Identifying strategies to help children with special needs is a crucial step toward improving the quality of their education and designing the framework to promote the active acquisition of the relevant skills and knowledge at the earliest stages of their development. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and the related legal mandates, when a disability is suspected, it is required that the school should carry out a comprehensive assessment to understand the student’s current psychoeducational functioning and offer appropriate and tailored recommendations (e.g., classroom accommodations) from multiple professional perspectives (Dodd, Franke, Grzesik, & Stoskopf, 2014). Therefore, it is imperative to introduce a tool that could provide adequate and necessary information about the current needs and issues of the child. One tool is a multidisciplinary assessment, which has been defined as the evaluation of the areas of the child’s developmental strengths and needs (New York State Department of Health, 2005; National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2010).
Elements of a Comprehensive Multidisciplinary Assessment
The essential elements of a multidisciplinary assessment are often contingent upon the unique objectives and aims of the evaluation process. For instance, when endeavoring to meet the needs of a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder, one is expected to have a set of elements required specifically for managing the needs of the identified population on the list of the assessment elements (e.g., standardized testing, direct observation, review of academic records). Furthermore, the services of a psychologist, a speech pathologist, and an OT/PT, as well as educators, including the principal and the teacher, will have to be considered. The significance of collaboration between the school personnel, healthcare experts, and parents should be listed among the primary elements of a multidisciplinary assessment as well (National Association of Special Education Teachers, 2017).
That being said, several items can be viewed as the constituents of an abstract multidisciplinary assessment that can be used to define a mental health concern in students. First, basic ethical issues need to be addressed, including informed consent for assessment. Retrieving informed consent from students or their parents (in case the learners have not reached full age yet) must be viewed as a crucial part of any multidisciplinary assessment; furthermore, students with mental conditions will have to receive the approval of their legal guardians (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2010).
Next, the problem-solving model as the basis for the design of the assessment should be viewed as the most important element of the multidisciplinary assessment (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.). Although the concept is not novel, it helps to design an elaborate approach for meeting the learners’ needs by determining the barriers that students face in the course of learning and introducing the tools for overcoming these problems successfully. Thus, the identified element helps design the framework for managing the issues faced by learners with disabilities.
It is crucial to make sure that every single detail about the factors affecting the personal development of a student should be taken into account prior to the assessment. Thus, objective results can be retrieved in the process of evaluating the learners’ abilities (The Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, 2017). Therefore, the data from not only learners but also their educators as well as parents or legal guardians should be utilized. Cooperation and information exchange among parents, educators, and healthcare experts creates prerequisites for a comprehensive overview of the target population’s progress (State of Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, 2013).
The identification of the annual goals of the educational institution is the next step toward designing the assessment. Furthermore, the external factors affecting the performance of learners (e.g., the school environment, school policies) must be incorporated into the assessment process. Thus, an objective evaluation of learners can be conducted (McInerey & Swenson, 1988).
The use of the eligibility criteria as the basis for determining possible developmental issues in learners must be considered the next step toward a comprehensive, multidisciplinary assessment. The students must be evaluated to determine the possible presence of mental, learning, and behavioral disorders. As a result, educators will be better informed about the teaching strategies that they will have to use to meet the learners’ needs (Overton, 2006).
Finally, the recommendations for planning the appropriate program must be provided to educators. Furthermore, individualized education programs can be modeled to promote active knowledge acquisition among all learners. Thus, equal opportunities for students with disabilities will be created, allowing them to engage in the academic process and raising motivation levels among them (McLoughlin & Lewis, 2008).
Furthermore, the fact that the multidisciplinary assessment incorporates not only the evaluation of the learners’ performance but also their needs should be mentioned. It is important to make sure that not only the intellectual potential of the learners but also their current needs must be identified. Therefore, the multidisciplinary assessment will have to incorporate the tools that will allow determining the current needs of the learners based on their background, progress, and unique characteristics. Additionally, it is important that the assessment should help measure the physical abilities of the child. As a result, possible health issues, such as hearing impairments, vision-related issues, as well as any other factors that may inhibit the process of learning can be identified. Consequently, the appropriate teaching strategy will be designed.
Conclusion
Conducting a multidisciplinary assessment is a crucial step toward creating an academic environment in which all learners will be able to develop the necessary skills and acquire essential knowledge. Therefore, it is imperative to introduce the multidisciplinary assessment framework to thoroughly assess a student’s current psychoeducational functioning and offer necessary recommendations based on data gathered.
References
Dodd, J. L., Franke, L. K., Grzesik, J. K., & Stoskopf, J. (2014). Comprehensive multi-disciplinary assessment protocol for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Intellectual Disability – Diagnosis and Treatment, 2(1), 68-82.
The Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center. (2017). Early identification: Screening, evaluation and assessment. Washington, DC: ECTACenter.
McInerey, W., & Swenson, S. (1988). The principal’s role in the multi-disciplinary assessment team. Washington, DC: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
McLoughlin, J. A., & Lewis, R. B. (2008). Assessing students with special needs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (2010). Comprehensive assessment and evaluation of students with learning disabilities. New York, NY: NJCLD.
New York State Department of Health. (2005). Standards and procedures for evaluations, evaluation reimbursement, and eligibility requirements and determinations under the Early Intervention Program. New York, NY: Bureau of Early Intervention.
Overton, T. (2006). Assessing learners with special needs: An applied approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
State of Michigan Department of Health and Human Services. (2013). Multidisciplinary evaluation. Lansing, MI: Department of Health and Human Services.
In the article on socioeconomic status and child development, the concept of emotional behavior disorders is obvious. Adjustment disorders, which relate to the difficulty in being accustomed to new environments, and anxiety disorders are categories of emotional behavior disorders. The disorder also may incorporate school phobia, obsessive or compulsive, post-traumatic stress disorder, and panic attacks. Letourneau, Duffet-Leger, Levac, & Young-Morris (2011) assert that lower socioeconomic status is widely recognized to have damaging effects on the development and well-being of children and adolescents. Literacy levels show emotional behavior disorders of the children. The authors explain Emotional Behavioral Disorders as a comprehensive category. The disorder presents itself in educational settings as perceived complications in children and adolescents modes of behavior.
In her summary, Letourneau et al. (2011) assert that emotional behavior disorders take various forms. The disorder displays itself differently depending on one’s social status. Children of upper socioeconomic status are more superior as compared to their counterparts from lower socioeconomic status. Their easy access to money tends to give them perceived boasting rights. The boasting habit makes them force their ideologies on the inferior. On the other hand, children of lower socioeconomic status develop an inferiority complex and other related behaviors. Abject withdrawal and self-internalization are some of the habits that lower economic class children depict. Most are quiet and are normally seen contemplating their lack of necessities.
The level of acceptance in the environment of mixed socioeconomic statuses determines the level of self-esteem among the youths. The author further expounds that emotional behavior disorder to the children of low socioeconomic status originates right from their homes. More often than not, low-income parents struggle to meet the day-to-day needs of their families (Letourneau et al., 2013). In comparison with middle-income children, low socioeconomic status children are exposed to higher levels of family violence, disturbance, and separation.
Low-income earners issue harsh demands and inflict physical punishment such as hard spanking of their children, thus raising their levels of stress and depression. Long-term exposure to strenuous activities or experiences results in emotional behavior disorders. The disorder is responsible for the many behavioral issues among school-going children. Additionally, emotional disorders explain why there are theft cases, truancy, bullish harassment, rudeness, and other cases of indiscipline in schools. Research indicates that emotional behavior disorders are responsible for major emotional complications at a later age. In addition, people who suffer from an emotional behavior disorder tend to inflict the same torture on their children once they mature up (Letourneau et al., 2013). This trend results in a vicious circle making emotional disorder a dangerous condition in life. The condition is a major issue in the medical profession.
The article presents critical and ideal information for both the medics and the education advisors. Understanding the cause of the problem makes it easier to deal with emotional behavior disorders at home and in school. Parents and teachers must take the initiative to embrace new parenting and teaching techniques. Emotional disorders result from poor parenting skills (Letourneau et al., 2013). Teachers and educational advisors spent more time with children; for this reason, they are responsible for the emotional behaviors of students. Additionally, parents should avoid letting their economic struggles get to their children for an emotional behavior disorder-free society.
References
Letourneau, L., duffet-Leger, L., Levac, L. & Young-Morris, C. (2013). Socioeconomic status and child development: a meta-analysis. Journal of emotional and behavioral disorders, 21(3), 211-224.
The research we offer to carry out is concerned with the topic of early special education interventions aimed at the development and improvement of social skills for children who suffer from hearing impairments (HI). In particular, we would like to find out the effects of such interventions on young children who study in elementary schools in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Before speaking further about the topic, it is important to define the key notions that are used in this paper. The term “early childhood” usually refers to the age of from 1 to approximately 8 years (Guest, 2013; Ansari, 2014); thus, it may include both preschoolers and children who have only started school. “Hearing impairment” is a term which denotes bad hearing that can vary in degree from total deafness, when “hearing is disabled to an extent that precludes the understanding of speech through the ear alone, with or without the use of a hearing aid”, to being hard of hearing, when “hearing is disabled to an extent that makes difficult, but does not preclude, the understanding of speech through ear alone, with or without a hearing aid”, to mild difficulties in hearing (Akram and Hameed, 2014, p. 104). “Special education” is the type of education that is created for children with special needs (resulting from e.g. hearing impairments) and is aimed at satisfying these needs (e.g. helping them to realize their full potential despite these impairments). “Social skills” are skills that are important for a person’s successful interaction with the society they live in (such as communication skills, social adaptation skills, etc.) (Xie, 2013).
The topic of special education interventions is of crucial importance due to the fact that children with HI commonly have additional trouble developing their social skills, perhaps due to the lack of early exposure to the part of social environment that consists of auditory communication. Such children require much special attention; otherwise, it is highly probable that they will fail to learn the necessary amount of social skills, will suffer from low self-esteem (Vernosfaderani, 2014) and other psychological problems, and will be unable to become full-fledged members of their society. This is likely to result in an even lower quality of life for people who often face additional trouble due to their condition even without the numerous social issues that can emerge in their lives.
Moeller, Carr, Seaver, Stredler-Brown, and Holzinger (2013) point out the fact that the implementation of various principles of dealing with children who suffer from HI varies from country to country. It appears completely justified to conclude that in some countries (and, further, regions, cities, schools, etc.) special education interventions are carried out at a suboptimal level. Therefore, it is paramount to study the results of such interventions both generally (in order to improve the methodology of such interventions) and in particular regions (which would help to better these interventions in concrete territorial divisions). Thus, the purpose of our research is to find out the effects of these interventions in the given particular setting (elementary schools in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia) in order to possibly improve both the general methodology of these interventions and their implementation in the mentioned region.
Literature Review
The research of special education interventions and the findings made in this field allow teachers, educators, and therapists to more effectively help children with HI to successfully develop their social skills and become full-fledged members of their community. It is also stressed that the effectiveness of interventions is likely to be much higher when these interventions start at the very early age (1-2 years of age) (Ansari, 2014). Therefore, it is essential to thoroughly analyze the effects and the effectiveness of such interventions to be able to improve them in order to help auditory impaired children better in the future.
This section reviews a number of articles that deal with the issue of hearing impairment in children. Most articles assess the social skills of such children and the effectiveness of special education interventions in improving these skills. Ansari (2014) identifies the age at which parents take steps to deal with the impairments of their babies, whereas Moeller et al. (2013) offer some recommendations concerning the interventions.
Guest (2013) found out that children with HI performed worse at conversational repair that their non-impaired peers. The researcher analyzed the conversational repair that children at the age of 24-83 months performed during interactions with others. One group consisted of three children with mild to profound HI, the other comprised three kids with no hearing loss. The scholar recorded a full day of speech for each child by using LENA (Language Environment Analysis digital processor) and analyzed the results with ADEX (the LENA Advanced Data Extractor). Because conversational repair was harder for children with HI, it is concluded that therapists of such children should concentrate on conversational repair issues rather than plainly cause conversation initiations and responses.
Akram and Hameed (2014) found out that adaptive emotional skills of adolescent children with HI were worse than those of children with no hearing problems. The population included Pakistani adolescents with hearing impairments from 23 special schools; they were compared to children with no HI selected from regular schools. The ability of participants to recognize emotions from facial expressions, use emotions to communicate feelings, understand groups of related emotions, and manage emotions and use them in decision-making were measured. The research found that adolescents with HI scored much lower than children with no such impairments, but socio-demographic variables (speech services, time of intervention, language, presence of hearing impaired relatives, etc.) significantly affected the impaired children’s scores.
Xie (2013) conducted a meta-research that revised the literature on how children with HI interact with their peers in inclusive schools, and found out that kids with HI initiate interactions with peers and moderate them, but the success of such interactions is related to the hearing status of the peer that the child communicates with; children with HI interact more successfully with other kids who suffer from HI than with those who have typical hearing. A number of intervention programs are offered; these include programs for bettering language and speech abilities, social skills training, co-enrollment programs, and peer-mediated model programs. However, the author notes that further research is needed to determine the exact effects of such programs.
Ansari (2014) found out at which age parents identified HI in their babies and took steps to intervene. The sample consisted of parents (living mainly in or near Mumbai, India) of infants with severe to profound HI; the participants filled in a specially designed questionnaire. It was discovered that the average age of suspicion, diagnosing, fitting of amplification, and the beginning of early intervention were 16.5, 24.3, 31.7, and 33.4 months, respectively. It is stressed that early intervention is crucial in the future development of children with HI.
Vernosfaderani (2014) was able to record positive changes in the self-esteem of students with HI after providing them with special training. Learners with HI from inclusive schools (54 students, 8-16 years old; 27 students participated in the training activities, the other 27 comprised the control group) were provided with life-skills training that concentrated on the development of skills such as communication, decision-making, self-awareness, thinking, daily living skills, relationship skills, social skills, etc. The students’ self-esteem was measured with Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (58-items variant) before and after the study, and analyzed via the SPSS package. The students who participated in the training showed a significant improvement in their self-esteem. It is concluded that such training should be effective in increasing the self-esteem of learners with HI from inclusive schools.
Naeini, Arshadi, Hatamizadeh, and Bakhshi (2013) recorded positive changes in female students with HI after special interventions. The quasi-experimental study scrutinized the results of twelve 1-hour bi-weekly sessions of interventions aimed at the development of three important social skills, namely, a) making friends, b) understanding and respecting oneself, c) recognizing one’s own emotions and dealing with the adverse ones. The population consisted of 66 female students aged 11 to 21 years, mostly with profound HI; 33 were allocated to the intervention group and 33 – to the control group. The study found that the interventions led to profound improvements in general perceived competence scores of the sample, as well as in their socio-emotional, communication competencies, and school adjustment.
Moeller et al. (2013) in their article report the results of an international panel of experts which took place in June 2012 in Austria and summarize the principles accepted there. The panel addressed the issue of implementation of family-centered interventions for children with HI. As the utilization of interventions was often suboptimal in experts’ nations, ten basic principles were formulated to stimulate the implementation of proper interventions. The first principle promotes timely and adequate access to intervention services; principles 2 to 6 concentrate on what the specialists need to work on and how they need to do it while applying interventions; principles 7-8 set the qualification requirements for the specialists and elaborate the need for teamwork in such issues; finally, principles 9-10 deal with the need for evaluation-driven practices.
As it can be seen, special education interventions generally lead to better social skills in children with HI. However, interventions implemented in various nations are not always optimal and often could be improved.
Rationale and Research Question
The literature review shows that the implementation of special education interventions is beneficial for children who suffer from an auditory deficit; clearly, practicing it permits to improve their quality of life. Furthermore, it is often stated that interventions in the early age are of crucial importance (Akram & Hameed, 2014; Ansari, 2014).
On the other hand, the implementation of these interventions varies in different regions, and the differences in these variations are not always known. The use of interventions conducted in the reviewed studies mostly yielded positive results, which means that currently the school education is provided at a suboptimal level. Besides, the effects of particular interventions are not always thoroughly studied.
Thus, it is important to examine the impact of special education interventions which are implemented in specific regions, even schools, in order to both observe their results and be able to improve them on the local level. As very few studies (and none of the reviewed articles) are dedicated to special education interventions in Saudi Arabia, it is essential to analyze the results of such interventions as they are implemented in this particular region. Therefore, the research question of the proposed study will be formulated as follows: “Do early interventions affect social skills in elementary schools’ students who suffer from hearing loss in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia?”
References
Akram, B., & Hameed, A. (2014). Adaptive emotional abilities of adolescents with hearing impairment. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 29(1), 103-123.
Ansari, M. S. (2014). Assessing parental role as resource persons in achieving goals of early detection and intervention for children with hearing impairment. Disability, CBR and Inclusive Development, 25(4), 84-98. Web.
Guest, H. E. (2013). Pragmatics and social communication: Children with hearing loss in early childhood settings (Honors theses). Web.
Naeini, T. S., Arshadi, F. K., Hatamizadeh, N., & Bakhshi, E. (2013). The effect of social skills training on perceived competence of female adolescents with deafness. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 15(12). Web.
Quality has a strong relationship between methods used in ECD programs and the development of the child based on measurable outcomes. Typically, quality is the underlying indicator of the level of success in the development of the child evaluated against cognition, the ability of the child to communicate using language appropriately, the ability of the child to self-regulate oneself, language acquistion skills and competence, the level of competence in social skills, the ability to acquire competence in early literacy skills, make observations, and the motivation to play and do other tasks based on the underlying development the child achieves. The approaches used in ECD programs, especially preschool programs and custodial programs, which have their defining characteristics that have their quality implications on the child and consequent development of the child. It is worth noting that the development of the child is based on multidisciplinary disciplines, with their contributions to quality and the ultimate development of the child. However, the approaches factor strong similarities in the ultimate goal of attaining the ultimate goal of development of the child defined by the factors such as cognition development mentioned above, with their own differences based on their settings, though their differences are small.
Introduction
Quality is a crucial element in children’s development. The assessment of impact of quality on the children’s development draws on the multidisciplinary development methods used to impart quality in children in early childhood development programs in the United States, which includes custodial care programs and preschool programs. Despite the strengths and weaknesses of each of the programs, these methods underpin the ability of the child to acquire cognitive development and other essential elements necessary from the child based on the quality of each program.
Typically, the underlying factors that decide on the quality imparted on children and eventual consequences of quality on the education and development of children are strongly related to the methods used in early childhood education and development of children in the United States. The approaches used in early childhood education and development in the United States are multidisciplinary, borrowing from the disciplines of Education, Sociology, Psychology, American Studies, Anthropology, and Cognitive Science. The interdisciplinary nature of early childhood education and development is practically applied on two specific programs which include custodial care programs and preschool programs. These programs have quality characteristics, based on quality metrics, viewed historically and from modern perspectives with ultimate effects on the development of children in the United States. Typically, quality has a direct implication on the education and development of the child with each method having its own implications due to each method’s quality characteristics and implication on the development of the child (Santrock, 1997; Piaget, 1980). An examination of the similarities and differences between the two approaches crystalizes their direct quality effects, which have eventual implications on the development of the child. Typically, both of these approaches form the basis of the study. As mentioned above, custodial and preschool programs are some of the early childhood development programs used in the education and development of children in the United States. It is worth noting that custodial care programs were designed to primarily accomodate working class families by tending to the basic and hygienic needs of their children, whereas preschool programs were traditionally designed for middle class families in fostering their children’s cognitive and social development. It is crucial to note the underlying rationale for parents selecting a specific program to impart education and development in their children is based on a diversity of reasons. Crucial among the underlying reasons is the economic level of income for the parent, the perceptions about the benefits about the likely quality and outcome of the program, and other social factors. Typically, social factors can be influenced by underlying social theories such as positive cognition development of the child, underlying social cultural processes (Lightfoot, 1988; Brown, 1996; Wertsch, 1985). However, it is crucial to note that the underlying theories identified to have direct implications on quality that has direct impact on the children’s education and development have some degree of contention. One of the social theories include Piaget’s social theory which identifies a strong relationship between personality and effectiveness, intellectual development, and sociomoral development which is focused on the development of knowledge in the child and ultimate implications on the child’s development. However, from the educational point of view, different approaches with different implications of quality have eventual implications on the development of the child. Basically, that includes approaches such as play and school readiness programs (Wertsch, Minick, & Arns, 1984).
It is crucial to note the interdisciplinary nature of the development of the child and the implications of quality on the development of the child. One such discipline factors the social cognition development of the mind and the underlying theoretical link between social cognition of the mind of the child, the child’s perceptions on quality, and other underlying factors that might affect the quality of knowledge inculcated into the mind of the student. Such factors include values, attitude and beliefs, role of other people such as parents and teachers in the lives of the children, and a child and the parent’s desires (Brown, 1996).
Typically, the perceptions about quality and quality programs are diverse, but converge at specific points such as factors which include providing individual attention to the children, active participation of the teaching staff to provide an appropriate environment for the development of the child, and additional elements that impact quality to the development environment (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn, 1995). However, quality borrows from other disciplines such as education where quality is viewed from the educational context as providing a learning environment constituting quality learners, who can be described as having good nutrition and health, experienced positive psychological development, regular in the learning process, receives family support in the learning and development process, and consists of appropriate physical learning environments. Other elements that define a quality learning environment include a peaceful and safe learning environment for children constituting psychological elements, high quality content, and quality processes. Typically, these elements have implications on quality which has a direct effect on the development of the child (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn, 1995; Strickland & Morrow, 2000).
It has been argued that social economic factors such cultural issues and income levels of parents have an impact on quality with a direct impact on the development of the child. Thus, several studies conclude that quality is significantly influenced by the poverty levels of the parents and the affluence of their backgrounds. In addition to that, other theories that have been identified to have a direct impact on quality which translates to the development of the child includes psychological theories, anthropological connections between quality and the development of the child, and the cognitive development of the child. It is a multipronged comparative study with the readiness program and the paly programs forming the underlying pillars of the study. Typically, school readiness programs are designed with the underlying objective to inculcate educational capabilities that form the foundation of educational success in the future of the child (Tabors,1997).
However, it is crucial to identify what really constitutes the development of the child and the parameters that define development of the child. Development, from the perspective of education and other underlying social theories includes social behavior of the child, cognitive and language development of the child, health and physical growth of the child, and emotional development that the child develops and their relationship with parents, among other parameters used in the development of children. Typically quality has a direct impact on the development of the child and different researchers have developed different quality measurement metrics to determine quality in early childhood development programs Thompson, 1995).
Typically, the study endeavors to answer the research questions on the the impact of quality in children’s development. It focuses on the early childhood education and development and underlying concepts to conclude on the effects of quality on the development of the child.
Quality in child care is defined from different perspectives. One of the definitions of quality is based on, by Schick:
The view from the perspective of the contextual and adult-work environmental dimensions of quality such as staff wages, goal consensus, the exercising of autonomy to make professional judgments, workload and job satisfaction, p.2
Another approach to quality is based on, Schick:
Child care that is characteristically warm, supportive interactions with adults in a safe, healthy and stimulating environment, where early education and trusting relationships combine to support individual children’s physical, emotional, social and intellectual development, p4
However, an historical perspective of quality entails that quality is the extent of worth underpinned by social, cultural, values, beliefs, processes, and effectiveness of ECD programs that have evolved with time.
Problem Statement
The underlying implications of quality on the development and education of children in early childhood development programs in the United States presents a significant challenge on the role of quality and its long term and shot term development of the child. Preschool and custodial programs in early childhood development provide a significant challenge in identifying their implications of quality on the education and development of the child.
The Aim
The aim of the research is to determine the impact of quality on the development of children in early childhood education and development programs in the United States, which include custodial and preschool programs.
Research questions
What constitutes children development?
What are the basic dimensions of quality in child development?
What are preschool programs and their implications on child development?
What are play programs and their implications on child development?
How does preschool and play programs vary from each other
Research Objectives
To identify the underlying perspectives of quality and quality metrics associated with the ECS programs.
To study the underlying characteristics of preschool, readiness, and custodial programs
To conduct research on relevant literature and multidisciplinary theories associated with the development of the child.
Significance of the Study
The study forms a strong foundation for identifying the most appropriate method of imparting development in the child based desirable qualities that characterize the approaches used in diverse backgrounds of parents and other stakeholders involved in early childhood development of children.
Literature Review
Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and the education and development of the child in the United States (US). Typically, that is based on a number of theories underlying the development of the child, and factors that have influential effects on the education and development of the child in two settings, the play and the readiness programs. Each of the approaches, based on the underlying learning concepts and theories, contribute significantly to quality and therefore the development of the child. The underlying theories and concepts are multidisciplinary and borrow from education, sociology, psychology, American studies, anthropology, and the science of cognition. It is crucial therefore crucial to take turns and conduct an in-depth investigation of the disciplines and their contributions of quality, which has a direct impact on the development of the child. Moreover, the income levels of the parents, social cultural issues, and other issues related to quality in the development of the child. In addition to that, the strength of the literature is a review on schools in affluent communities, poor communities, and differences between custodial and preschool programs. On the other hand, it is worth examining what constitutes quality and development of the child and the relationship between quality and the education and development of the child.
Quality
Quality, the underlying element that affects the development of the child is defined based on different metrics that have direct impact on the development of the child. Quality, therefore, is variedly determined on different underlying items such as the child care setting and the nature of interactions between the child caregiver and the child (Thompson, 1995).. These have been identified as underlying principles upon which quality is imparted in the child. Typically, these elements are reflected on the adult child ratio provided in any childcare program be it preschool or play programs. Typically the child adult ratio provides the number of adult staff involved in providing care for the child over a specific period of time (Blau, 2000). It is established that higher rations and lower rations have direct impact on the quality imparted on the child and ultimate development of the child. Research shows that when the ratio between the child and the adult is low, high quality scores have been experienced in the development of the child, thus showing that low rations have positive impact on the development of the child (Rao, Koong, Kwong & Wong, 2003). In addition to that, lower rations have resulted in high process qualities (Rao, Koong, Kwong & Wong, 2003). On the other hand, low rations have strong relationships between the better child care outcomes. On the other hand, high rations have been identified to have low process qualities, and gradually impacted negatively on the development of the child. However, when he changes in rations are not significantly varied, there is little or no significant changes in the ultimate effects on the quality imparted on the child.
Other factors identified to have direct implications on quality include the group size of the children in a child care setting. Typically, group size affects both preschool and play programs despite the fact that the children come from affluent communities or poor communities. Typically, research shows a big group size reduces the implications of quality in the child which has direct implications on the education and development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford & Howes, 2002)
Quality has several underlying elements that contribute to the child’s development. It has been established that the quality of education and training of the caregiver provides another underlying influence on the outcome of quality on the child and consequent development of the child. Typically, the type and level of education of the caregiver, the training one undertakes before becoming a caregiver, and is a strong determinant factor on the quality imparted on the child and consequently the development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford & Howes, 2002).
However, to establish the facts underlying the study on the implications of quality on the development of the child in the United States, it is crucial to examine other how different school program provide early childhood care and the quality aspects associated with the programs in the development of the child. Typically, the approach consists of preschool and play programs as discussed in the following section.
Play Programs
The play programs are among the approaches used prepare children for their development in their early childhood. However, it is crucial to note that paly and preschool development where the child is prepared for preschool life. Typically, play is viewed as a providing the child with the school readiness based on its ability to impact the abilities in the child to be dramatic and to be imaginative, a technique that the child develops (Smilansky, 1968). This type of play is regarded as socio-dramatic, which demands that the child take certain roles, while making social interactions and including the use of language which leads to the development of the language lexicon of the student. Play tasks are designed to last for at least 10 minutes with profound effect on the development of the child. However, it is crucial to note that the elements that define quality are included in the play program as children undertake the play tasks in their development, with consequent implications on their ultimate development. It is crucial to note that children might be required to pretend on different phases in play tasks that are distinguished into dramatic play and socio-dramatic play. Thus, one could note that both approaches have their implications on the development of the child. In their differences, the Socio-dramatic play is a combination of other prentice aspects such as when a child pretends to be a policeman.
In theory, play provides a significant ability for the child to develop by enabling the child to show behavioral characteristics that are beyond their present abilities and mastery. Thus, the child develops a mental capability to be imaginative, which is one of the elements of play, children are able to take different roles in the play scenario and pretend to provide solutions to specific problems, and use language in the process of communicating, thus develop their language use and competence (Bodrova & Leong, 1998). It is important to note that play is a significant element during the later years of a toddler’s development and growth. In addition to that, during the development of the child based on the play program, the child uses objects that act as imageries, thus enabling the child develop appropriate skills for later school education and development which become more sophisticated as the child development progresses (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). In the development process of the child, play plays a significant role as the child develops the cognitive abilities to acquire sophisticated play skills that benefit the cognitive development of the child. typically, other elements in the child that are developed the psychological faculties of the mind of the child, the educational or academic abilities start developing, their ability to interact socially, and their perceptions about the physical world. It is an approach that integrates approaches from different disciplines as mentioned elsewhere in the paper, being multidisciplinary.
In theory, play plays a significant role in the development of the cognitive abilities of the child as an individual develops the abilities to renounce one’s self and endeavors to conform to the current situation and rules of the play environment. It is crucial to note that sometimes children involved in dramatic play at times might suspend the activities they are undertaking to renegotiate a certain issue. Typically, that is one of the quality elements that show the level of development of the child. It is possible, however, for the play to disintegrate and break if the rules of the game are not adhered to. Implying the children has acquired a certain level of development in different aspects that define the development of the child. However, there is the distinction between free play and dramatic play. In the sense of free play, the child motivated to conduct play activities based on impulsive response. It is typically meant to satisfy one’s own curiosity and pleasure. However, in the current study, both free play and dramatic play are viewed to contribute significantly to the development of the child.
As mentioned elsewhere in the study, one of the fundamental elements that play a significant role in the development of the child is the environment that consists of adults. Typically, the adult to children ratio determine the extent of quality imparted in the child. Thus, the teacher, who constitutes the adults in the play program, and as a fundamental quality component has a strong influence in the development of the child. Typically, the teacher plays a significant role in educating the children on how to play and the restrictions or rules to follow. In that respect, the level of training of the teacher is one aspect that influences the quality imparted in the child and the consequent development of the child in the early childhood development program. Roskos and Neuman (2001) researched and concluded that the teacher plays a significant role in imparting quality in the child in the form of making observations, acting as a co-player, and as a stage manager. It is crucial, based on their level and quality of training for the teacher to make close observations during a play to identify and determine the most appropriate point to intervene, when to intervene, and how to intervene on a play. Typically, the teacher’s intervention is significant and its level of significance is influenced by the theme of the play and the desired level of quality to impart in the child. It is therefore, typical for the teacher to model, guide, demonstrate, and elaborate what needs to be done by the children. Therefore, the quality imparted in children determines the level of development and readiness that children acquire to join school.
It is important to note that once children have developed, based on the underlying preparations based on the play program, they become ready to join school programs based on underlying readiness factors. The imparted quality in the children strongly influences the level of acquistion of skills and abilities that are reflected in later years of educational development in life. Play, according to research, shows a strong relationship between abilities of the child in develop and the direct relationship between the play factors and their development. A number of play factors that affect quality in the child that directly affects their development are diverse as discussed below.
One of the factors with strong relationship with quality, play, and development is the ability developed in the child to self-regulation. Early childhood development draws on self-regulation, as a fundamental element of the children’s development. Self-regulation is viewed as “development may be viewed as an increasing capacity for self-regulation, not so much in the specifics of individual behaviors but in the child’s ability to function more independently in personal and social contexts” (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 26). Typically, self-regulation has distinctive implications on quality, with its direct impact on the development of the child. Self-regulation enables he child to develop in health and mental faculties distinctly associated with the ability of the child to take control of their thinking processes, and their emotions. On the other hand, it is crucial to note that play can be translated into a play plans that are integrated in the education of the child. Typically, the approach involves using a written description of the child’s schedules activities during the day. Usually, that comes in the form of a play plan. The play plan includes the roles the child is to take during the day in the play program, the underlying situations, and the ability of more than one child to plan together. That affects the development of the child as the child eventually develops writing skills, which is referred to as scaffolded writing. Thus, the child is able to develop at earlier stage literacy skills. In addition to that, the approach enables the child develop their cognitive abilities, their self-regulation capabilities, and their social development. In addition to that, the child is bale to develop in their impulsive controls, thus enabling the child to develop the abilities to be ready for school.
From the perspective of socialization, play programs provide an environment that enables the development of social competence of the child. According to studies by Fromberg (1999), play is a significant contributor to the development of social behavior among children. In the perspectives of Fromberg (1999), children who have developed on the play program show a significant level of intellectual and social competence. Typically, the child is able to develop a degree of readiness for early childhood education with their intense involvement in goal oriented tasks.
Language is identified as one of the tools that are crucial to the development of the child in joining early childhood programs. Language, according to Dickinson and Tabors (2001) provides an excellent based for evaluating the development of the child for their readiness to join school. Typically, Tabors (2001) realizes in their research that language plays a crucial role in the social and cognitive development of the child. Play programs provide an enabling environment for the development of language competencies in the child. One such a situation is where children take the role of an adult. In that role, the child is able to communicate with other children using language as a tool to enable understanding and to negotiate. One of the quality aspects that children gain when speaking through pretense by taking the role of adults is language speech and style. According to Anderson (1986), speaking on play programs has been established to possess profound effects on the development of the child. Other aspects of play programs include the competence of literacy acquistion capabilities.
Literacy skills provide the child with the competence required in their education and development in early and later years of development. It is curial to note that dramatic play has been identified to provide positive development in the child’s literacy skills. Other elements identified to provide competencies in the quality and therefore the development of the child are scaffolded writing, a techniques that draws on repetitive task performance by the child based on the guidance provided by the teacher. Typically, the technique enables the use of lines and letters and repletion of symbols by the child under the guidance of the teacher. The technique enables the child develop the ability to link different words with different sounds. That enables the child become competent in understanding the symbolic relationships of printed text; comprehend the patterns of words and their usage, and ability to enhance their writing skills. Thus, one is able to conclude that play draws on elements such as symbols that children use to symbolize different activities, represent objects and activities, stimulate and improve imagination, and enable them use words, propos, and actions to communicate in their development process. However, it is crucial to note that children at different ages require object that are modified to meet their growth and development needs. Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and development. Typically, the underlying motivation in the play program is essential in deciding the level of development of the child.
Play and motivation are essentially interlinked in the sense of the support the children get in their development. Typically, the play area has a chart field with different types of letters and other materials which form the underlying motivation for the child to learn. Such an environment has been identified to provide children in play programs with the ability to pretend during their growth and development. However, for the study looks at another approach to crystallize both approaches used in imparting quality in the child and therefore the development of the child.
School Readiness Programs
Having established the underlying characteristics of play programs, which include elements such as self-regulation, play and motivation, development and competence in social skills, competence in the use of language, and early literacy skills, it is crucial to examine the characteristics of preschool programs to crystalize the difference between play and preschool programs (Fabricius, 1979; (Dalton, 1991).
Research shows that school readiness programs and play programs draw from the same context5. Typically, that includes the social, physical, and cognitive development of the child. In addition to that, school readiness programs also draw on the basic elements of quality defined as quality metrics for any program. Thus, the approaches used to impart development in the child based on any approach have their own quality implications on the development of the child.
However, it is crucial to identify the basic elements that constitute readiness. Readiness is the characteristic attainment of the mental and physical ability connected with the emotional development, behavioral characteristics, and cognitive competencies required for learning in a school environment. It also involves a combination of the mentioned factors in the child to acquire the competence to work successfully in a school learning environment (Fabricius, 1979; Dalton, 1991).
Typically, school readiness programs provide the child with the ability to follow activities that follow a specific pattern in school, ability to show a sense of independence when carrying out learning tasks, ability to socially mix and cooperate with other children, and the ability to work under specified rules and regulations. In addition to that, the preschool program qualifies a child to identify colors words, sounds, to count, and ability to write (Fabricius, 1979).
School readiness programs provide the basis for an active learning environment that relies on the use of objects or learning materials in the development of the child. The use of objects is a contrast established between play and school readiness programs. Typically, the use of objects supports the child in cognitive development as they are allowed to use their minds to manipulate the objects. It is crucial to note that play learning enables the children to pretend and manipulate situations and negotiate around problems. On the other hand, readiness programs enable the child develop cognitively by manipulating objects. Readiness programs support cognitive development by enabling the child reflect on actions, develop questions about situations and seek to answer the questions on their reflections. Typically, the development process actively involves physical activities that arouse mental activities during the physical interactions with objects. Typically, the underlying component is to understand the world through the mental inquiries and actions in the physical world (Dalton, 1991).
One fundamental component of the readiness program is the element of problem solving. Readiness programs provide the learner with the ability to identify approaches to solve problems they encounter in their development process. The process of identifying and seeking for a solution implies learning gets stimulated in the mind of the child (Fabricius, 1979).
One other underlying element of the readiness program is the motivation effect on the child. it is the internal drive to learn springing from the child that motivates the child and stimulates a learning element. Typically, the child triggers personal interests, which trigger questions, and stimulate the desire to explore, experiment, and construct knowledge and understanding.
Among the essentials of discovery that enable development in the child include the ability of the children to talks about their experiences. Talking about their experiences involves the use of language, a crucial communication component in the child (Bruner, 1985). The discussion environment allows children to talk about their current activities, encourage conversation with adults, and what they are doing at a particular point in time. Thus, the readiness program is based on the active learning paradigm.
The active learning paradigm also requires that the child gets involved in combining different materials in their learning environment with the support of adults. Here the children play with materials such as sand whose shape they easily manipulate and change shape in the learning process. In addition to that, children use other tools that are strongly related to their abilities in transforming objects, thus enabling active learning. It is worth noting that while children carry out such activities, they are developing their health and mental faculties. Thus, the impact on quality is strongly related to the elements discussed above on school readiness programs, and their direct implications on the development of the child. That leads to the need to study the effects of schools in affluent and poor communities, their implications on quality and eventually the impact on the development of the child (Dalton, 1991).
As mentioned above, communication is fundamental component in imparting quality in the child. The child becomes competent in linguistic competence, where the child becomes competent in the use of the language, the syntax of the language used in communication, and the ability to phrase word and structure the words into sentences. On the other hand, the communication component could require sociolinguistic competence that denotes the underlying communication quality and ability by the child to respond in any communication setting. Other issues inherent in the communication component include the ability to repair communication breakdown when such issues arise ((Fabricius, 1979).
Effect of Affluent and Poor Communities
Profound and significant implications of quality on the development of the child are strongly related to the income levels and economic background of the parents. Research shows a strong relationship between quality, development, and prevailing economic background. It has been established that inequalities in income levels provide a significant impact on the development of the child in terms of cognitive development and other quality metrics discussed in the paper. One of the underlying elements of development of the child is cognitive development. It is evident from available literature that the family type based on income levels directly affects the cognition development of the child. Low income families find the cognition development of the children low as compared with high income families. Thus, level show a wide gap in stimulating support for cognition development in the child and therefore the ultimate impact of quality on the development of the child. Typically, that translates to the quality of child rearing environments based on an economic model (Astington, 1993).
That leads to the conclusion, based on an economic model that opportunities that could be exploited by disadvantaged communities have less educational achievements compared with economically well-endowed families. A strong relationship between social economic factors, quality and the development of the child has very strong implications on the development of the child. Typically, the social economic level of the parent has a strong influence on the relationship between the child and the parent, resulting in weak bonding between mother and child, thus causing weak response and stimuli on the children and their development. Social economic factors also affect development in the language of the student adversely, resulting in poor health, and their health. However, it is crucial to evaluate the effectiveness of the early childhood development programs to crystalize the rationale for their use in the development of the child as shown in figure 1 below.
The Effectiveness of play and preschool Models
It is worth, in crystallizing the differences between play and preschool programs to establish a benchmarks against which they could be evaluated and the quality implications on the development of the child. Typically, an analysis of the benchmark elements shows that overall development of the child is based on cognitive development outcomes of the child, social competence and outcomes of the child, the development of the health of the child, economic efficiency, and other interventional effects on the development of the child.
Typically, the model shows the quality factors and their impact on the development of the child that models need to embrace in figure 1 above.
History of American Education
A brief history of the American history on education provides a rich context for the current study which shows that the historical foundation provided the basis for emphasizing on early childhood development. However with the evolution of time, different approaches have been developed in addressing early childhood development in the United States (Oswald, 2003). That is also based on the policies on early childhood development formulated over time.
Typically, early childhood development and education is historically based on the descent of Froebel, who was among the finding fathers of modern practices and principles of ECD education in the United Sates. At the time, learning was imparted on the child through internalization methods. Each of the children involved in their education and development were required to provide an environment in their minds where they internalized their knowledge to be reproduced and used later. The approach was teacher centered. However, later methods which formed the basis for the modern development required that the development and education of the child is learner centered instead of being teacher centered. That was the basis for forming the foundation of modern practices in early childhood education and development in the United Sates (Oswald, 2003).
The underlying principles and practices of ECD development from an historical perspective shows that the pioneers advocated for different materials for children of different ages. That suggestion was based on the assumption that nature had a strong role and influence on the development of the child and the type of materials to use in their development (Oswald, 2003). According to the pioneers, each of the subjects to be learnt were arranged in order based on the assumption that noting was beyond comprehension. It was a process with a universal beginning and a specific or particular ending. Thus, the stages of cognitive development for the development and appropriate curricula development to meet the needs of the child were based on the underlying principles of universality to specific point. It was based on the assumption that children from both poor and rich backgrounds could be accommodated in such an ECD education system. ECD was regarded as an education system that significantly provided a ladder through which each child irrespective of their backgrounds could grow and attain a level of status with the interference of their backgrounds, in this case either poor or rich (Oswald, 2003).
One of the proponents and founders of modern ECD programs was Comenius. Comenius proposed a multilayered system of EC education which included infancy, vernacular school, Latin school, and University and Travel schools. To be more specific, the infancy program could be directly translated to its equivalent being kindergarten and nursery schools. However, there were other successive developments and theorists in formulating different fashions of ECD programs. These include Rousseua’s theoretical propositions that regard the development of the child to be separate and distinct from each stage. Among the elements that defined this theory is the assumption that a child was an animal and not yet a human being. Typically, that formed the basis for arguing, according to the theory, which the child should be taken through infancy and other stages of growth and development. That led to the development of the new models of early childhood education and development. One such model was the preschool program. The preschool program, according to the history of early childhood development was based on the argument that early childhood development is fundamental to the growth and development of the child (Oswald, 2003).
In a nutshell, preschool and custodial programs were regarded as crucial to the development of the child in the 1920s. It was at that time that people started to work outside their homes requiring that the child be exposed to early education and development for several hours in a day pre-school programs at the time were trending in acquiring similarities with custodial programs at the time. However, at the time, there was a lot of stigma associated with custodial programs, a prejudice associated with low income families that was fading with time. However, preschool programs showed a significant positive impact on the development of the child who was either black or white (Oswald, 2003).
According to a number of investigations, preschool programs contributed significantly to the aversion of the prejudice especially inherent with black children who showed a significant risk of failure to attend and complete school. The method of education and development of children from the black community showed a significant effect on the positive development and education of the child and positive economic value over custodial programs. Thus, the economic value and other benefits associated with the early development of the child lead to the wholesale acceptance and implementation of the preschool program through the United Sates. That was in contrast to custodial programs that were viewed not to serve the interest of the child. it is worth noting at this point that preschool programs were a byproduct of public policy, where working mothers and other high income groups were interested in investing for the development and growth of their children.
Culture and Education
The fundamental elements of education are embedded in culture. Cultural capital constitutes the underlying component in determining the attitude and quality developed into programs used in ECD education and development and the ultimate impact on the quality of such culturally influenced ECD methods in the development of the child. It is crucial, however to note that the common elements in phycology and sociology affect the cultural orientation and educational development of the child discussed elsewhere in the paper (Oswald, 2003).
Developmental Psychology
In theory and practice, development of the child is based on underlying principles of psychology for human beings. Typically, development, from the perspective of developmental psychology is a lifetime process that has no distinct boundary at which it begins in the life of the child. However, in the current context, the assumption is based on the quality implications of school readiness and play programs and the consequent implication on the education and development of the child.
Typically, the principles and theories underlying the development of the child are based on the development of motor skills, which are important for the well-functioning of the child. However the need to understand the actual definition of development in the context of the study is important. Development is defined as “patterns of change over time which begin at conception and continue throughout the life span”. In a broader sense, the definition draws on biological changes that might include the physical development of the child, changes in emotional perceptions, and the cognitive development of the child. Typically, the definition is in line with the development that is experienced in readiness and play programs for children in the United States. Development therefore is an integration and differentiation process. Integration constitutes using the basic behavioral elements into higher structured forms. On the other hand, differentiation provides the basis for the child to distinguish between elements in the environment and manipulate them and emerging situations to solve a problem. Development might include historical perspectives such as normative history-graded influences and Chronological age development, among other approaches to development (Oswald, 2003).
Typically, development in different forms is regarded as continues process that the child is exposed. However, there is the need to understand some contentious issues such as the discontinuity in development due to certain traits. However, the entire theory on development regards development from the continuity and discontinuity perspectives. It is worth concluding that the baseline theories on development are supported in the development of the child either directly or indirectly in early childhood development in the United States based on the readiness and the play program models. However, there is the question on the anthropology of the child in relation to their development (Oswald, 2003).
Anthropological Theory
The anthropological theory draws on cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety (Kuper, 1999). Typically, that signifying the implications of cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety on the education and development of the child in early childhood development programs in USA. Typically, the anthropological model factors genuine concerns about the cultural aspects that surround different children in their early development years, beliefs, political concerns and influences, conceptions of human beings as cultural beings differentiated by the cultural boundaries established and developed by the human beings themselves (Todorov, 1993). However, components such as anxiety do not define culture, but border the influence to create influence on the behaviors and perceptions of people in a cultural environment (Parekh, 2000).
Culture, therefore, constitutes the elements of social culture that has overall impact on the relationship between different people and the boundaries existing between the individuals, peer culture that is developed between the children in early childhood development programs, and the culture established in social networks (Stolcke, 1995; Turner, 1993). However culture has an intricate implication on the development of the child as it is strongly related to the adults who provide support and an environment for the development of the child. Typically, cultural backgrounds have a strong relationship in explaining the developmental attainments of the children based on the underlying quality if imparting instructions and other essential ingredients for the development of the child (Parekh, 2000; Touraine, 1997; Trouillot, 2002).
Cognition
Cognition is a fundamental concept in the development of any child. Cognition is strongly related to the element of perception and resulting actions. Thus, when a child’s cognition capabilities are developed, their abilities to discriminate actions and words develop enabling development in discriminating different tasks and objects in the learning environment (Schick, n.d). Other elements associated with cognition include call cognition which demands that tasks be performed based on recall, which is based on abstract representations. However it is crucial to note that motor capabilities are central to the discrimination process (Schick, n.d).
In theory, the cognition development of the child in any of the programs be they preschool or custodial care programs with either the play or the readiness program provides a basis for argument on the cumulative effects on quality and eventual implications on their development.
Sociology of Education
From the perspective of the sociology of education, the effect of quality on the development of the child is analogous to the ultimate implications of early childhood development methods on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998). That is based on the social dynamics of early childhood development methods based on the diversity and quality inherent in the methods that shape the development of the child to acquire the competence of self-regulation, social skills, lexical competence and use of language, early literacy skills, and underlying motivation to perform various developmental tasks (Astington, 1993).
It is therefore, from the social perspective in the sociology of education that the quality of approach used is variedly affected by social factors such as gender, economic status of the parents, race, gender, and class positively or negatively affects the development of the child.
It is worth noting from the historical perspective that sociology has been the underlying element that stimulated the industrial revolution and consequently the welfare state. However, successive transformation of sociology based on different theoretical models such as the structural functional theory leads to the understanding coined in the modern application of sociology and its impact on quality and consequent development of the child. Typically, that involves the development of the child from the perspective of the critical reflection during the development process and ethnographic understanding in the context of quality and its effects on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998).
Custodial Programs
The quality factors in custodial programs provides the child with the development depends on the level the teacher has attained, quality of the teacher’s support, the level of interaction of the teacher and the child, and their experience in handling children in custodial programs. In addition to that, the environment the custodial program operates such as the frequency of interaction between the mother and the child, parental support, income level of the parents, and the health of the child with their quality characteristics had eventual implications on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998).
Discussion
The multidisciplinary study based on theories and literature review on different early childhood development paradigms has shown that quality has a strong implication on the development of the child. The questionnaires were distributed among the six states based on the underlying advantages of using questionnaires. Results show high response rates for the administered questionnaires on the impact of the quality elements on the development of the child based on different ECD development programs. In this case, the data indicate below is for response of teachers to ECD programs in USA constituting responses to preschool and ready programs.
In summary it shows that both custodial and preschool programs are effective in their quality implications on the development of the child, with significant differences arising between the approaches used in preschool and custodial programs.
On the other hand, quality is viewed as a dispensable element for the development of the child and is based on underlying principles of quality. Typically, quality and the impact each of the methods has on the development of the child is evident from the underlying principle of quality, the differences and similarities of the methods. It is clear that preschool programs and day care programs provide support for children with different backgrounds and indirect support for parents based on the background of each parent. It is however, crucial to note that children from either of the programs have similar needs required for their development. Among the needs that reflect the quality of each program is the cognition development of the child and other early childhood development needs. However, one of the crucial points is the fundamental similarities associated with each program. The similarities and underlying principles of the development of the child require that the child develop physically, develops emotionally, and develops socially based on the standard development requirements of the child and what constitutes quality.
It is worth noting that the physical development, as one of the underlying principles that define quality, should be safe and provide the required interest to children when engaged in their activities. In addition to that, some of the elements that define quality are the presence of adults. In an appropriate children’s development environment, it is worth commenting that the adult to children ratio strongly influence the quality children are exposed to when using any of the ECD methods mentioned above. Typically, each of the programs endeavors to provide an appropriate parent to children ratio and staff who provide consistent care for the children. In addition to that, both programs provide child care based on the principle of child parent ratio, while ensuring that both the parent and the staff appropriately model their behaviors while nurturing self-esteem and approach issues in a manageable way.
It is also clear from the findings that custodial programs provide support and care for children especially from poor families. Typically, that is historically based on legislation enacted during the 1960’s meant to fight poverty.
Conclusion
Findings from the study show a strong multidisciplinary element and implications of quality in the ultimate development of the child and the direct implications of quality in the development of the child in ECD programs in the United States. The quality implications on the development of the child translate to the development of the child in cognitive development, cultural association that draws from the anthropological theory, which heavily draws on cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety. It draws from the field of psychology that evaluates the development of the child from theoretical perspectives that converge on the underlying elements of development that draws directly on the approaches used to impart development of the child in the perspective of the quality associated with each approach. It is crucial to conclude at this point that the quality metrics against which any quality is evaluated include cognitive development that draws on cognitive theories of development of the child, social interactions based on social theories that include the Piaget’s social theory which affirms that development social and individual factors have a strong influence on the development of the child. Other quality metrics include development of social skills, development of cognitive skills, development of language and auditory skills, anthropometry, morbidity, mortality, physical development, and play observation skills. Typically, each of the preschool and custodial programs has their own quality implications on the development of the child. However, these approaches have a common denominator that includes the cognition and development, ability of the child to self-regulate oneself in different and unfolding environments and situations, ability to develop social skills that enable the child interact in a social setting with other people, develop the lexical competence of the language since language is a critical tool in communicating, develop appropriate early literacy skills, and develop the abilities to play and respond to underling motivations to initiate action and perform a task. On the other hand it is worth noting that readiness and play programs have significant similarities though they have differences that caused by the broad or narrow perspectives of either of the approaches. Typically, the approaches factor observable behavioral development, basic skills acquistion, physical well–being, motor development, and health development. The research shows that quality inculcated into the development of the child based on any program. Quality is in terms of the environment that provides good physical well-being that enables the child to move freely and enable the development of the child’s brain. In conclusion, therefore, both early childhood development methods have quality characteristics already mentioned as quality metrics that positively impact on the development of the child. However, it is recommended that further studies be conducted to develop an actual scale of development and relatively evaluate the programs against the developed scale to identify in detail their relative impact on a numerical scale on the development of the child in ECD programs.
Annotated Bibliography
Astington, J. W. The child’s discovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 1993
The author discusses issues related to socio-economic development and their direct impact on the development of the child. The author continues to evaluate how socio-economic issues relate to the development of the mind of the child, with the main objective being to identify the relationship between the cognition development as one method of early childhood development and as a measure of quality in the development of children. The paper discusses social cognition, and the development of the mind, the theory of the mind, and how both internal and external factors affect the development of the mind of the child. It endeavors to link the development of the child and how successful the child becomes in response to the both external and internal factors. It culminates the discussion with recommendations to policy makers, parents, teachers and other stakeholders involved in early childhood development to consider when deciding on the best method to use in implementing ECD programs.
Blau, D.M. The effects of child care characteristics on child development. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 786-822: 1999.
The paper focuses on the development of the child, and the determinants of quality in early childhood development. Quality in this case is discussed in the context of child to adult ratio, caregiver education, language and low staff turnovers, and behavioral problems. The author is an excellent source of information on how quality is affected by the above mentioned factors, the significant indicators of quality being the main objective of the paper, the relationship between quality and outcome on child development, and the historical perspective of quality. It is worth source for informing on how to measure the quality and its implications on the development of the child.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. Chopsticks and counting chips: Do play and the foundational skills need to compete for the teachers’ attention in an early childhood classroom? Young Children, 58(3), 10–17: 2003.
This source demonstrates how readiness and play programs in schools are associated with the development of the child. It provides an in-depth discussion and clear definition of school readiness and play programs and the complex constructs associated with the programs in terms of education and development of the child and quality implications on the child. The focus is on the role play and readiness programs play in the cognition, language, social interactions, and other development on the child.
Bruner, J. Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognitive: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 21-34). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press: 1985
The author focuses on the historical perspectives of the development of the child, the decoding abilities of the child’s mind, and how the sight vocabulary of the student develops. It is an authority in the area of memory development and how children retain new words learnt during their education and development, the type of learners educators encounter, and the best approach to handle different cases. The source is strongly recommended for teachers and adults who develop and get involved in ECD programs. However, it is important to use the sources along with other sources.
Burchinal, M. R., Cryer, D., Clifford, R. M. & Howes, C. Caregiver training and classroom quality in child care centers. Applied Developmental Science, 6(1), 2-11: 2002
The above author provides a clear and sanguine approach used in providing care for children in preschool and custodial programs while ensuring the approach used imparts values in the earl education and development if the child. The paper explores the social aspect of early childhood development, how the child is integrated into the society which includes social groups and other forms of interactions. It is a qualitative source of knowledge for teachers and others involved in ECD programs in the USA to understanding the human aspects of the development of the child and how such values are integrated into the society.
Fabricius, William. Piaget’s Theory of Knowledge—Its Philosophical Context.” In The High/Scope Report: 1979, C. Silverman, ed., 4–13. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press
The above paper is the key to findings related to the theory of knowledge and its relationship with the early childhood development of the child. It discusses early childhood development and education and the need for human development as a prelude to the educational needs and metal faculty of the child. Active learning is considered the foundation of ECD programs as the child develops the constituency of the mind to actiley participate in their learning and development.
Fromberg, D. A review of research on play. In C. Seefeldt (Ed.), The early childhood curriculum: Current findings in theory and practice (3rd ed., pp. 27–53). New York: Teachers College Press: 1999
The above paper provides a detailed view and discussion on theory and practice on Garrison, J. Foucault Dewey and Self-Creation. Educational Philosophy and Theory. 30(2). 111-134: 1998
Kuper, A. Culture, the Anthropologists’ Account. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 1999
This paper is a theoretical discussion on anthropology and the relationship it has and its influence on the education and development of the child.
Lightfoot, C. The social construction of cognitive conflict: A place for affect. In J. Valsiner (Ed.), Children development within culturally structured environments, Vol. 2, Social co-construction and environmental guidance in development (pp. 28-65). Norwood, NJ: Ablex: 1988
The main focus of the paper is on social cognition and development of the mind of the child. It provides a detailed view on what is cognition and provides a guide for teachers and other stakeholders on the requirements necessary for the development of the child.
Oswald, Laura. Branding the American Family: A Strategic Study of the Culture, Composition, and Consumer Behavior of Families in the New Millennium. The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 37, No. 2: 2003.
Discusses the cultural nature of the American family and other details one might need on how culture affects the development of the child, the choice of school and program parents choose for their chikdren, and its influence on the performance of the child.
Parekh, B. Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory.Basingstoke: Macmillan: 2000.
Provides a detailed discussion on the effects of culture and its direct influence on the performance and interaction of the child with the external environment. The paper culminates with the findings on cultural diversities and their relationship wit the approach used to bring to children.
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Growth and development is a very essential process in all living organisms and human beings in particular. It is a continuous process that starts right from conception, infancy, childhood, and adolescence/teenage, adulthood and old age.
Babies’ development is a concept of concern as it has been perceived differently by many people with some saying that it’s a natural process that does not depend on the care given while others argue that care has to be given to enhance effective growth and development. Most young couples/ parents find it hard to bring up children mainly because they have little knowledge about newborn babies and they tend to panic especially if the baby is the first born in the family.
It is therefore very important for parents to prepare themselves for the arrival of the newborn in the family irrespective of the cost they may incur. Newborn babies need more care and attention since they are in a totally new environment that may make them vulnerable to many problems especially heath-related (Stone et al 13).
This paper will focus on the factors that affect child’s development. Good preparation, appropriate nutrition, healthy relationship and a good environment are some of the most essential factors that positively affect development of a child.
Importance of parents in child development
Parents are a very critical element when it comes to child development. A child who grows with adequate care and attention of the parents is far much better in terms of development as compared to those who develop away from the parents. The changes in growth can be clearly identified in terms of social interactions, academic performance as well as the general health and well being.
Socially, a child is able to interact with people of different ages and status as he or she is given the essential skills of socializing which could not be provided in a better manner by other people other than a parent. Academically, a child’s grades and attention are enhanced by parents’ involvement. This could be accrued to aspects like motivation and encouragement that keep the child learning and growing effectively due to anticipation of better performance.
Parents are very crucial agents of allowing their children to form and establish healthy relationships with other children as well as adults while they are still young. They act as role models and if the relationship between them and their children is a healthy one, it then follows that the children will also be able to form healthy relationships with other individuals and vice versa.
A good relationship between parents and children does not however come automatically but needs some efforts for instance enhancing effective communication, giving some teachings on anger management and allowing for some freedom to interact with other children for instance through playing together (Sheen 108).
Parents’ involvement in a child’s academic growth is also a positive contribution towards the child’s general growth and development. A parent could engage in various school-related activities all aimed at improving a child’s academic well being. A simple way could be assisting them in their homework and assignment encouraging them to do even better even if it means promising to reward them for their good performance.
This way, a child feels motivated and has the zeal to work hard and attain better grades. Apart from being involved in the academic life of their children, parents should also take part in the co-curriculum activities of the child. This plays a great role in building their personality and developing their talents. This could be through choosing some helpful activities for them and participating to make them enjoyable. Active involvement in the child’s different undertakings promotes growth, development as well as learning (Anonymous par 4).
Cognitive development
Cognitive development is a very crucial aspect in child development. It is the process of constructing thoughts, remembering them, solving problems and making decisions. It starts from early childhood to adulthood. Children become aware of what is happening in their surrounding and are interested to be part of it very early in life which forms the basis of their learning.
Cognitive development entails how an individual irrespective of age, perceives, thinks and understands the environment through the natural/ genetic factors as well as through learning. It encompasses aspects like memory which is connected with remembering concepts, information processing, reasoning and development of speech/ language.
From the description of cognitive development, it therefore follows that it a process that should be nurtured from birth to enhance it as failure to do this may cause a problem even if it is later in life (Olson 43).
Many theories have been put forward in an effort to explain the concept of cognitive development and make responsible people for instance parents and teachers to be in a better place to foster it. One of the well- known theories of cognitive development is the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
According to Oakley (13), the Piaget’s theory is built on the principle that cognitive development in an individual occurs in a series of four discrete but universal phases/stages. The stages are interdependent and each is built on what was learnt in the earlier stage. The stages are as follows; infancy/ sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage/ toddlerhood and childhood, concrete operational stage/ elementary and early adolescence and formal operational stage which include adolescence and adulthood.
During infancy stage, intelligence, which is an aspect of cognitive development, is expressed through motor activity and no symbols are involved. Knowledge of the environment is limited but develops fast depending on physical interactions as well as experiences. It is at this stage that a child develops memory and intellectual abilities as well as speech attributes.
At the pre-operational stage, intelligence can clearly be expressed through use of symbols. Language also matures greatly and memory and imagination is a level higher than in the infancy stage. Thinking is there, although it is not logical and reversible. The third phase of cognitive development is concrete operational stage. The unique characteristic in this stage is that intelligence is expressed through manipulation of symbols connected to definite items in a rational and systematic manner.
Thinking in this stage is logical and reversible and memory is well developed. The are seven types of conservations exhibited by individuals in this stage, namely; volume, mass, weight, number, liquid and length. Formal operational stage is the last stage according to the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It encompasses adolescence and adulthood. Here an individual is well developed and intelligence is expressed through the logical use of symbols.
Thinking is multidimensional and memory is well developed. Decision making is better and one has the capability of solving problems. Failure to have effective cognitive development lead to problems related with intelligence which may make a person to be perceived to be abnormal due to behavior that is considered to be unacceptable for a normal individual. They are commonly referred to as mentally retarded people (Schumann par 2).
Nutrition and child development
Nutrition is a basic necessity when it comes to child growth and development. It is the food we eat that determines the rate of growth as well as the health status of an individual depending on the nutrients consumed.
Different foods provide different nutrients to the body which are significant for various roles they play in the body (Okie 24). Proteins for example are required for growth and protection or repair of worn out tissues, vitamins are needed for making one resistant to infections, starch and carbohydrates are for body building and energy supply.
Minerals are also a necessity as they help keeping the body fit and resistant to various issues like diseases. A balanced diet is essential for healthy growth and development of a child. A balanced diet allows children to be more physically active as they have the energy needed. It also enhances proper growth and weight as well as strong bones and muscles. Another contribution of a balanced diet is improved learning.
Whole grains should be offered in the children diets as opposed to processed foods. Green vegetables and fresh fruits are also good. Milk and milk products also enhance growth through provision of calcium necessary for healthy bones and teeth. Poor nutrition causes delayed physical growth, poor cognitive development including lower IQs, behavioral and social problems, and poor attention and learning level as well as poor academic performance (Gross, Donna and Christine 17)
Importance of breast feeding
Breastfeeding is crucial to every child. It is the meal that is advocated for by medical practitioners since it provides a child with the necessary nutrients required for the proper growth and development of a child. It is advised that a mother should breast feed a child for as long as she can preferably without weaning for the first 6 months.
The breast milk is usually healthy with no form of contamination as compared to formula which is largely dependent on hygiene standards. Breastfeeding however depends with the strength of the mother which is in return dependent on her nutrition as well as health status. Some mothers also prefer formula to breastfeeding due to the convenience involved.
All in all, breastfeeding is more important and beneficial than formula since it defends a child against different infections such as respiratory problems, diarrhea, ear infections and meningitis, prevent allergies that are associated with various foods and also safeguards a child from various chronic health conditions. Breastfeeding also avoids digestion problems that go hand in hand with formula.
Breastfeeding is not only beneficial to the child but also to the mother. The child enjoys the benefit of nutrition while the mother enjoys psychological benefits, that is, the bonding that develops naturally, through breastfeeding, between the child and the mother. It also gives the mother confidence in carrying out other duties, which is drawn from her ability to take good care of the child.
Breastfeeding is also associated with health benefits for instance reducing chances of breast cancer, ovarian cancer and high blood pressure in the mother. Although the nutritional value of breast milk is perceived not to be key as it can be substituted by formula, nothing can meet its level of nutrition perfectly. The psychological aspect can also never be substituted and there could be no attachment between the mother and the child if it is not offered (Coon 47).
Behaviors of babies
Babies exhibit various behaviors depending on the situations they face. As children are born, they continue with the process of growth and many changes occur in regard to their abilities and behavior.
During the first eighteen months, there is usually fast physical growth and development that is associated with various aspects for instance increase in weight, intelligence capabilities and learning to do various things for example talking and walking. Trust is also an aspect that is developed within this stage and children learn to identify the individuals from whom they can get their needs (Newman and Philip 121)
Children also become sensitive to various things as they grow. They reach a point where they require too much attention from their parents and caregivers as they explore the environment to the maximum hence risking their lives. Towards the age of one and a half years, they may show signs of anger and frustrations and may as well be rebellious, failing to follow orders. This is a situation that should be dealt with in an effective manner to avoid complicating the situation.
Parents and caregivers should for example respect the child’s feelings and explain any move taken to avoid developing hatred. Some behavior could be interesting while others are disgusting and may make parents to respond in an ineffective manner that may ruin the child’s growth and development. To avoid this, parents should accept that this is a normal aspect and happens for a period of time after which the child may be able to understand punishment (Banuelos par 6).
Babies and the environment
Babies and children are to a great extent molded by the environment in which they live. The environment affects their development whereby an appropriate environment fosters effective development while a poor environment may cause poor development. An environment includes what surrounds the baby/ child.
Acts of affection and love for example holding and touching are very essential to an infant’s development particularly emotional and neurological development. Lack of physical contact and affection leads to some developmental slow down that could have adverse effects to the child later in life for instance the child could grow to be anti-social and aggressive during adolescence and adulthood stages.
An environment that allows for freedom of interaction results to proper development of a child in regard to social aspects while an environment associated with restrictions may hinder a child’s ability to develop socially which could in return affect later life where a person may prefer to be isolated from others for safety as they consider interaction to be risky.
A child who is brought up in a friendly environment that appreciates everybody is likely to have a good social life as opposed to a child brought up in an aggressive and violent environment that advocates for revenge as opposed to problem solving (Berryman et al 102).
Fathers and babies
Fathers are a very important element in a family and cannot be underemphasized when it comes to child development. Just like the mothers they also have a role to play to ensure that their children grow and develop in an appropriate way. Their participation alone is enough to make a difference leave alone participation in child upbringing and hence a difference in a child brought about by a single mother and that brought up in the presence of parents, mother and father.
According to the Office on child abuse and neglect, U.S. Children’s Bureau, Rosenberg, and Wilcox (par 1), fathers pay a great role in a child’s development. There is a direct connection between fathers and what the children result to be even as adults.
This can be easily seen through aspects of development such as cognitive capabilities, academic performance, and psychological well being, as well as how they interact and carry out their social undertakings. “Fathers are far more than just ‘second adults’ in the home; fathers bring positive benefits to their children that no other person is as likely to bring” (Office on child abuse and neglect, U.S. Children’s Bureau, and Bradford par 2).
Active involvement of fathers in the lives of their children has proved to be very instrumental in the cognitive ability and academic performance of their children. The IQ is usually high and they develop better linguistic capabilities. They have a tendency to be ready to go to school and learn early enough.
They also have an ability to deal with various situations including stress and frustrations as compared to children whose fathers are either absent or less involved. Fathers’ involvement also impacts on the psychological and social well being of a child. Children who grow in the presence of their fathers grow up to be emotional and psychologically secure and have confident in their endeavors hence end up forming healthy relationships with peers a well as older individuals.
Fathers play a great role in shaping a child’s behavior in dealing with various situations thorough allowing for some independence and orientating them to the outside world. “In addition, numerous studies have found that children who live with their fathers are more likely to have good physical and emotional health, to achieve academically, and to avoid drugs, violence, and delinquent behavior” (Office on child abuse and neglect, U.S. Children’s Bureau, and Bradford par 3).
Fathers are deemed to influence a child’s development through the relationship they keep with their mothers. A father who has a healthy and admirable relationship with a child’s mother leads to a healthy development of the child. This is because a good parents’ relationship fosters togetherness in the family and the father is likely to spend enough time with the children as opposed to where there are some misunderstanding between them which in turn affects the children.
A boy who observe his father having respect towards his mother learns to handle females with due respect and girls on the other hand expect men to handle them with respect and hence they tend to engage in healthy relationships even later in life. Fathers should however be prepared early enough to take the responsibility of parenting (The World.com par 4).
Sample survey
To bring out the issue of how difficult it is for new parents to bring up babies especially the first child, I conducted a survey among 20 young parents around the college where most of them agreed that they surely had a difficulty in taking care of their first baby and hence needed some education to impact them with relevant information in regard to taking care of their children. Because of convenience and proximity of my respondents I used interviews and questionnaires to get the information from these parents.
Some of the responses that confirmed this argument include the fact that most of them said they did not know how to prepare for the unborn child in terms of taking care of it. Another problem was that of handling different child behaviors for instance detecting the problem once they cry. The problem could either be out of hunger, illness or some form of discomfort but distinguishing the cause becomes difficult for them.
This is one of the responses I got; “I become very hopeless in trying to identify the problem my child has and I end up taking him to hospital for reasons I could solve” Smith Jones. Another issue that was raised by the parents is that of correcting bad behaviors that they observe in their children. From all the responses I came to a conclusion that bringing up children is not an easy task especially for young parents who have no prior experience.
Conclusion
Babies/ child development is a continuous process that is worth extra attention by all individuals involved especially the parents. It is a process that is influenced by a variety of factors for instance nutrition, parental involvement including love and support and the environment.
Proper care and attention enhances growth and development while lack of support to a child from infancy stage affects development negatively. Most parents affect their children negatively due to lack of knowledge of the consequences of their actions upon them or rather what they should adhere to, to ensure that their children maintain a healthy growth and development process throughout the stages they go through in life.
This is because a single disruption may cause a medical condition that could be very hard to control. For this reason, there should be educational campaigns to educate parents, especially the young ones without experience, on the factors that influence a child’s growth so that they may be ready to bring up their children in an appropriate manner that promotes healthy development from infancy all through to adulthood.
Works Cited
Anonymous. “Why Parent Involvement Is Crucial to Proper Child Growth.” Surf Net Parents. 2004. Web.
Berryman, Julia, Smythe, Pamela and Lamont Alexandria. Development Psychology and You. 2nd Ed. Cornwall, Blackwell Publishing Company, 2002. Print.
Coon, Dennis. Psychology: A Journey. 3rd ed. Toronto: Nelson Education, 2009. Print.
Gross, Ruth T., Donna Spiker, and Christine W. Haynes. Helping Low Birth Weight, Premature Babies: the Infant Health and Development Program. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997. Print.
Newman, Barbara M, and Philip R, Newman. Development through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. 10th ed. Belmont, CA: Cengage Advantage, 2008. Print.
Oakley, Lisa. Cognitive Development. New York, Routledge, 2004.
Office on Child Abuse and Neglect, U.S. Children’s Bureau, Rosenberg Jeffrey and Bradford Wilcox. “The Importance of Fathers in the Healthy Development of Children”. 2006. Web.
Okie, Susan. Fed up! Winning the War against Childhood Obesity. Washington, Joseph Henry Press, 2005.
Olson, David R. Cognitive Development: the Child’s Acquisition of Diagonality. New York, Routledge, 1995. Print.
Schumann, Howard. A Joyous Celebration of the First Year of Life. Documentary of the movie Babies, by Thomas balmes. Web.
Sheen, Fulton. Children and Parents. New York, IVE Press, Not Dated. Smith Jones. Personal Interview. 2011.
Stone et al. The Competent Infant: Research and Commentary. London, Tavistock Publications Limited, 1973.
Child development can be defined as changes that occur in a human being starting from the time they are born extending to the close of adolescence. These changes include both biological and psychological which are influenced by various factors which may include; environmental, learning, genetics and pre-natal life.
The major ones that contribute to these changes are environmental and genetics defined as maturation. These two interactively lead to a healthy child growth. Developmental stages may be divided into several periods depending with the child’s age. These include; newborn 0-1 month, infant 1month-1yr, toddler 1-3yrs, pre-schoolar 3-6 yrs, school- age 6-13 yrs, teenage/adolescent 13-20yrs.
All these sages are important as specific development are expected to take place, therefore all the necessities should be but in place to enhance a healthy growth. Development is a continuous process where one stage leads to the next and as such, success is to be endeavored at all the above mentioned stages. It is a common thing for some children to attain certain developmental millstone earlier or later in relation to the given average time frames.
Several theories have been formulated such as the attachment, behavioral, ecological system theories and many more all in attempt of explaining child development. During the age of 1-3yrs;toddler, much growth is achieved and great changes also take place, the child also have opinions and can solve problems and important of all is that the child learns to be independent. Toddlerhood is therefore, the most critical stage in a child development.
Various aspects of development in toddlerhood
In the society, child development is very crucial and therefore knowing the Cognitive, motor, social, emotional, moral, physical appearances and language development and the strategies that can be employed to enhance this development at this various stages is very crucial.
Cognitive development of a toddler
Play and imitation form major activities in cognitive growth. Toddlers are very curious of what takes place in the world for example, they can try mixing several ingredients as they see adults do and at some times they try to explore various things on their own, for instance they can opt to discover what happens if one drops a glass or throws something like a ball into water.
At this stage, the child does things repeatedly as a method of learning. It is in this stage that adults find challenges in bringing up a child as he/she will always imitate even the most dangerous activities and also try to discover through various experiments (Charlesworth 2010).
At the age of 18 months representational thinking develops whereby a child is in a position to think over a problem before taking any action. For instance if the child wants to reach a ball placed on top of a table he/she stretches and when unable, stops and thinks over how to solve the problem then, finds a chair to step on it as he/she stretches to reach the ball, contrary to the previous stage where he/she could stop thinking the moment he/she failed to get the ball.
It is also at this stage where the child likes to discover things hidden from them when they are seeing and especially when they are hid in the same place always. At a much latter stage, 18 months or latter they can be able to find things that are hidden without them seeing.
Also the child starts to develop language by naming the toys used for playing as it is the stage she/he uses more than one toy as compared to the earlier stage where only one was manageable. Speech is important in concept development and as such adults should help, support and guide the child reach his/her cognitive potential. Usually, learning is through manipulation of objects and language develops in connection to these objects.
During this stage concepts such as size, weight, length, time and others are learnt. As the child encounters so many objects in their day to day life, they learn the different characteristics of these objects in a more meaningful manner hence enhancing their brain development (Charlesworth 2011).
At 12-18 months child’s brain develops, whereby their memory span expands. Toddlers are able to master what they see the adults do and repeat at a much latter stage. This is known as deferred imitation where repetition is done hence improving brain connections (Charlesworth 2011).
At 18-24 months, the brain becomes more developed where many circuits that enable the child jump, scoop and such more activities become complete. Language and play provide new skills in problem solving and the older ways of doing things are now re-molded. At three years of age, the child’s brain is approximated to be 80% that of an adult. It is at this age that a child molds objects to represent the reality, for example the use of a folded sweater as a child.
Many opportunities should be presented to the child at this stage to help improve their skills in solving problems. Children should be bought materials such as toys, recycled containers, paints and many more. Moreover children should be given some space to try and to discover things on their own as this will improve their brains compared to when they are assisted wholly. Some activities that they should be left on their own to explore on their own include mixing different colors to see the outcome.
Concepts relating to categorization and classification are also learnt at this stage. Children can now be in a position to discover objects with a like features and classify them. At times this classification is incorrect, for example all objects to them may be generalize as vehicles which at long run may not be true, therefore, adults should label the objects , guide them in noting their differences and similarities to help them avoid generalizing when it comes to classification.
Pretend play becomes common such as making a call using a spoon or a maize cob, drinking from empty cups and many others form of pretence. During this time, adults should lower themselves to the toddler’s level and engage in a collaborative play (Charlesworth 2011).
Motor development of a toddler
This is concerned with issues of body movement. The coordinated movement of arms and legs is termed as gross motor skills, while those movements that involve hands and fingers are referred to as fine- motor skills; to improve these two types of development, the child should be provided with more opportunities to crawl, play and jump by providing an extensive playing ground (Goldberg, 2001).
Motor development is influenced by many factors such as genetics which determines the size of the body parts and their strength. Nutrition and exercise are also crucial in determining the strength and the ease in movements. The child should also be provided with play objects such as toys, a pair of scissors and others that will require manipulation by use of hands and fingers to strengthen the young muscles which will encourage and improved the motor development.
Usually, motor development takes place in a sequential manner whereby the child starts with crawling at the age of 6-8 months. They then stand and walk while supporting themselves with objects. They then learn to stand without any support and eventually walk a few steps (Charlesworth 2011).
Social development of a toddler; the major aspect in social development is play. At this stage the child has learnt how to walk and communicate and it is the time that he/she proofs very playful. Though according to the adults, these children may not be physically fit to play alone, they like doing their things independently. Toddlers play near other children though they don’t know how to intermingle with them, they have not yet learnt to share and enjoy in pretence games.
Toddlers also become anxious about strangers and places they fear could be dangerous. They will usually find an attachment to the object they find comfort such as toys. Social development in a toddler is of great value because all the values instilled to the kid at this stage are even portrayed at adulthood. When the child grows socially, he/she finds it easy to interact with other toddlers and also adults, thus easily making friends.
One important aspect of the social aspect of a kid is that when well guided through this stage the child develops self confidence which can be molded by praising the child in every other attempt she/he makes. Important to mention also is language, training a child to use courtesy words such as please, thank you, sorry cultivates discipline in a child and makes it easier for him or her to socialize.
When language is understood well, then, expressing ones feelings become friendly than when it is done physically. Language is a way of communicating which is vital in social development .Toddlers majorly learn through mimicking and as such according them respect and also treating others well will lead to a healthy social growth as they will always do what their parents or caregivers do.
As mentioned earlier, toddlers are forgetful and they learn when something is repeatedly done, therefore one should be consistent in instilling a certain skill or value, but not just doing it once and assuming that the child has grasped everything right (Charlesworth, 2011).
Emotional development of a toddler
It is in this stage that the child become more independent and very possessive. The child expresses his/herself in many ways such as crying, pointing at want they want and throwing tantrums. Also the child recognizes him/herself and has preferences to certain things such as cloths.
Due to the sensitive at this age it is good to create a good relationship with the child by expressing what you feel on his/her action, not punishing them harshly and using humor in correcting them rather than shouting and use of harsh words. Important of all is to control emotions as the child will imitate adults emotional behaviors thus affecting their growth (shaffer, 1995).
Moral development of a toddler
This stage of development is crucial because through imitation, a child develops morals. It is therefore important for the adults to have good morals so that they can act as role models to the toddlers. Also feelings of guilty, empathy and other moral feelings are also pronounced. Learning moral concepts at this age such as truth is important as this will have an influence in a child’s life.
Parents should be very conscience in all they do because at this stage the child is very observant as he/she is curious of all that takes place in the surrounding. It is good to instill punishment immediately the child does wrong and even setting out the mistake very clearly so that the child can appreciate what he /she is punished for. Opportunities for doing things that were previously done wrong should be provided. Moral development is very important as it has far stretching effects into a child’s future endeavors (Shaffer, 1995).
Physical development of a toddler
This is a very important stage in child development and it is perceived to be the most troublesome stage as the child will always stand by his/her opinion with a no answer at hand. This stage includes children from one to three years where by in each year some physical and biological changes occur.
In this paper toddler stage has been selected as the stage of address and all the millstones, physical changes activities and rationale to promote development at this stage have been considered herein.
One year old; curious, imitate sounds, name people they know, point at what they want, frequently use no answer, follow simple directions, pronounce one or two words. Two year old; think before acting, don’t know how to make decision, low concentration span, use two to three words combined, join in singing, memorizes short poems or songs.
Three years old; the child is more active. uses several words to in combination to construct a sentence, can memorize a verse or a short stanza, becomes interested in learning by using a pencil to scribble, he/she becomes more independent in activities such as toileting, dressing in some occasions and feeding. At this stage, children are known to eat very little but after every short time span throughout the day.
Children at this stage should be allowed to play most of their time and playing objects such as toys should also be provided, parents should tell the short stories about them or of other children of the same age, sing to them short songs, providing a balanced diet every time they need to feed, playing games such as hide and seek with them and other forms of exercise so as to enhance their physical growth (Malley, 1995)
Language development of a toddler
At the age of 10 months most children have their first words come out of their mouths, they are the simplest ones such us mummy and daddy. This is the most exiting moments to the parents. As the child starts to walk, these words may be forgotten owing to the fact that the child cannot concentrate at two things as mentioned earlier.
At the age of two years the child learns new words in his/her day to day encounters and is now able to construct simple sentences and at the age of three the child has a vast number of new vocabularies. Parents need to do a number of things so as to help the child learn and master language.
This may include, echoing a word correctly immediately the child pronounces it, restating a word used by the child in various ways and even using the word to construct a sentence, shout the name of a new object severally and encourage reading and writing as this will improve language skills and mastering (Malley, 1995)
Conclusion
Toddlerhood is therefore, the most critical stagein a child development. This is seen in the various aspects of growth that take place during this stage. It is in this stage that determines how the child will be like in the future, therefore, proper care should be taken in the manner of bringing up the child at this stage ensuring that all aspects have been well nurtured
In the process of growth, there are various challenges which are faced by children. This means that there are times when children are able to overcome these challenges and there are times when they are not able to overcome the challenges.
Essentially, in cases where children are not able to overcome these challenges, there are strategies which are employed towards ensuring that the negative effects of these challenges are mitigated. The focus of this paper is to evaluate how these strategies are employed and how their effects on the general well being of the child under study.
What is intervention?
The term intervention is a term that is broadly used in many spheres. Essentially, it is a term that implies to come in between with an aim of averting a perceived negative consequence. Intervention may be defined as a logical and orderly step by step process which is geared to assist the intervener or responder from a state of disequilibrium to at least his or her pre-crisis level of functioning.
Intervention may be defined as a set of sequenced planned actions or events which are intended to enhance one’s efficiency and increase effectiveness in light of the existing status quo; thus they are deliberate attempts to change on organism or sub unit towards a different and more effective state (Cummings & Worley 2001).
The main aspect engrained in the process of intervention is based on the fact that to intervene is to enter into an existing system, with a structured and planned activity, directed at a targeted person, to disturb the status quo and shift the person towards a different state and with a goal of improvement and development (Mee-Yan & Linda 2011). The process of intervention follows a given elaborate process which has a number of components.
These components include immediacy, control, assessment, disposition, referral and follow-up (Mee-Yan & Linda 2011). As far as child intervention is concerned that can include positive strategies, programs and other resources that are designed to target a Childs disruptive behavior. These can help reduce their unwanted behavior so that they do not recur, as often. This can include a less restricted environment or LRE (Karnes 1983)
However, a child’s behavior is not the only reason to intervene in their lives, whether at school or at home. There are several reasons that are deemed to be an acceptable reason to do so. One of which is a child’s learning abilities and home/school life. Early intervention is famed to be the most practical and sensible time to intervene, if it has been noticed (Karnes 1983).
Children of an early age, primary or younger, who have been discovered to have some sort of condition that requires extra care, because it may well effect their development, fall into this category. The advantages of noticing these conditions at such an early age, means that service provisions, for children and their families can benefit, hopefully, reducing the overall effects of any given condition. This can help with new or already diagnosed problems (Karnes & Lee 1983)
Early intervention can be with an individual child and/or their family, depending on the situation, at the time of diagnoses. As well as being in a variety of places or in one singular place. But the majority agrees that early intervention should begin as soon as an occurrence appears (Karnes & Lee 1983).
So, is early intervention effective? Evidence shows that it is. Over 45 years of quantitative and qualitative research shows that early intervention has a significantly high effect on the outcomes of children and indeed their families, both developmentally and educationally alike enhancing family life and social acceptance (Karnes & Lee 1983).
This however, can take years of intervention by several agencies and at a cost, sometimes not available to everyone, causing some children to, ‘slip though the net’ (Karnes & Lee 1983). Here is one such case study whose intervention was diagnosed early. The child will be henceforth, known as, child A and their family referred to as, the family of child A.
Case Study: Child A
Child A is a five year old boy who lives with his mother, father younger brother aged two years and older brother aged 8years. He attends preschools for five mornings per week.
However, his mother has been disturbed by his behavior which she has described as unbecoming. He was branded by his mother as a “terror” as an infant. At about two years old, when he had fully began walking, child A’s activity level increased and he was always climbing on everything that he found and running around precariously without listening to the caution of his older sibling or his parents.
This behavior persisted as he joined the preschool. This has led to this child being asked to leave several day care and nursery school settings because of his high activity level, short attention span and his physical aggression towards his peers as well as his family siblings. Essentially, the rate of peer rejection has been reported to be particularly high in children who have been displaying both aggression and ADHD (DuPaul & Stoner 2003 ).
Although he has begun to learn letters and numbers, it seems to be very difficult for his mother or teacher to get him to sit still for any reading or learning activities. It seems that his preference has always been to engage in rough and tumble play. This notwithstanding, he seems to become quite defiant when he asked to sit down and remain in a more structured quiet activity or pose.
On closer observation child A, was reported to have problems or deficits which included inappropriate attempts to join ongoing peer group activities, poor conversational behaviors, employing aggressive solutions and being prone to losing temper control when conflict frustrations are encountered in social situations (Guevremont 1994).
Child A and the family
From a close observation, it was discovered that Child A’s situation had a major influence in the family. First, it impacted the relationships between him and the parents and secondly it had an impact on the relationship with the siblings. It is worth noting at this point that families have their special and unique challenges, however, when there are challenges which seem to interfere with the very essence of family, the stress levels within the family are likely to increase due to undue pressure.
For instance the family of child A faces what we might call logistical problems due to the energy which is required to cope with the challenges of bringing up a child who exhibits ADHD.
What stood out from the assessment is that there is a consistent irregularity especially because the parents are not able to predict what Child A is up to, this denies the parents the comfort and the ease of bringing up Child A. Furthermore, what was realized was the fact that the family was facing isolation from their relatives owing to the fact that they could not seem to understand the nature of child A.
Owing to the fact that child A also exhibits aggressive behavior there has been a strained relationship with the siblings. This is because the relationship between child A and the siblings has been largely characterized by conflict and misunderstanding. In most occasions, the parents have been called quell the feuds. This has eventually impacted the relationships between the family and the other siblings.
In conclusion, it would be right to state that the high levels of conflict which were observed in the child A family were partly attributed to the stress which could “spill over” into the relationships with other children and the family in entirety.
Diagnosis
According to the American Psychiatric Association, the term which describes the children or persons who are exhibiting such extreme problems which have been associated with inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity is known as the attention deficit or hyperactivity disorder or ADHD (American Psychiatric Association 2000).
Furthermore, problems of aggression which have been most frequently associated with ADHD include defiance or non compliance with authority figure commands, poor temper control, and argumentativeness and verbal hostility which presently comprise the psychiatric category of oppositional defiance disorder (American Psychiatric Association 2000).
In addition, children such as child A who tend to have the trait of displaying aggression and ADHD related difficulties have been reported to be at a greater risk of interpersonal conflict at home, in school (Johnstone & Mash 2001)
Relative to other childhood disorders, there have been findings that ADHD is a “high incidence” disorder which has been established to be prominent among the male children (DuPaul & Stoner 2003 ).
Furthermore, owing to the characteristics which have been established by children who are suffering from this condition, it seems that these children end up having serious adjustments problems in school settings. This has been associated with the inability to sustain attention to effortful tasks, their completion of independent seat work and their performance on class is compromised by the lack of attention to instructions (DuPaul & Stoner 2003 ).
In school settings, it has been established that these children have been found to be very disruptive and disturbing the entire learning process.
For instance, Child A has been found to be in the habit of frequent calling out without permission, he is used to talking to his classmates in class during inappropriate times and he is very aggressive and uncooperative when it comes to dealing with reprimands or frustrating tasks in class. Child A does not seem to settle down in class, he is always moving around and he is often found to be playing with inappropriate objects.
Essentially, teachers and parents frequently report that children with ADHD such as child A underachieve academically compared to their classmates (Barkley 1998). Owing to this, these children have found themselves being denied opportunities as compared to their counterparts without ADHD. This is largely because of their inability to respond to academic material and complete less independent work than their classmates (Pfiffner & Barkley 1990).
Studies carried out have revealed that children with ADHD often end up into adolescents who are facing the high risks for chronic academic failure as measured by higher rates of grade retention and dropping out rates of school as compared to their peers (Barkley 1998). The strong correlation between hyperactivity and aggression is also well documented in the research literature (Loney & Milich 1982).
Intervention
Owing to the fact that child A is a child just like any other child there is need to ensure that interventions strategies are put in place to ensure that the child is able to deal with the problems which my be presenting themselves for a secure future. When it comes to interventions, there is need to ensure that apart from the child, the family and the child’s school administration need to be cognizant of intervention strategies which are effective.
Types of intervention
The heterogeneity in characteristics and symptoms displayed by children diagnosed with ADHD and the variability of their response to treatment means that it is often difficult to decide on the most effective intervention for the affected individuals(Wheeler 2010 ). Though there are several models of intervention, research indicates that a multimodal treatment protocol is more effective than unimodal treatment in addressing the myriad of difficulties associated with this disorder (Weyandt 2006).
Medical interventions
Stimulant medications have been found to have positive effects on attention span, impulse control, academic performance and social relationships (Wheeler 2010 ). This is based on the fact that the hormones noradrenalin and dopamine are balanced in the brain by the use of these medications. The aim of medication is to control symptoms and provide a window of opportunity for the child to benefit from teaching – learning experiences provided in the society in general (Alimo-Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe 2001).
Educational interventions
Many of the educational and environmental interventions and classroom management strategies already in place in some schools may be differentially appropriate for students who display ADHD characteristics (Wheeler 2010 ). However, educational interventions specifically aimed at children as in the case of child A may need to focus more on homework, organization, memorization, classroom participation and conduct (Robin 1998 ).
Nurture groups have also been associated with being an effective intervention approach. For instance, there is evidence that some individuals with ADHD may benefit from this type of setting, which combines the features of a caring, homely environment with those of a standard classroom and where the emphasis is on emotionally supportive and empathic relationships between adults and children (Wheeler 2010 ).
Social interventions
Studies have revealed that children and young people with ADHD often have poor social skills, finding difficulty in initiating and maintaining friendships just as child A has been. They may be aware of how their behavior affects other people and may, for example, try to join in a game without asking for permission (Wheeler 2010 ). Owing to this, these children may suffer from peer rejection or isolation (DuPaul & Stoner 2003 ).
Therefore, there is need to impact life skills in these children which shall go along way towards establishing a positive approach towards establishing relationships. This shall be accomplished at home by parents, in school and through voluntary agencies (Wheeler 2010 ). There have been a host of suggestions that preschool training should also contain social skills in their curriculum in order to enable children to be better placed in society in their latter years.
Alternative or complimentary interventions
There are many other alternative and complimentary treatments which have been often used in children with ADHD, however, their reported effectiveness has been variable (Wheeler 2010 ).
Many interventions are controversial, and have minimal or no established efficacy for children with ADHD and lack sufficient research evidence (DuPaul & Stoner 2003 ). Some of these approaches include the following, cognitive behavior therapy, play therapy and outdoor play in green places, herbal and natural medicines and yoga (Wheeler 2010 ).
Marital counseling
In families, it has been discovered, just like child A’s family, that ADHD dramatically alters family life and tremendously complicates the job of the parent (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002). Family feuds are common in such families owing to the fact that there is no understanding and at times this ends up in one party blaming the other. Sibling rivalry is also a common feature in such ventures. However, this can be contained or controlled by therapeutic strategies to aid families to reduce family stress (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002).
Marital counseling can aid couples who are having trouble getting along (Gottman and Silver 1999). This is because there is need to ensure that parents understand the kind of children that they have and therefore are able to deal with the problems from an objective point of view. Parent training can help parents intervene more effectively with their children, enjoy their children and reduce the possibilities for children abuse (group 1999).
Attachment Theory
This is theory which is based on relationships between human beings. This theory is based on the fact that children or infants eventually become attached to adults who are sensitive and show concern to their wellbeing in life. This theory was developed by John Bowlby in 1958.
Essentially, Bowlby defined attachment as an emotional tie that an infant constructs and elaborates with his principal caregiver(s) in the context of everyday interactions (Benson & Haith 2009 ). Furthermore, Benson and Haith state that attachment is different from attachment behavior; while attachment refers to the emotional bond and to a strong predisposition to seek proximity to, and contract with, a specific care giver, attachment behavior is concerned with the desired proximity and contact (Benson & Haith 2009 ).
In his work, Bowlby acknowledge the fact that quality care to a child has great impact on the well being of the child. For instance, children will tend to develop a cognitive map which describes their relationship with their mother. Mary Ainsworth a contributor to Bowlby’s theory further asserted that it is not the quantity but it was the quality of the relationship that was of importance in accounting for the different types of infant – mother relationships (Benson & Haith 2009 ).
Studies reveal that factors which are related to the family environment, parent and child attachment, peer relations, and academic performance may influence the presentation of ADHD related symptoms (Eisen 2007 ).
Essentially, attachment theory has been used to explain how early parent child relationships may serve as protective or risk factors for mental illness (Eisen 2007 ).
Research carried out has further stressed the fact that attachment issues among children with ADHD are linked to mother’s pregnancy and children’s first year of life (Stiefel 1997), for instance, factors such as insecurity about parenting, lack of significant other or familial support are some of the cause of such cases. Children who are also unsure of whether to approach or avoid their mothers might have difficulty concentrating and paying attention (Eisen 2007 ).
Attachment theorist have also proposed that ADHD symptoms are linked to poor attachment between mothers and their children, because the disrupted attachment pattern , in part, leads to impairments in children’s self regulation and interpersonal functioning (Clarke, Ungerer, Chahoud, Johnson and Stiefel 2002).
Why intervene
Historically, and for many years, ADHD was a condition which most or many believed that it would disappear with age. That is the children would outgrow their behavior difficulties and impulsivities as they moved into adulthood (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002).
However, studies have revealed that more than 40% of teenagers with ADHD display what would be considered to be a significant rate of behaviors which are antisocial such as fighting, stealing and vandalism (Barkley 1998). This is when they are compared to their non ADHD adolescents. Therefore, there is need to intervene early in order to ensure that as the children grow and in our case child A, he should be bale to adjust accordingly to the society and become responsible in his life’s affairs later in life.
Children with ADHD when compared to their non ADHD classmates are also at a higher risk for grade retentions, school suspensions, dropping out of school, and substance abuse (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002).
In addition, statistics from studies reveal that if intervention is not carried out in the right time, then, 25% or more of these children end up developing behavior patterns which are considered antisocial and which are associated with delinquency and adjustment problems characterized by substance abuse, interpersonal difficulties, and occupational instability (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002).
Ethical considerations
It is important to note that it is important to establish the relevance of the standard values when you are working with children. This is because children who are suffering from certain conditions are most likely to be vulnerable. For instance, it has been agreed that the universal effects of stimulant medications are critical for moderately and severely impaired children with ADHD (Diller 2006 ).
However, in an attempt to mitigate the effects of this condition, one opts to use quick fix methods in order to save on time and cost is morally and ethically dubious. Furthermore, there are medications which have side effects which may injure or harm the child in the long run.
Conclusion
Essentially, every child must have the opportunities to grow and experience the world on their own way. This implies that this responsibility lies with the parents, practitioners and professional who work with children. In our case, child A has the capacity to change and learn to live with his condition. This has been analyzed in light of the strategies which have been discussed. However, we need to realize that it is going to take a consistent effort to be able to achieve that which has been set out to be realized.
Early intervention is paramount because it will ensure that the outcomes discussed of adolescents with ADHD are not exhibited. Furthermore, the general attitude of the teacher and the parents is expected to change in light of the discussions in this paper. It is on this basis that this conclusion evaluates some of the changes (in the next section) anticipated after the completion of the entire project.
Changes expected
Following the observations which were carried out on child A, several changes are expected to be observed in regard to child A’s condition. Essentially, teachers have been reported saying that children with ADHD can be able to improve and they insist that they have improved provided that some interventions strategies are put into place.
For instance, the issue of supervision should be given uttermost attention. Studies suggest that when independent work is closely monitored and supervised, children with ADHD are able to produce a greater quantity and a higher quality of output which is relative to minimal supervision situations (Sam & Anne.T.Ellison 2002). Furthermore, these children are also able to show remarkable improvement when they are given activities which they enjoy, stimulate their interests and are in line with their areas of interest.
Therapy can not be left out as Beck points out. Cognitive therapy can help someone or an individual to what he calls “back to reality” which should be geared towards reducing the emotional chaos by thinking clearly about general issues in life (Beck 1995). Therefore child A and his family should be.
Reference List
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American Psychiatric Association, APATFOD-I 2000, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR., 4th edn, American Psychiatric Association, Arlington,VA.
Barkley, RA 1998, Attention Deficit hyperactivity disorder:A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, Guilford Press, New York.
Beck, J 1995, Cognitive Therapy:Basics and Beyond, Illustrated edn, Guilford Press, New York.
Benson, JB & Haith, MM 2009 , Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood, illustrated edn, Academic Press, California.
Cummings & Worley 2001, Organization development and change, 7th edn, Southwestern college publishing, Ohio.
Diller, LH 2006 , The last normal child: essays on the intersection of kids, culture, and psychiatric drugs, annotated edn, Greenwood Publishing Group, London.
DuPaul, GJ & Stoner, GD 2003 , ADHD in the schools: assessment and intervention strategies, 2nd edn, Guilford Press, New York.
Eisen, AR 2007 , Treating childhood behavioral and emotional problems: a step-by-step, evidence-based approach, illustrated edn, Guilford Press, New York.
group, MC 1999, ‘Fourteen month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention deficit/Hyperactivity disorder’, Archives of general psychiatry, vol 56, pp. 1073-1086.
Guevremont, D 1994, ‘Peer relationship problems and disruptive behavior disorders’, Journal of emotional and Behavioral Disorders, vol 2, no. 3, pp. 164-172.
Johnstone, C & Mash, EJ 2001, ‘Families of children with ADHD:Review and recommendations.’, Clinical child and family psychology review, vol 4, no. 3, pp. 183-207.
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Wheeler, L 2010 , The ADHD Toolkit, illustrated edn, SAGE Publications Ltd , New York.
Christi Crosby Bergin explores the significance of symbolic thinking, physical development, self-regulation, complex thinking, and executive function in Child and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom: A Chronological Approach. She emphasizes how language development involves the acquisition of spoken language and the ability to use symbols and abstract thought to represent concepts. Bergin stresses that symbolic thinking is critical for social growth, as it enables children to take part in abstract conversations and interpret the feelings of others. Additionally, symbolic thinking is essential for the development of problem-solving skills, which are necessary for success in the classroom and in life (Bergin, & Bergin, 2019). Creative thinking is another important skill that is promoted through the use of symbolic thought, as it allows young people to express their thoughts, feelings, and ideas in unique ways. Lastly, Bergin looks at the role of symbolic thinking in the development of adolescents, as it permits them to create a personal narrative to make sense of their experiences and to form a better understanding of themselves and their place in the world.
Executive function is an integral part of child and adolescent development in the classroom. It is the ability to plan and organize, to monitor and regulate behavior, and to self-regulate emotions. It is essential for success in school, helping students to focus on tasks, remember information, and make positive choices. For young children, environmental and social factors largely influence the development of executive function. To promote its development, teachers should provide a supportive and nurturing learning environment. During middle childhood, executive function is an important part of cognitive growth, so teachers should encourage children to set goals and develop plans to achieve them. Adolescence is a time when executive function skills become even more crucial, as adolescents are expected to be more independent and manage a wide range of emotions. Thus, teachers should create a learning environment with structure and clear expectations, promote self-reflection and problem-solving strategies, and emphasize the importance of goal setting and planning ahead. By following the chronological approach of Crosby, teachers can provide the necessary support and structure to help children and adolescents develop strong executive function skills.
Self-regulation is an important part of child and adolescent development, as it allows children to manage their emotions and behaviors in order to achieve their goals. As such, it is important for teachers to understand how to foster self-regulation in their students. Crosby’s chronological approach is one of the most effective methods for helping children and adolescents develop this important skill. Teachers can promote self-regulation in their students through Bergin and Crosby’s chronological approach, which consists of introducing the concept of self-regulation, teaching techniques and strategies for self-regulation, providing practice opportunities for students to develop these skills (Salkind, 2018). Offering feedback and guidance as students practice and apply these skills, and giving students opportunities to apply their self-regulation skills in real-world settings. Through this approach, teachers can empower their students to manage their emotions and behaviors, and to achieve their goals.
In her book, Child and Adolescent Development in the Classroom Chronological Approach, Bergin, provides a comprehensive look at the complex process of development in children and adolescents. Crosby begins by examining physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development from infancy to adolescence. She then dives into the cognitive development of children and adolescents in the classroom, exploring language, problem solving, and abstract thinking. Crosby emphasizes the importance of the teacher in this process and provides strategies to best facilitate learning. Following this, she examines social and emotional development, providing an overview of the different stages and the importance of relationships in learning and development (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). She emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive and stimulating environment. Finally, Crosby examines the biological development of children and adolescents, providing an overview of the different stages and the role of hormones and brain development. She provides strategies for helping students understand and manage their emotions and develop a sense of identity and self-esteem.
Physical development is an important area of study for educators. It is essential to be aware of the physical changes that occur in children and adolescents as they progress through the three main stages of physical development: infancy, childhood, and adolescence. During infancy, babies experience rapid growth and development in terms of both height and weight, and they gain physical strength and coordination as they learn to crawl, walk, and manipulate objects. As children become toddlers, they develop gross motor skills such as running and jumping. During childhood, physical development is characterized by continued growth and development, and children become more proficient in their gross motor skills while their fine motor skills improve. Adolescence is the final stage of physical development. During this stage, adolescents undergo rapid growth, and they become stronger and more coordinated.
Additionally, puberty occurs during adolescence, which includes the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the development of reproductive organs. In such a classroom, it is advisable to use chronological approach to physical development in child and adolescent development. This way, teachers’ help their students understand the physical changes that occur as they grow, either by use of videos, books, and hands-on activities. Through these activities, teachers can educate their students about physical development, enabling them to understand the physical changes that happen throughout each stage of development.
References
Bergin, C. C., & Bergin, D. A. (2019). Child and adolescent development in your classroom, chronological approach. Cengage Learning.
The human body receives almost all the necessary substances with food and water. All vital functions of the body are related to nutrition. Improper nutrition can cause significant harm to human health at any age (Santrock et al., 2014). This is expressed in a decrease in physical and mental development, rapid fatigue, inability to resist the effects of adverse environmental factors. In addition, physical culture is a necessary factor in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
The main recommendations that can be given to parents include proper nutrition, physical activity, and the establishment of a regime for the child. Regarding nutrition, it should be noted that parents should use only fresh food and minimize or completely exclude fried, spicy, over-salted, or too sweet food. It is recommended to choose a diet that will correspond to the individual number of calories, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates for the child.
Physical exercises are an integral part of a child’s good and proper development. Sports and activity help strengthen bones muscles and contribute to the normalization of the work of internal organs. Moreover, it is crucial to observe a daily routine to help the child’s body develop. Properly selected regular sleep time, meals, sports, games will allow the body to grow faster and more correctly.
There is such a thing as cultural inequality, which consists of discrimination against minorities belonging to a particular culture. This inequality can be expressed as an obstacle to obtaining proper nutrition and the possibility of physical activity. Subsequently, this can damage the child’s normal development and have a negative impact not only on their physical condition but also damage them mentally. To eliminate inequality, it is necessary that heads of State carefully monitor the elimination of discrimination and invest in the development of institutions in which people belonging to different cultures would spend time together.
Question
What can each individual do to eliminate discrimination?
Link
The link is connected to the topic of the week because it gives recommendations on how to have a beneficial effect on the development of the child. Kurtz (2019) claims that social services departments disseminate information on properly developing healthy lifestyle rules for children. Parents and caregivers must be aware of the various possibilities of assistance in the correct development of the child. Parents and service providers can help each other, so they pursue a common goal. This goal is to ensure a healthy lifestyle for children and help them develop.
References
Kurtz, D. (2019). Importance of proper nutrition and physical activity in early childhood. South Dakota State University Extension. Web.
Santrock, J.W., Deater-Deckard, K., & Lansford, J. E. (2014). Child development (15th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
