight posture highlights confidence and approachability, while a child with a different posture can show insecurity (Rochmah et al., 2020). An educator can perceive such information and create circumstances in which the student feels more included and willing to interact. These include having private discussions, removing certain disruptors, and making sure the individual is comfortable. Thus, the child becomes more confident and is ready to listen to directions, be an active part of a lesson, and be open to communicating.

Interacting With Children with Special Needs

Non-verbal communication, in some cases, is the only way a child can express opinions and thoughts. One example is children with hearing impairments. Moreover, in some cases, children on the autistic spectrum are non-verbal, which is also a reason why teachers have to understand the importance of expression in a non-verbal manner (Franchini et al., 2018). The vital implications of understanding body language, gestures, and facial expressions allow the educator to form a connection with different children despite their differences in how they communicate. As a result, the classroom becomes an inclusive platform in which different voices are heard despite them potentially being silent.

Conclusion

The importance of understanding the role of non-verbal communication when working with children allows teachers to interact with students, meet their needs, and create circumstances in which they feel comfortable expressing their opinions and thoughts. Educators are then able to understand childrens emotions, adapt to the external environment to create more favorable conditions, and include each participant in classroom activities despite their medical conditions. As a result, communication is two sides, and each child is listened to and understood.

References

Franchini, M., Duku, E., Armstrong, V., Brian, J., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Roncadin, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Smith, I. M. (2018). Variability in verbal and nonverbal communication in infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder: Predictors and outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(10), 34173431.

Rochmah, S. N., Swandhina, M., & Maulana, R. A. (2020). Child gesture as a form of non-verbal communication. Proceedings of the 1st International Multidisciplinary Conference on Education, Technology, and Engineering (IMCETE 2019).

Valentini, M., Mancini, M., Raiola, G., & Federici, A. (2019). Digital and non-verbal communication in preschool: A systematic review. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise  2019  Spring Conferences of Sports Science.

Introduction

Freuds theory of child development focuses on personality, and it defines how an individual behaves, feels, and thinks. Therefore, a child grows up unique depending on the issues they went through when they were young. As a child grows, they develop long-term characteristics that they hold throughout their life, and according to Freud, it all starts developing unconsciously. Freuds study became the first in-depth personality review; some people perceived it as right and others wrong.

Discussion

Freuds theory of child development is right in different ways. The theorys main proposal is the five psychosexual stages, which include genital, latency, phallic, anal, and oral. They all hinge on a child developing their unconscious mind, and it reveals more as they grow. The childs personality is determined by the superego, ego, and id (Hossain 41). Freud determines that there needs to be a balance in his five defined stages so that a child can develop desired traits. It shows that a childs environment is key, as it is about what they see and how they interact or the teachings they receive. Freuds theory was also contentious as his theory was subjective with little evidence of the subsequent events of his development framework. He stated that if a child missed some of those stages, they would most likely turn homosexual. The claim makes child development deterministic, which is not always the case.

Conclusion

Freuds theory sparked much controversy because it does not predict what should happen to a child but only explains their development using fixed phenomena. Therefore, it is hard to know if it is true, but his explanation of the childs environment influencing their life is a good place to start when explaining development. Freud is specific about the claims in the theorys stages but does not include supporting theories that concur or object to his sayings. Therefore, Freuds theory forms a small part of a hypothesis about a childs development, as there are many other influences.

Work Cited

Hossain, Mahroof Psychoanalytic Theory Used in English Literature: A Descriptive Study. Global Journal of Human Social Science, vol. 17, no. 1, 2017, pp. 41-48.

Alwaely, S. A., Yousif, N. B., & Mikhaylov, A. (2020). Emotional development in preschoolers and socialization. Early Child Development and Care, 191(16), 2484-2493. Web.

This article focuses on the emotional maturity of children of preschool age and shares ideas on how to mitigate current issues with empathetic connections. Alwaely et al. point out that the lack of interactions with peers and parents is the primary source of emotional detachment and immaturity (Alwaely et al., 2020). This study can serve as the foundation for socially-oriented programs that will help children make friends and understand the emotions of others better. I agree with the authors conclusion and support their proposal to increase incentives to extend empathy channels among preschoolers.

Blair, C., McKinnon, R. D., & Daneri, M. P. (2018). Effect of the tools of the mind kindergarten program on childrens social and emotional development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 43, 52-61. Web.

The study on the Tools of the Mind program on the socio-emotional state of children gives an example of well-balanced study material. Researchers call for creating courses that improve cognitive abilities, as they play an essential part in self-regulation and understanding of others during social interactions (Blair et al., 2018). The Tools of the Mind program appears to improve students emotional regulation by promoting an analytical approach to others experiences. Although the authors agree that teachers expertise has a more significant role in this process, the article is credible and has practical implications. After learning about this program, I would more likely participate in it due to a perceived benefit for children who are engaged in analytical behavior that is seamlessly integrated into their regular lessons.

Berk, L. E. (2019). Exploring child development. Pearson.

The book provides an in-depth look into many aspects of early childhood development, specifically concerning the subject of improving childrens cognitive abilities. Berk explains both physical and mental changes occurring in the first eleven years of a childs life. The source is highly useful in child development research, as the author links ones body changes, such as brain functions, with learning capacities and requirements (Berk, 2019). The author of this book is a professor of psychology who has researched child development for more than thirty years, which implies that this textbook is reliable. After reading the book, I have gained a better understanding of the links between shifting educational approaches and childrens needs.

Lash, M. (2019). Perspectives on early childhood curricula. In C. P. Brown, M. B. McMullen, & N. File (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of early childhood care and education (pp. 261-278). Wiley.

The author of this chapter reviews the topic of creating a fitting learning program for preschool and kindergarten children. I found this text to be illuminating on the subject of experience versus objectives, as children indeed take information in despite their success or failure. The author concludes that there is no universal curriculum that is suitable for all children, as their environment inevitably influences their development and is heavily influenced by their culture, family beliefs, and personal capabilities (Lash, 2019). I believe that this source can help me to assess educational programs with greater efficiency, as the authors insights provide an excellent perspective on stimulating childrens intellectual growth.

Haslip, M. J., & Gullo, D. F. (2018). The changing landscape of early childhood education: Implications for policy and practice. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46(3), 249-264. Web.

The journal article by Haslip and Gullo overviews the trends in early childhood education with a focus on finding a balance between developing practical and social skills. The authors state that child development can be improved by prioritizing childrens emotional well-being and their integration into society via a culturally-sensitive curriculum (Haslip & Gullo, 2018). I think that the paper properly reflects the current direction of child education and pinpoints the reasons that put children studying under improper curricula at a disadvantage. I agree that a shift from a result- to a process-oriented education is a necessary step.

Mondi, C. F., Giovanelli, A., & Reynolds, A. J. (2021). Fostering socio-emotional learning through early childhood intervention. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 15(1). Web.

This paper analyzes the ways to incorporate the social and emotional development of a child into educational processes. It is impossible to set up a proper childhood development program without addressing the need to foster childrens social competence in different contexts (Mondi et al., 2021). This study focuses on programs and their outcomes and synthesizes the adequate approach to improving childrens ability to connect with others. I think that conclusions made by the authors must be used for creating next-generation curricula, as the impact of programs that include social adaptation can eradicate social disparities and long-lasting conflicts.

Lipscomb, S. T., Hatfield, B., Lewis, H., Goka-Dubose, E., & Abshire, C. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and childrens development in early care and education programs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 72, 101218. Web.

The article provides a review of adverse outcomes that are common in early education programs. With at least 50% of children enrolled in such courses having negative experiences annually, the problem must be dealt with due to its effect on students future achievements (Lipscomb et al., 2021). I think that this list can serve as a focus for researchers to find and implement ways to alleviate the negative impact of these experiences. The authors propose monitoring changes in childrens academic performance and behavior to provide a timely response to the obstacles in their development (Lipscomb et al., 2021). I believe that the variety of learning programs may be adjusted to ensure that this process occurs naturally and signs of issues do not remain unnoticed.

Yoshikawa, H., Wuermli, A. J., Raikes, A., Kim, S., & Kabay, S. B. (2018). Toward high-quality early childhood development programs and policies at national scale: Directions for research in global contexts. Social Policy Report, 31(1), 1-36. Web.

This paper proposes the methods of updating the current child development systems with evidence-based practices. The researchers recognize the interdependence of factors that affect a childs development, implying the need to improve all contexts in order to achieve better outcomes (Yoshikawa et al., 2018). The authors point of view on the need to improve relative systems infrastructure reflects the detrimental impact of outdated approaches on the organizational level. From this article, I have learned what the obstacles that prevent organizations from creating efficient child development programs are.