Category: Child Development

Birth to 12 Months

The appearance of the child in the family is a joyful event, which, however, is continuously accompanied by the excitement of parents about the normality of the child’s development. Although it should be admitted that the notion of the norm is rather vague and conservative, children’s development usually follows a similar scenario. The first twelve months of a child’s life are probably one of the most important periods during which dramatic progress in the child’s physical and cognitive activities takes place. It is only during these months that one can observe how, from a non-self-contained and dependent toddler, a child makes its way to a baby that already knows how to walk and talk a little.

So, What Is Going On?

• Cognitive:
  • Shows curiosity, puts items in their mouth and interacts with them, copies gestures (CDC, 2020).
  • This helps the child develop memory and interact more actively with space (Milbrand, 2018).
• Social:
  • Recognizes acquaintances and strangers, interacts with parents to get what they want (CDC, 2020).
  • This helps the child understand that parents are central to their life (Milbrand, 2018).
• Emotional:
  • Smiles at the adults, cries if the games are over and calms down, feels fear of strangers (CDC, 2020).
  • This gives the child confidence in other people in the future (Milbrand, 2018).
• Physical:
  • Makes awkward steps on their own, sits, holds their head steady, and shakes toys (CDC, 2020).
  • This contributes to the ability to balance and manage objects (Milbrand, 2018).
• Language:
  • Copies sounds that they hear, makes sounds, and forms sentences (CDC, 2020).
  • This gives the child some confidence in their words, as well as the ability to express thoughts (Milbrand, 2018).

How Can Family Help?

A parent can help the child to understand the objects by naming the objects andasking to show where they are (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

For a child to trust in their parents and understand their importance, it is necessary to say goodbye to the child before going to work/shop (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

13-24 Months

The first year of the baby’s development is behind, and significant cognitive changes are ahead of them. Having reached this stage of development, the child leaves the satisfaction of physiological needs and chooses intellectual development. Simple toys for developing and baby cubes are replaced by creative activities such as basic drawing or singing. Moreover, the child begins to understand what their parents want them to and seeks to support the conversation, forming a few simple sentences. Indeed, the child cannot read yet but can look at pictures in books and ask many questions about what they found. Finally, the child starts to provide for their own leisure time, tries to put on clothes, go to the toilet, and do simple physical exercises.

So, What Is Going On?

• Cognitive:
  • Knows the value of necessary items such as phone, spoon, and pencil (CDC, 2020).
  • This allows them to gain independence of judgment and autonomy (Pearson Schools and FE Colleges, 2017).
• Social:
  • Shows interest when communicating with peers (CDC, 2020).
  • Through opposing themselves to other children improves their self-awareness (Pearson Schools and FE Colleges, 2017).
• Emotional:
  • Sometimes they do what they were previously banned (CDC, 2020).
  • This increases their independence, although they are a little shy about breaking the rules (Pearson Schools and FE Colleges, 2017).
• Physical:
  • Runs and plays easy sports games (CDC, 2020).
  • During games with small objects, object grasping and fine motor skills are developed (Pearson Schools and FE Colleges, 2017).
• Language:
  • Knows the names of familiar people, body parts (CDC, 2020).
  • This lays the foundation for the development of a complex language (Pearson Schools and FE Colleges, 2017).

How Can Family Help?

To improve the mechanisms for learning the world, a parent asks a child questions and helps to find answers (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

Parents should encourage their child’s research to increase the likelihood of multifaceted development (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

25-36 Months

It is necessary to admit that this period is of the most significant importance as, from two to three years, the child’s psychological sight is finally formed. The baby is not an infant anymore, but also not a junior preschooler yet. They already have not a small vocabulary, so they can make simple sentences, change the form of words, make up their games, and partly manipulate adults. In addition, the child begins to understand and express their interests and character more clearly. For a child at this age, the support of adults is especially necessary, since understanding the world can be realized by imitating a respectable adult: mom or dad, grandparents, or the nanny.

So, What Is Going On?

• Cognitive:
  • Collects puzzles from more than three elements (CDC, 2020).
  • This improves problem-solving skills, coordination, and self-esteem (Allan, 2017).
• Social:
  • Takes care of upset, crying friends (CDC, 2020).
  • This allows them to make friends with other people, strengthen social ties (IMHP, 2019).
• Emotional:
  • Demonstrates a wide range of emotions (CDC, 2020).
  • Constant changes in emotions contribute to a child’s personality formation (“Your child’s development,” 2019).
• Physical:
  • Uses a tricycle (CDC, 2020).
  • This helps them to assess the need to comply with safety regulations in transport management (Telep & Ruffin, 2019).
• Language:
  • Says their name, age, and gender (CDC, 2020).
  • It lays the foundation for recognizing themselves as a separate, unique person, and, at the same time, association with groups of people (IMHP, 2019).

How Can Family Help?

Parents should be as interested in their child’s ideas and thoughts as possible, and through recognition of feelings, they should teach new skills (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

In order to develop skills to cope with stressful situations, parents can play challenging role-playing games with their children (“Your child’s development,” 2019).

37-48 Months

At this age, the child strengthens their own cognitive and emotional states. The child more often aspires to the independence of actions, because, having looked at some actions in adults, starts to repeat them. Moreover, their actions become more predictable, and consequently, the child can already learn moral principles and ethics. It is worth noting that communication only with close people hardly satisfies them, and there is a need for peers. Thus, the frequency of communication between a child and friends on the street or in kindergarten increases significantly. Parents’ role is also changing: they are no longer absolute defenders of the child’s interests, but rather wiser and more experienced partners who help the child to navigate in such a challenging world.

So, What Is Going On?

• Cognitive:
  • Plays board and card games (CDC, 2020).
  • This helps to develop strategic thinking and take into account their opponent’s strength (“How games and puzzles help,” 2016).
• Social:
  • Plays with other children more often than alone (CDC, 2020).
  • This develops cooperation and teamwork skills (“3-4 years,” 2020).
• Emotional:
  • Clearly discusses what they like and dislike (CDC, 2020).
  • The understanding comes that their body and mind belong to them (“3-4 years,” 2020).
• Physical:
  • Puts the food on their own plate. (CDC, 2020).
  • By developing fine motor skills, the child becomes a more independent and active member of the family (“3-4 years,” 2020).
• Language:
  • Uses grammar knowledge to separate simple pronouns (CDC, 2020).
  • Improved speech knowledge will help to express the thoughts, which will improve the understanding of the conversation topic by companion (“3-4 years,” 2020).

How Can Family Help?

The parent should pay more attention to the child’s freedom and allow them to play as they like, including in mud, sand, or with dolls (“3-4 years,” 2020).

In order to stimulate creative thinking and consciousness, parents can read books together with their children and discuss them afterward (“3-4 years,” 2020).

References

1. Allan, S. (2017). Suitable puzzles for my child: Age, type and gender. Web.
2. CDC. (2020). Milestone checklists. Web.
3. How games and puzzles help a child’s development. (2016). Web.
4. IMHP. (2019). Ages and stages. Web.
5. Milbrand, L. (2018). Monthly baby milestone chart. Web.
6. Pearson Schools and FE Colleges (2017). Child development from birth up to 5 years. Web.
7. Telep, V. G., & Ruffin, N. J. (2019). Tips on toys. Web.
8. 3-4 years: Preschooler development. (2020). Web.
9. Your child’s development: Age-based tips from birth to 36-months (2019). Web.

Introduction

Development theories argue that child development is influenced by a mixture of innate biological abilities that a child has at birth and the interaction that he or she has with the environment where they grow up especially in early childhood and adolescence. Though different theories hold different views, the research paper holds the opinion that child development is more as a result of environmental factors that surrounds a child as he or she grows rather than as a result of nature.

To better understand the child development, this study compares and contrasts three development theories as developed by different theorists. The theories include: Social-information processing theory, Social learning theory and Attachment theory.

Social-information processing theory

According to Shaffer (2008), the social-information processing theory holds that a child’s mental development is shaped by the mental processes that he or she is forced to go through while relating to the wider society. The main concept in this theory is that while as people have pre-determined biological capabilities, experiencing difference social situations gives them social cues which prompt a specific behavioral response.

The person’s response to a situation is as a result of mental processes which begin as a person experiences specific sensations as cues are encoded in his or her mind. This then makes the person assume a specific perception about the social experience.

The second concept in this theory regards selective encoding. Since human beings are surrounded by multiple cues in every social environment they are in, this theory states that selective encoding of these cues allows people to pay attention to one thing at a time.

The next step involves representing or interpreting the cue. Here a person may attribute a specific cue to something that happened to him in the past hence shaping behavior. For example, a person who has fallen before from a push in the back will try to hold on to something should a similar push happen to him or her.

The third concept indicates that social-information processing involves evaluating a situation and making the appropriate decisions. According to the theory, this step involves the personal evaluating the consequences of any actions that he or she might take. This includes the moral, instrumental, interpersonal and intrapersonal consequences that may be borne out of his or her actions. The final step as suggested in this theory involves transforming the decisions made in the valuation and decision-making stage to verbal or motor behavior.

Citing Kenneth Dodge who initially formulated the theory, Shaffer (2008) sums up the different steps in the theory using six cognitive processes, which he says a child experiences when arriving to a response decision. The first step involves encoding the cues he or she receives from the environment, followed by an interpretation of the cues.

The third step involves the formulation of social goals by the child, which is then followed by a generation of problem-solving strategies. On the fifth step, the child evaluates the effectiveness of strategies that he or she generates and finally, the child enacts the self-chosen response (p. 294).

Social-Learning theory

The social-learning theory acknowledges the role of one’s biological origins and neural-mediating mechanisms but also emphasizes that a person’s experiences in an environment plays a vital role in his or her development (Asher, 2006). The major concept in this theory is that most learning in a person occurs as one watch and imitates models.

This theory suggests that in order for human beings to survive and grow in their immediate environment, they learn to acquire behaviors through observing the more experienced people in their immediate environment. For this to affect development however, this theory posits that in addition to observing, one would need to have strong instigation and retention mechanisms.

The second concept identified in this theory is the belief that the theory is governed by four processes. The four processes are identified as:

1. Attention- responsible for the exploration instincts and perception;
2. Memory- stores observed behaviors and guide behavior in the future;
3. Motor production- responsible for the formation of novel behaviors which happens as a result of integrated constituents acts according to actions previously observed; and
4. Incentives & motivation- this regulates the practice of learnt responses.

For development to occur, this theory states that biological maturation of the four identified processes must occur as this allows the storage of complex response repertoires and contingencies in one’s memory to occur.

The third concept identified in this theory is the assumption that cognitive and biological motivators acts as instigation mechanisms (Asher, 2006). This means that internal bodily stimulations such as hunger, anger or lust may activate behavior in a person through biological motivators. Cognitive motivators on the other hand would be responsible for providing the person with the motivation needed to act.

The cognitive motivators allow one top consider the sensory and social consequences of an action. This theory further suggests that the use of external reinforcement such are rewards, punishment affect the kind of development that one chooses to adopt. Self-regulation through observation, judgment, valuation, attribution and applied consequences to one self are also factors that are considered as effective in this theory. Notably, this theory has fewer constraints when compared to other theories.

Attachment theory

The attachment theory posits that children are born with an innate need for human contact (Bretherton, 1992). While this may be driven by a need for food (mother’s breast milk), this theory states that attachment seeking is directed more by the need for a social contact and the desire for a loving relationship from the mother. The main concept in this theory is that human’s need for attachment to other people is driven by the need for love.

The second concept revealed in the attachment theory is that the fear of the unknown is also capable of shaping behavior as one develops. Using the example of a child, this theory suggests that the separation of mother and child usually causes distress on the child, which is then replaced by joy when the mother comes back to the child.

Separation over long periods of time however induces suspicion, anxiety or clinging behavior upon the mother-child re-union (Bretherton, 1992). Although this behavior is evident in young and older children, it slowly fades away once individuation occurs and the child is able to have a mental representation of the mother even in her absence.

The third concept identified in the attachment theory is the idea that the child-parent relationship shapes the kind of future relationships that a child will have. According to the theory, the mental representation of the initial mother-child relationship is stored in one’s memory and serves as a filter in all future relationships that the child has.

This means that the primary effects of the first relationship that a child has with its parents. The attachment theory calls the mental representation borne from the initial parent-child relationship as the working model.

Major similarities in the theories

Innate human behaviors

The major similarity between the three identified theories is the belief that while some human characteristics are attained, others are biological. The social-information processing theory for example acknowledges that people have pre-determined biological capabilities. The social learning theory on the other hand states that one’s biological origins and neural-mediating mechanisms have vital roles in development. The attachment theory on its part states that human beings are born with an innate need for human contact.

Acquired human behaviors

All the three theories identified above acknowledge that the immediate environment where one grows up or lives have consequences on their development. The Social-information processing theory, one’s mental processes are shaped by his or her relations with the wider society.

On a similar observation, the social learning theory argues that a person’s development is shaped by the observations he makes and the emulations made from the observations. On its end, the attachment theory observes that though a child is born with love seeking tendencies, the initial parent-child relationship determines how the child will relate with other people later in life.

Mental development is spontaneous process

While all the three theories recognize the presence of innate human characteristics in a person at birth, the admission that acquired human characteristics is a testimony that one’s development is a spontaneous process that largely conforms to his or her immediate surroundings. The social-information processing theory indicates that the one’s relations to the wider society as he or she grows up shape their mental processes.

The social learning theory indicates that observation and imitation lead affects one development, while the attachment theory indicates that how one related to their parents determine how they will relate to other people in the bigger society. None of the identified theories indicate that a child can choose not to respond to their immediate environment, which leads to this study’s observation that mental development as identified in all three theories is spontaneous.

Major differences

1. The major difference among the three identified theories is that they all deal with different stages of human development. The social information-processing theory for example is only applicable to children who have perceptive mental capabilities. According to Shaffer (2008), the social information-processing theory best explains why some children favor specific (usually aggressive or non-aggressive) solutions to problems they encounter in the society when growing up. The social-learning theory on the other hand seems to be a theory which can be applied at any age where a child knows that specific actions can be rewarded or cause him or her punishment. Since this theory states that a person learns through observation and imitation, one can conclude that most children learn who learn from their parents or elder siblings follow this theory. Whether there is an age limit to the learning process which involves observing and imitating others is something that existing literature is yet to find out. The attachment theory is specifically limited to an age where a child has a strong bond to the parent. The theory however argues that it is from the initial relationship that a child has with the parents (especially the mother) that it learns to relate with other people in the society in future.
2. Difference in motivation is notable in the three theories. While the social-information theory is informed by the need to respond to a situation, the social-learning theory is motivated by a need to learn or may be survive as others do. The attachment theory on the other hand formed by the natural bond that parents had with their child and therefore may be motivated by a need to conform to the basics as learned from the parents as a child.
3. The social-information theory states that the mind is central to development since it is responsible for processing cues and helping a child decide how to respond. Social learning theory on the other hand combines biological characteristics of an individual with external influences such as incentives awarded in order to shape a child’s behavior. Attachment theory on the other hand directs us towards natural influences, which occur automatically in a human being.

Interaction of cognitive, physical & emotional development in the overall development of a child

Child development involves a series of cognitive, psychological and physical changes that occur from the time a child is conceived until the end of their adolescence years (Child Fund Australia, 2008). During the continual process that marks child development, the child experiences significant changes that in his or her feelings, thoughts, movements and ability to relate with others.

The first three years of growth are especially significant to child development as stated by (Child Fund Australia, 2008). During this period, the brain develops and grows significantly thus laying the platform for cognitive development in the child. It is from cognitive development that a child learns, thinks and develops language skills among other social skills.

Physical development on the other hand is stretched through out their childhood to teenage years and includes “growth in size, strength, fine and gross motor development…” (p. 1). Emotional and psychological development on the other hand involves the development of senses such as self-worth, trust, confidence, independence among other skills that enable him or her to relate with others in the society.

For overall child development to occur there must be interaction cognitive, physical, psychological and emotional development. This however means that a child will need to be exposed to the right environment right from conception, where the mother needs to eat healthy in order to provide the child with all nutrients needed for physical development.

At birth, the child needs to be fed, clothed and loved in order to sustain their physical development, but also provide a basis where they can develop their cognitively and emotionally. As they grow, exposure to education, their parents, siblings and their peers in social forums such as school will provide them with the resources necessary to develop all the different faculties of development.

The importance of understanding normal child and adolescent development

Parents and other caretakers have an important role to play in ensuring that a child develops as it should. However, for them to do this, they would need to understand child development in order to provide the necessary environment to spur the same. Parents for example need to understand the role that proper diets play in the child’s physical and mental development, and they also need to understand that how they relate with their children could affect how the children relate with other people in future.

As Gemelli (1996) aptly puts it, though an infant may have some innate biological abilities, through an interaction with the environment, the infant is able to construct a representation of what the world should be. People who are responsible for developing the immediate environment where the child grows should hence take outmost care to present an environment that enhances the child’s development, rather than an environment that inhibits the process.

Conclusion

As stated elsewhere in this study, child development is more a result of the environment than nature. Whatever the biological abilities of a child are, he or she will need proper care, nutrition, mentorship, guidance and even protection for them to realize their potential.

References

Asher, M. (2006). Bare essentials of social learning theory. Overview. Web.

Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth Development Psychology 28 (1), 759-775.

Kid Sense. (2008). What is meant by child development?Fact Sheet 4. Web.

Gemelli, R.J. (1996). Normal child and Adolescent development. New York: American Psychiatric Publishers.

Shaffer, D. R. (2008). Social and personality development. (ed). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

This observational research aims to explain the behavior in detail and analyze it in terms of child developmental psychology. Three one-hour observations of the subject going through their typical everyday school routine. These observations were conducted in a school setting. The topic of this observation is a five-year-old tall girl. As the observer, there was no contact with the subject. After three observations, the child’s physical development, gross motor, and fine motor skills-related activities were analyzed.

Initially, the participant was observed at recess and P.E. for one hour of playtime and physical activity, during which gross motor abilities were assessed. During the first half-hour of recess, the youngster could hop, leap, skip, run, and jump, demonstrating excellent balance and coordination. According to Paris et al. (2018), by age five, children get stronger control and more accurate movement and become less clumsy. According to the observation, it was clear that the individual enjoyed these intense exercises. During the second part of the provided day’s P.E. observation, several objects were available at various stations, including volleyball, jumping ropes, and cones.

The objective of these exercises was to arrange students at each station so they may practice each skill for seven minutes before moving to the next station. During these exercises, the subject had difficulty with the jump rope, which led to dissatisfaction. However, after receiving positive feedback from the adult, the subject seemed to strive harder to satisfy the adult and demonstrate new abilities. During the transition from jumping rope to volleyball, it was observed that the subject resisted participation, stating, “I am angry because I want to keep jumping” This demonstrates that the subject can articulate feelings clearly but has difficulty controlling anger, which is a normal developmental trait for a child of this age.

During the second and third observations, which occurred during writing and reading class, the emphasis was on fine motor abilities. The subject participated in three different centers: writing three letters correctly, making letters with playdough, cutting and pasting words, and matching them to images on paper. While observing the playdough center, the subject did not follow the instructions for the activity. Instead, the five-year-old female used playdough inappropriately, such as throwing it at her classmates. This was an unanticipated behavior, so the child was removed from the center for a few minutes before being allowed to return to the activity.

After some time away from the activity, the subject followed instructions and was able to make letters using playdough and fingers; nevertheless, compared to other children of the same age, the subject’s grip on the playdough did not seem to be fully developed. According to Paris et al. (2018), five-year-olds should be able to manipulate things and have more hand mobility as their muscles grow more refined. In addition, the kid had difficulty with the cutting exercise because it was difficult for him or her to grip the scissors, indicating that the child’s finger muscles are not fully developed. This developmental milestone may take some time to achieve at various ages.

In conclusion, it was felt that a five-year-old girl is developing properly in gross and fine motor abilities at a typical rate. She has gained and developed abilities commensurate with her age as a five-year-old girl and is eager to learn other skills. Because it may seem a simple chore, the observer was struck by how difficult it was for the youngster to grip scissors and how hard she struggled. However, at that age, it was not as simple as it may have seemed to adults; thus, it is essential to pay great attention to these particulars to offer children more possibilities to aid their growth.

Reference

Paris, J., Ricardo, A., Rymond, D., & Johnson, A. (2018). Child growth and development. College of the Canyons.

The ability of a child to realize his/her full potential is influenced by genetic makeup (inborn traits), early socialization, socioeconomic factors, and early childhood experiences. During infancy and early child development, a child has four essential needs to an upright psychological development; the needs are psychical, psychological, opportunity to learn, and self-esteem (Robertson 23-45). This paper analyzes the essential needs for child development.

Physical needs

To grow upright, a child needs human basic needs like food, shelter, clothing and housing; this is likely to make the child feel comfortable with life and his mind relaxes to grow his/her potential. The physical needs need to be provided in an environment that is hospitable and nurturing, in order for them to facilitate an upright development and growth.

The people around the child have should be guiding and showing the child all spheres of life; for example a child at tender age has the ability to listen and reason, he can be explained why he has to change clothing after sometime. This strengthens the child psychological development.

Psychological needs

The family or the home that a child first grown in has the role of providing emotional and psycho-psychological wellbeing of the child; affection, consistency, quality interactions, security, trust, love , and care, the attributes assist in the growth of the child’s psychological mind setting.

Human personality , intelligence and ability to utilize ones full potential is influenced by genetic factors (inborn traits) and the factors of socialization that the child has been exposed to; the quality of the environment of growth is paramount in growing children with high mental strength and stable emotional standing.

A child’s emotions are believed to be shaped right from conception; the child has some hereditary traits from the parents and goes ahead after birth; the family should offer an environment that the child should offer an environment of healthy emotional development of the child (Robertson 23-67).

Opportunity to learn

Children should be given the chance to learn new things, learning is not limited to what the child is taught but the parent or the caregiver but there are numerous ways of creating a learning environment to the child.

The care giver should be leaving something unsolved and give the child the chance to use its mental power to seek a solution; this can be done by the use toy’s, playing stations, playing a hide and seek game with the child. If the child is of age, playing with other children of the same age or otherwise is crucial, it assists the child develop the mental power and intelligence necessary for full realization of its potential (Fabes 6-23).

Respect and self-esteem

Children are sensitive to the environment they are brought up in; they need to feel appreciated, loved, cared for, and respected. The family setting should offer a comfortable and relaxing environment to the child; this will grow the self-esteem of the child.

At birth, a child has some inborn strengths and weaknesses; it is upon the parent to grow the strengths and offer a favorable environment to make the child understand its weak points as well as how to avoid adverse effects from the weaknesses. Showing the child appreciation and affection helps in building the child’s confidence and self-esteem; with high self-esteem and confidence, realizing the child’s full potential is enhanced (Fabes 12).

Works Cited

Fabes, Richard. Emotions and the Family. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Robertson, Donald. The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac, 2010. Print.

Angelica’s Socio-emotional Development

The video clip presented shows that Angelica is making improvements in her socio-emotional development. The video starts when Angelica is walking towards the shelf. She is trying to reach for a book in the shelf. It is evident from her actions that she has some little experience picking books from this particular shelf. However, she lacks the strength and skills of holding the book. She struggles with the heavy book and succeeds to lift it from the shelf, but she is overwhelmed by its weight. The first book falls, but she is determined to pick it. Her emotional development is demonstrated when the book hits her face. Angelica can withstand slight pain and continue with her activities without breaking down. She demonstrates that she is capable of controlling her emotions, even when she encounters unfavorable events. It is a clear demonstration that she is developing her emotional strength to encounter challenges in life as she grows. As Fawcett (2009) notes, the emotional development of a child is very important, especially at a stage when it is starting to walk and learn how to speak. The video demonstrates that Angelica’s emotional development is satisfactory and with proper guidance, she can become a young girl who is capable of controlling her emotions.

According to Jackman, Beaver, and Wyatt (2015), social development is another important domain of child development. In this video clip, there is a clear demonstration that Angelica is also making impressive social development. She is able to recognize the voice of the caregiver in the midst of other sounds in the room. She responds to these sounds, struggling to make a speech but has difficulty in doing so. Brodie (2013) says that there are cases when a child is completely unable to appreciate the presence of other people within their environment. It demonstrates poor social development of the child. However, Angelica is very different. She appreciates the presence of the caregiver by not only trying to talk but also engage them in a play. She looks at the caregiver with a smile as she guides her in choosing the right book. She is very eager to respond to every sound that the caregiver makes and the composure of her voice is very satisfying. For a moment, she seems to be listening to what the caregiver is saying. According to Brodie (2013), one way of developing social skills is the ability to listen to others. Being able to listen to others allows one to know what they are thinking and how they view specific things. The ability of Angelica to be quiet when her caregiver is talking shows that she is developing strong social skills. As she reads a story in the book, Angelica is very keen, and she even smiles once in a while.

The two documents presented also shows that Angelica is making positive progress in her socio-motional development. The interview with the father shows that back at home, Angelica is emotionally stable. She is also social and likes interacting with her elder siblings. This is confirmed by her primary caregiver at her early childhood care center who says that she is social and likes being around other children. At times she breaks down when uncomfortable, but she generally is a composed child.

Nathan’s Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-Emotional Development

According to Brodie (2013), monitoring a child’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development is very important, especially during the preschool stage when any disability can be detected. It is possible to monitor these domains of development by observing the works of a child either in a classroom setting or in the field. In the case study about Nathan, it is possible to determine his development in various domains by looking at his work. Physical development of Nathan is demonstrated by his ability to draw figures that make sense. It is clear that Nathan has physical strength that enables it to hold the drawing pencil and develop a figure that represents what he has been observing. At 4 years, the physical strength of Nathan, as demonstrated in his drawing, is satisfactory and shows that he is having a normal growth. The rationale for this argument is that a 4-year old child can only make a sensible drawing if it has the physical strength to hold and control the drawing pencil. Nathan’s drawing shows that indeed he has that strength.

Nathan’s cognitive development is also clearly demonstrated in the drawing. It is clear that he is an above-average student, and the rationale for this argument is demonstrated in various ways. The information processing capacity and conceptual skills of Nathan are shown in the drawing in terms of proportionality. He knows that he is physically smaller than the mother, and that is demonstrated in the drawing. Although he finds it challenging to give the exact proportions in the drawing, his level of intellect is high enough to remind him that an eye cannot be bigger than the head. Nathan is also intelligent enough to know that in the background there are buildings and objects, and his drawing is demonstrating these objects. It is also impressive that he is capable of showing facial expressions in his drawings. One can easily tell that he was so happy being at the aquarium. It is also impressive that using the letters of the alphabet, he was able to spell out his name.

Socio-emotional development is also important for a child’s development (Wortham & Hardin, 2016). In his drawing, one can easily tell the level of Nathan’s emotional development. Nathan was very happy to be at the aquarium, and he demonstrated this by the smile. It would be expected for a child of his age to be happy at such sites. However, the expression in the mother’s face shows that she was not as happy as Nathan was, but she pleased that the son was happy. Nathan was intelligent enough to detect this fact, and expressed it in his drawing. From the drawing, it is also possible to identify aspects of social development. Nathan loves his mother so much and enjoys her company. In his drawing, the two are not just walking side by side, but also holding hands. He is not just pointing at the fish but also looks directly into the mother’s eyes, as shown in the drawing. It shows that there is a unique bond between the mother and child and the son appreciates this bond. As Friedman (2011) says, preschool children, find comfort in the company of their parents and the drawing of Nathan shows that he was indeed very comfortable.

Analysis and Recommendations

Angelica’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development

At nine-months-old, Angelica is showing impressive physical development as shown in the video clip. According to Brodie (2013), the motor development of a child who is below twelve months may help in determining whether or not they have an impediment to their physical development. In the clip, it is clear that Angelica is registering an impressive motor development. She can walk very fast on all four limbs and she sits very comfortably without any support. Using objects around her, she is able to stand with ease, which is good given that she is only nine-months-old. Her body size is proportionate to her age and it is apparent that she is not suffering from any physical disorder. According to Gronlund and James (2013), observing the physical strength of a child may also help in determining whether or not they are developing normally. In the video clip, it is clear that Angelica is physically strong in a manner that is proportionate to her age. She comfortably lifts a book from the shelf, and although she finds it challenging to control it fully while it is in her hand, the demonstrated strength is satisfying given her tender age. Her ability to control her hands and legs is satisfactory, especially her movements on the floor. Her father also confirms that Angelica is physically active at home. She moves around most of the time while in the house, unless she is sick.

Angelica is also showing impressive cognitive development. It is apparent that at nine-months she can understand her environment. She knew where the bookshelf was. She crawls to the bookshelf and heads straight for the books. She is not fully aware of the physical dangers that such objects may pose, but she demonstrates some level of intelligence by dropping the book away from her when the weight becomes overwhelming. It is a sign that she has started developing a sense of self-protection against known causes of harm. In the clip, it is clear that Angelica is developing information processing skills. She is very keen when her caregiver is talking to her. In fact, most of the cases she stares at her caregiver during such conversations. It shows that she has started processing information, trying to make sense out of them. Language learning is another important aspect of cognitive development (Wortham & Hardin, 2016). When spoken to, Angelica tries to respond, though her speech is not fully developed. The fact that she waits till her caregiver has made her statement before responding shows that she is making impressive development in learning the language. In the report given by the father, it is evident that she has developed an interest in music. She can differentiate good music from other sounds and responds well to songs she is familiar with back at home. Her conceptual development is still low as would be expected of a nine-year-old child.

Angelica’s socio-emotional development is also impressive as demonstrated in the video and the information given by her father and the caregiver. Her father reports that she is very social and loves being in company of her other siblings. Unless she is uncomfortable, she always remains calm and jovial when she is with the family members. This is confirmed in the video clip. She is very composed and interacts very well with the caregiver. She comes out as a child who socializes with people easily. It is clear that the caregiver is enjoying her company. The video clip also shows that Angelica is someone who does not easily break down emotionally. In her report, the caregiver confirms that unless she is very uncomfortable or in pain, Angelica always remains composed and in control of her emotions.

Recommendations

Angelica is a promising young girl who is showing impressive physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. However, she can register more impressive growth if the caregiver and her family members can closely coordinate when giving care to her. The most important thing will be to collect and share information about Angelica in a way that would allow the caregiver to handle her in the same manner as the parents and other siblings do at home. The following are the recommended ways that can be used to gather information from Angelica’s family about her development.

• A direct phone call to the parents is one of the most appropriate ways of gathering the needed information. There are cases when the caregiver may notice abnormal behavior exhibited by the child. The most appropriate action, as Fawcett (2009) advises, is to seek information about it immediately. A phone call is critical because an immediate answer can be obtained. In case the parents are also not aware of the abnormalities, then a concerted effort can be made by both parents and the caregiver to find an immediate solution.
• Regular interaction between the parents and the caregiver may be recommended. Sometimes it may be appropriate for the caregiver to regularly meet the parents to discuss the development of Angelica. It may be once every month if possible so that the caregiver can collect relevant information about the child. Through such regular meetings, any concerns can be effectively addressed by both parties at the right time to ensure that the child is protected from any harm that may be physical, social, or psychological.

Nathan’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development

Nathan is now 4 years and his drawing shows that he is making positive physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. Physically, Nathan has demonstrated through his drawings that he is strong enough to hold and control the drawing pencil. According to Arce and Ferguson (2013), drawing, just like writing, requires physical energy for one to hold and control the drawing pencil. The drawing that was done by Nathan clearly shows that he has the physical strength to control the pencil. At 4 years, such physical strength is expected of him. The drawing is relatively good given his age. It is important to note that Nathan is often not enthusiastic when it comes to physical assignments. He is slightly slower compared with his other colleagues when it comes to physical exercise. The caregiver blames this weakness on attitude other than physical problems. According to the caregiver, this problem can be addressed if Nathan can change his attitude towards physical activities.

Cognitive development is another domain in which Nathan has registered impressive growth. In the dialogue between the preschool director and his mother, it is clear that he is an intelligent boy. The two are in agreement that he is very fast in grasping new information. Each day that he learns a new concept, he is eager to share it with his mother. It is a clear demonstration that he can retain new information and that is why he can share it with his mother. At school, the director also admits that Nathan is an above-average student when it comes to learning, especially on issues that are of interest to him. In the report given by the teacher, it is clear that Nathan has a special interest in new topics.

Socio-emotional development is one area that will need to be addressed to help Nathan develop self-esteem and to be in good terms with his colleagues at school. Nathan is very comfortable around people that he knows. However, he gets very uncomfortable around strangers. He is also shy when it comes to handling tasks in groups and this is affecting him socially, physically, and academically. In fact, the fact that Nathan is physically inactive compared with other students is believed to be caused by his problem interacting with other students. According to a report by Podmore and Luff (2012), when a child is unable to develop positive social relations with colleagues, then it may be difficult for it to develop both physically and emotionally because it will avoid the company of other colleagues. Emotionally, Nathan seems not to be having any major problems. He is able to control his emotions both at home and in school. At times he gets upset when things do not go as he expected, but he is also quick to resolve these issues as soon as they arise. When he is happy, he expresses it through laughter and smiles.

Recommendations

The observation made in the section above shows that Nathan is making physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development as would be expected of a 4-year old child. His cognitive skills are impressive. However, something needs to be done about his socio-emotional and physical development. It is important to come up with other strategies that can help in gathering information from family members about his development. The following recommendations should be considered.

• Nathan’s mother should commit herself to make regular reports to Nathan’s preschool teacher about his socio-emotional development at home. It was noted that the mother was not fully aware of the problem his son has when it comes to interacting with other students. It is recommended that the mother should now start paying special attention to how his son interacts with other children of his age, especially when they meet for the first time. The mother should then compile a report about any changes noticed. The report can be delivered to the preschool teacher physically or electronically.
• The preschool teacher and Nathan’s mother can also maintain regular interaction through social media, especially Facebook. Using the Facebook, the two can talk about any issues of concern about Nathan. If there is specific information that the teacher might need from the parent, then the social media is a perfect way of getting the information. They can easily chat on Facebook platform whenever they are online. Nathan’s teacher may use this approach to gather any relevant information that can help him improve his physical and socio-emotional development both at school and at home.

References

Arce, E., & Ferguson, B. (2013). Curriculum for young children: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Brodie, K. (2013). Observation, assessment and planning in the early years: Bringing it all together. Belmont, CA: Open University Press.

Fawcett, M. (2009). Learning through child observation. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Friedman, D. L. (2011). Creating an early childhood education portfolio. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Gronlund, G., & James, M. (2013). Focused observations: How to observe young children for assessment and curriculum planning. St. Paul, MA: Redleaf Press.

Jackman, L., Beaver, H., & Wyatt, S. (2015). Early education curriculum: A child’s connection to the world. Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning.

Podmore, V. N., & Luff, P. (2012). Observation: Origins and approaches in early childhood. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press.

Wortham, S. C., & Hardin, B. J. (2016). Assessment in early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson.

Introduction

The process of identification of the knowledge, skills, and abilities of a child according to the required minimum and norms correlates to the evaluation of the student’s readiness. Several aspects compose the overall understanding of the preparation level for the child. The primary aspects are the features of the developmental stage of a particular grade, readiness based on stated indicators, and the determination of critical activities and practices that can help to improve the situation of resolving potential issues.

Developmental Stage

Understanding the developmental peculiarities of 4yh grader students requires an analysis of all components of the stage. They include physical, cognitive, social, and emotional milestones. The physical component of the 9-year-old child shows quicker development of hand-eye coordination, better handwriting, and more coordinated movements in sports can be seen. Cognitive patterns become more complex; children at this age begin to think more abstractly, not only of objects they can see. They also become more adept at planning and thought organization. Social behavior changes while students start to discover their unique skills while still attempting to be and appear like everyone else. A more comprehensive emotional range is also relevant, meaning that the child can express kindness and curiosity, as well as selfishness and disrespect.

Readiness for Learning

To determine and evaluate the inconsistencies between student comprehension and learning objectives at the classroom and unit levels, readiness uses formative assessments. The gap reveals what each learner needs to advance. Some students’ progress will be measured against the arbitrary deadlines set by the curriculum (McCarthy, 2014). The readiness for the fourth grade is determined by the wide range of abilities to work effectively on reading, imagery, writing, mathematics, and science tasks.

The evaluation of readiness is reflected by the ability of a child to adapt to various forms of activities. It can also be supported by the additional development of memory performance through various concepts. According to Keogh and Pearson (2011), for instance, children with solid visual imagination showed diminished performance on tests requiring visual memory skills and imagery, although memory for number strings was unaffected. It implies that individuals with solid imagery may use it to improve performance on activities requiring visual working memory. Thus, the evaluation can be performed by measuring how comfortable the child is with the assignments of the subjects, alongside the constant development of visual imagery.

Key Activities and Strategies

The main activities should be centered around a visionary approach. When solving linguistic and spatial problems in real time, mental imagery acts as a private whiteboard or personal projector. By bridging the gap between students’ prior knowledge and the abstract symbolism of mathematics, this form of mental imagery method supports a variety of learning objectives (Algozzine & Douville, 2004). In order to implement such a strategy, the mental image can be created by simply using drawings to support new ideas and information. It can be created by teachers or parents and will help the child form associative connections quickly. Additionally, a jigsaw strategy can be added to any learning activity to develop a better cognitive process of identifying and connecting the separate elements (McCarthy, 2014).

Conclusion

Defining separate elements and combining them can be utilized as a separate task and collaborative activity with parents. Applications for learning that explicitly state that students should “use the mind’s eye” to support learning objectives will help students understand the process more clearly and prepare for the next grade level.

References

Algozzine, B. & Douville, P. (2004) Use mental imagery across the curriculum. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 49(1), 36-39. Web.

Keogh, R. & Pearson, J. (2011) Mental Imagery and Visual Working Memory. PLoS ONE, 6(12): e29221. Web.

McCarthy, J. (2014). 15+ Readiness Resources for Driving Student Success. Edutopia. Web.

Introduction

The term child growth and development refers to the occurrence of both the biological and psychological changes in human beings right from conception to the end of adolescence as the individual moves from independency to the increasing autonomy. These developmental changes may occur due to the processes that are genetically-controlled. These changes are known as maturation, or learning and environmental factors, but this involves interaction between the two. Patterson, C. (2008)

According to Kail (2006), he says that the age related term are; the newborn that are the age of zero to one month, the infant who are the age of one month to one year, the toddler who are at the age of one year to three years, the preschooler- the age of four to six years, school aged children that are at the age of six to eleven years and the adolescent that occurs at the age of eleven to eighteen years.

The optimal child development is vital to society hence most important to understand the child’s development in the line of social, emotional educational and cognitive.

Body

The changes in specific abilities both in Physical and mental for instance walking and language understanding that mark the ending of one period of development and the beginning of the other are called the milestones. For the theories of stage, they indicate transitional stage. However, milestone achievements have got considerable variations even to the children who have developmental trajectories just within the normal range. Some are more variable than the other; for instance, not much variation amongst children who have got normal hearing are shown by receptive indicators, but the milestone of expressive speech can be quite variable. Patterson, C (2008)

Developmental delay in the child development is the common concern. This involves the delaying in an age-specific ability for the milestone that is very important in development. This developmental delay is supposed to be diagnosed by comparing with variable characteristics of a milestone and with age at achievement. Eye-hand consideration is an example of the milestone that involves the Childs increasing ability to be able to manipulate objects in a more coordinated manner. This age specific milestone allows parents to keep track of development that is appropriate to the child.

Moreover, there are changes that are continuous and there are no noticeable milestones. These are called the continuous developmental changes. They involve the gradual and predictable move towards the adult characteristics. When the development changes are continuous, the researcher does not only identify the developmental milestone but also looks at age period – often called stages. The stage therefore is a period of time. It is associated with the chronological range, of which the behavior or rather the physical characteristic is quantitatively different from the other ages. The term ‘age period ‘when being referred to as stage, not only implies the qualitative difference but also predictable sequence involved in the events of development. This is done so that every stage is preceded and followed by other specific periods associated with physical qualities or behavioral characteristics.

There might be an overlap of stages of development associated with some other specific aspects of development for instance speech or movement. Transitional into a stage may not mean that one completely finished the previous stage even if he/she is within a developmental area that is particular.

Erickson in his article stage of personality suggests that people spent their life reworking on issues characterized by childhood stage. Piaget on the other hand made his description on which children could solve a problem by the use of mature thinking skill, but this could not be accomplished for less familiar problems a phenomenon he decal age. Mercer, J. (1998)

By the fact that Developmental changes can run parallel with chronological age, development can’t be caused by age. Environmental and genetic factors are the major cause of developmental factors or the basic mechanism. Genetic factors deal with cellular changes such as overall growth, proportional change of body and brain parts. It also involves the maturation of aspects of function such as dietary needs. Since genes can be turned off and on, the initial genotype of the individuals may overtime change in function. This further give rise to developmental change. Some of the environmental factors that can affect development include the diet and disease exposure, social, emotional and cognitive. However, close examination of environmental factors shows that human beings can survive in a wide range of environmental experiences. Genetics and environmental factors interact to cause changes in development rather than them acting independently as mechanisms. Plasticity is also noticeable as an aspect of child development. This aspect may also be noticeable to the extent to which environmental factors guide the direction of. Mercer, J. (1998)

Conclusion

To conclude, child development is a wide area of study. It therefore calls for specialization of the area under study and keenly looking at the co-relations between the variables that are involved in child growth and development. This is because development is gradual and chronological. Each and every stage is necessary and important. It is however wise for the parents to understand these changes so that they can be in a position to assist their children grow in all directions: physical growth, emotional, social, and mental by looking at different factors.

Reference

Patterson, C. (2008). Child Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, Youth, and Crisis. New York: Norton.

Mercer, J. (1998). Infant Development: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Buchwald, J. (1987). A comparison of plasticity development as well as initiating genetic factor.

Introduction

Child development can be seen as a continuous process which constitutes distinct phases. The child continuous interaction with the immediate and wide environment influences his or her development, for instance, the transactional model postulates that “the development of a child is….a product of the continuous dynamic interactions between the child and the experience provided by his or her family and social context” (Sameroff & Fiese, 2000 cited in Davies, 2004, p.4).

In addition, adequate research has portrayed how transactional processes influence the development of brain during the first year of life, observing that physical touching, social interaction and sensory stimulation encourage physical brain growth and also boost brain function (Nelson, 1999 cited in Davies, 2004).

This particular observation indicates how a particular process that may appear to be biological turns out to be transactional, at the same time while the process of development continues; quality of parenting, opportunities and stressors in the child’s and parents’ lives, social circumstances, social institutions, culture and historical events forms a wider circle of key elements that exert influence and determinants of who the individual child becomes.

First years in the life of a child matter and in long-run do impact heavily on the life of the child. This research will explore the concept of child development basing the arguments on the thesis that, experiences children engage in early life and the environments they are exposed to become vital in shaping their brains structures while affecting the development of the child and in the long-run these early experiences become key determinants as to whether the child grows up to be happy, healthy and productive member of the society.

Reviewing early childhood development

Freud established that the period from birth to five years in the lifespan of a child is a very important stage in which early life experiences lay foundation for later development. Freud conclusion was that the future personality development is much dependent on these early experiences, adjustments and coping behaviors of the child which are also determined on the basis of early experiences during this period.

By the time the child reaches the age of five, a number of personality traits are established and some of these established traits expand up to the periods of adolescence and adulthood (Wal, 1999).

The period from two to five years of age has been seen as the period when the education and learning experience for the child starts while at the same time the development of the child remains at peak. During this moment, the child is geared for easy and rapid learning and attempts to accustom him/herself with the environment. The stage is sometimes known as curiosity age, early childhood years, preschool years and formative years (Wal, 1999).

Research has shown that learning begins in infancy long before formal educations starts in the life of a child, and this continues all the way through the life of an individual. Experiences of early learning influences later learning and from these early attempts of success in learning will result to later success whereas early failure will breed later failure (Heckman, 2004).

Further, the research indicates that early childhood interventions of high quality have lasting effects on learning and motivation of the child. Moreover, the period account for almost 80 per cent of the cognitive development and the period is seen as appropriate for inculcating values and habits, development of desirable traits and also the formation of attitudes.

Freud Sigmund stages of development

The field of psychosexual development is credited with the work of Sigmund. According to Freud, personality in individuals is largely established by the age of five and it is the work of early experiences that contribute a lot in personality development that later influence behavior in the lives of individuals (Cherry, n.d). Freud developed six stages in the development process of a child and stated that when the child goes through the stages successfully, he or she is likely to experience a healthy personality.

The oral stage forms the primary stage where the child interacts with the environment through mouth, hence rooting and sucking becomes important. Success of this stage will see the child develop a sense of trust and comfort while the failure in this stage will lead to dependency and aggression resulting in later problems like drinking, eating, smoking and nail biting (Cherry, n.d).

The anal stage is the focus on libido and how the child controls bladder and bowel movements. The parents become the main teachers in toilet training and whereby using praise and some form of rewards encourage the child in attaining positive outcomes.

Indeed, the success of this stage in later life makes the child to become competent, productive and full of creativity (Cherry, n.d). The phallic stage is where the children develop the ability to recognize the difference between males and females, and through proper training they identify their roles by copying from their parents.

The latent period generally becomes the stage of exploration where the children engages in forming peer relationships, identifying their hobbies and other interest and when successful executed the child develops key social and communication skills while at the same time becoming self-confident (Cherry, n.d). The last stage is the genital stage where the individual develops interests in others and success of the stage is where the individual becomes well-balanced, warm and caring to others (Cherry, n.d).

Early life experiences and brain development

When the child is born, the brains are not fully constructed and it is through experiences which form the architecture that in turn determine how ‘blueprints’ are turned into reality. Basically, the development of brain is interaction between the genes the child is born with and the experiences the child receives from the environment (Deiner, 2009, p.168); and therefore, the early experiences shape not only the behaviors of the child but also the brain of the child.

The deduction from this is that, brain development in a child is an interaction between nature and nurture, while aspects like trauma, disease and abuse together with neglect have the potential to change the brain (Deiner, 2009, p.168).

At the same time, positive influences can also change the brains whereby an enriched, motivating environment has the capability to change the brains of a child both in the areas of cognitive development and also the social development. Davies observes that after birth, child brain growth and the specific ways brain functions are generally organized and subject to the influence of the child’s environment (Davies, 2004, p.140).

Early childhood experience influences which neural pathways will be strengthened, which remain available and which will atrophy and therefore the stimulation the child gets enhances his or her brain development while understimulation, poor and traumatizing environment will greatly hold back or shape brain functioning in maladaptive ways.

On the other part, McCain and Mustard, noted that, “the effects of early experience on the wiring and sculpting of the brain’s billions of neurons last a lifetime” (McCain and Mustard, 1999, cited in Young and Richardson, 2007, p.255).

From this explanation it is evident that: brain development is a continuous process, and that each developmental step influences the next step; the sequence of brain development that relates to experience is hierarchical and occurs in a series of stages and that the sensing pathways develop very early and connect with other pathways to influence learning, behavior and physical and mental health; negative together with the positive experiences in early life greatly affect the development of neural circuits that intercede cognitive, emotional and social capacities; and lastly, child’s early development has important effects on later physical and mental health risks as well as education and learning (Young and Richardson, 2007, p.256).

Conclusion

Therefore from analyzing various and related studies it becomes evident that early childhood experiences have the potential to shape what kind of individuals the child will develop into. All that happens in the life of a child present themselves as important aspects that influence and determine the course of life of the child in his or her later life.

It takes both qualitative and quantitative aspects of early life experiences that the child is exposed to in order to define and mould his or her later life. For instance, a child who experiences early life instances of uncaring, alienating or hostile environment are likely to exhibit higher risk to psychological disorder, participate in disorder and substance abuse and the likelihood they are faced with to fail in life.

At the same time a child who gets early life experience to sports and play is much likely to develop and appreciate sports in his or her life. To conclude, it can be stated that, early childhood forms a critical stage and period in the life of a child since it is during this period that the child acquires many skills that help him or her to become a productive and happy adult since the experiences forms a lasting impact on the life of such a child.

References

Cherry, K. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development. Web.

Davies, D. (2004). Child development: a practitioner’s guide. NY, Guilford Press. Web.

Deiner, P. L. (2009). Inclusive Early Childhood Education: Development, Resources, and Practice. CA, Cengage Learning. Web.

Heckman, J. J. (2004). Investing in the Very Young: Importance of early childhood development. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. Web.

Wal, S. (1999). Encyclopaedia of Child Development: Priorities for 21st Century. New Delhi, Sarup & Sons. Web.

Young, M. E. and Richardson, L. M. (2007). Early child development from measurement to action: a priority for growth and equity. VA, World Bank Publications. Web.

Operant conditioning, otherwise referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a learning method occurring through a system of rewards and punishments for either favorable or unfavorable behaviors. Through making associations with them, a child learns that there is a connection between a particular action and its implications. Initially proposed and developed by B. F. Skinner, operant conditioning was extensively studied by researchers, and it was found that it was not something to take place in limited experimental settings when training laboratory animals but rather was an occurrence that played a defining role in everyday child learning. Both punishment and reinforcement occur in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured environments, such as therapy sessions and classrooms.

Therefore, operant conditioning has been broadly used to teach children to follow particular standards of behavior and social interaction. It is essential to examine the influence of operant conditioning on child development as related to parenting because disciplining young individuals and teaching them positive behaviors entails a system of rewards and punishments. Even though there can be a variance in the way that operant conditioning affects different children at set developmental stages, it is possible to hypothesize that it has a positive impact on the success of parenting on a long-term basis.

The emergence of operant conditioning dates back to the mid-1900s when B.F. Skinner experimented with small animals such as rats and pigeons, thus showing that behaviors could be modified with the help of reinforcements. Throughout experiments, Skinner found that free will in humans did not occur randomly or unpredictably. Instead, it was based on a set of reinforcements, with people tending to behave in specific ways as related to acts that offer an opportunity to acquire a reward or avoid punishment (Rumfola, 2017). This system applies to parenting from the very early stages of development, such as setting a regular bedtime or feeding schedule.

The relationship between parenting success and operant conditioning has interested scholars for a reasonably recent time. As parents mold the behavior of children, they do not just teach them how to eat or maintain personal hygiene or become accomplished students; they help to develop a system of values. Operant conditioning has shown that behavioral molding depends on the system of positive and negative outcomes that result from either favorable or unfavorable behaviors (Pierce & Cheney, 2017). An example of operant conditioning at work within the context of parenting was presented by Ferber in his 1985 book Solve Your Child’s Sleep Problems. The main idea of the scholar’s work was to help parents train their children to soothe themselves to sleep with the help of operant conditioning. After carrying out a soothing pre-bedtime ritual, such as a lullaby or a warm bath, parents had to put their babies in bed awake, walk out, and close the door. In case children cry, parents were supposed to wait out short periods, enter the room, and soothe their babies without picking them up. Over time, children would start understanding that crying does not reward them and learn how to soothe themselves.

As children begin learning a language, operant conditioning can be used to help parents by enabling learning mechanisms that would improve the capabilities of their children to acquire language. Sturdy and Nicoladis (2017) suggested that through such learning mechanisms as language socialization, imitation, and ontogenetic ritualization, parents have higher chances of successfully teaching language to their children. For example, during imitation, infants are rewarded through social reinforcements, enabling them to understand how and what to say in certain situations (Sturdy & Nicoladis, 2017). While operant conditioning in such instances has been misconceived as the strategy aimed at limiting children to produce the exact sentences that they have already heard, there are findings to suggest that infants are capable of generalizations in their associative learning (Sturdy & Nicoladis, 2017). Besides, children are more likely to mimic individuals who provide regular social feedback to them. Therefore, parents must provide regular social feedback during children’s language acquisition through imitation since it acts as positive reinforcement.

Reinforcements provided to children during learning must be impactful for them to bring results. For instance, according to Pelaez and Monlux (2017), Motherese, which is the form of baby talk in which mothers engage with their kids, is a reliable infant vocalization reinforcer because it is socially associated with the target behaviors expected from children. Besides, the more frequent reinforcements are, the more successful are parents in ensuring that their children become habituated to the desired stimulus. Thus, operant conditioning procedures targeted at teaching infants desired behaviors can facilitate the understanding of diverse phenomena related to young learners, such as their perceptions, early vocalizations, or social referencing (Pelaez & Monlux, 2017). Through manipulating environmental contingencies that take place in the natural environments of their children, parents can enable meaningful changes in behavior among very young infants.

Beyond infancy, operant conditioning can be successfully used in youth as a critical development construct. Recognizing positive behaviors in young individuals is a beneficial response of the social surrounding to favorable acts. The goal of such recognition is to encourage adolescents to continue showing positive behavior and become broadly embedded in the social setting. In such a case, operant conditioning enables positive behavior recognition by suggesting that the favorable effects are to be repeated while unfavorable effects are to be avoided (Law, Siu, & Shek, 2012). As a stimulus that emerges after the act, the recognition of good behaviors strengthens the repeat of similar reactions in the future, transforming it into a kind of positive reinforcement (Law et al., 2012). Within this framework, recognition takes two different forms based on the operant conditioning theory, tangible and intangible. Tangible reinforcements include rewards such as snacks, drinks, small gifts, and any other objects that can be physically given to an individual to reward them for positive behavior (Law et al., 2012). Intangible reinforcements, conversely, are social and are differentiated into stimulation and effective rewards. Stimulation rewards are associated with the presence of adults or peers and positive attention given by them to individuals that exhibit good behaviors (Law et al., 2012). Affective rewards are linked to interpersonal warmth manifested through praise, respect, affection, and sympathy (Law et al., 2012). Notably, there is no specific type of recognition that will work for all positive behaviors, which means that parents or peers usually change their responses to either favorable or unfavorable behaviors.

In the classroom setting, which is characterized by high socialization, operant conditioning has also been applied. According to Altman and Linton (2014), positive reinforcements in the classroom are divided into such categories as peer attention, teacher attention, token reinforcement, and vicarious reinforcement. Immediate feedback has shown to be useful in curtailing negative behaviors, with light punishments or withholding of praise can act as operant conditioning forms. Once students have witnessed a negative reinforcement targeted at one specific individual, they will also want to avoid the punishment and will be less likely to behave in a particular way. Punished students are also less likely to exhibit acts negatively.

On the contrary, operant conditioning can also have adverse effects in the classroom. In particular, operant conditioning depends on extrinsic motivation, which enables less permanent responses compared to intrinsic motivation that comes from the inside of the self. Within a successful classroom, successful conditioning techniques use both intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors. Therefore, operant conditioning is best used in combination with other strategies to achieve a holistic approach to learning. An implication for future research is concerned with the need to determine the impact of parent-teacher collaboration to develop operant conditioning strategies that would beneficially influence child development.

Apart from the classroom setting, operant conditioning is used in the context of reinforcement contingency learning among ADHD children. Operant conditioning plays a role in behavior therapy strategy that enables the use of reinforcements to teach children with the syndrome socially favored behaviors (de Meyer et al., 2019). According to the findings of de Meyer et al. (2019), in a study with ADHD children, reinforcements could play a beneficial role in the development of persistent positive behavior. Within the behavioral therapy framework, gradual reinforcements showed to “facilitate response acquisition over purely partial reinforcements” (de Meyer et al., 2019, p. 1889). Considering the positive influence of operant conditioning within the context of teaching ADHD children, the implications of using positive and negative reinforcements bear relevance as applied to non-ADHD young learners.

Summary

To summarize research findings on the use of operant conditioning to facilitate positive child development, the method has shown to have a beneficial influence in teaching children favored and socially expected acts. Reinforcements and rewards that come from the social setting of children have proven to be especially important in enabling good behavior. When parents and peers exhibit acceptance or praise for the behaviors exhibited by children, the latter are more likely to adopt them as part of their common conduct in society. The findings suggest that parents play a defining role within operant conditioning strategies since they are the ones who can be direct in their positive and negative responses to certain child behaviors.

The current integration of research on the topic of operant conditioning lacks focus on parental success when using the strategy to teach favorable behaviors and avoid unfavorable ones. Therefore, implications for future studies are vast, both concerning infant and adolescent learning. Also, there is a possibility to study the difference in learning success between children who learned behaviors and language acquisition through operant conditioning and those who were subjected to other strategies. Overall, even though there may be a variance in the way that operant conditioning affects the development of children, the approach has been shown to have a good impact on teaching children favorable behaviors in the long run.

References

Altman, K., & Linton, T. (2014). Operant conditioning in the classroom setting: A review of the research. The Journal of Educational Research, 64(6), 277-286. Web.

De Meyer, H., Beckers, T., Tripp, G., & van der Oord, S. (2019). Reinforcement contingency learning in children with ADHD: Back to the basics of behavior therapy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 1889-1902. Web.

Law, B., Siu, A., & Shek, D. (2012). Recognition for positive behavior as a critical youth development construct: Conceptual bases and implications on youth service development.The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 1-7. Web.

Pelaez, M., & Monlux, K. (2017). Operant conditioning methodologies to investigate infant learning. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 18(1), 1-30. Web.

Pierce, D., & Cheney, C. (2017). Behavior analysis and learning: A behavioral approach (6th ed.). Routledge.

Sturdy, C. B., & Nicoladis, E. (2017). How much of language acquisition does operant conditioning explain? Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1918. Web.

Introduction

Children development is a very complicated process. Trying to unite different ages in groups with he purpose to give some particular characteristics, scientists used the range of ages as children development may differ and some children at 4 years may possess skills and knowledge which others will acquire only at 6. There are particular norms which deviate in the issues of children development. Speaking, listening and comprehension, reading and writing are the main aspects according to which children development is accessed.

Early childhood (2-6) and middle childhood (6-10) are two age groups which stand close, however, children development at each of these stages is absolutely different. Giving the general characteristics of each of the stages mentioned above (early childhood and middle childhood) this paper aims to consider the differences in language development, reading and writing. Comparative and contrast analysis is going to help in the future choice of reading and writing tasks for children of different age groups.

Short Description of the Stages

Early childhood stage (2-6 years) leads children through many physical, cognitive and social changes. Children at this age form stable reasoning aspects which help them develop their cognitive and mental thinking processes. Children at this age develop intuitive reasoning, their reason and consequence connections become more logical.

At middle childhood stage (6-10 years) children are able to complete more complicated thinking processes. The reasoning becomes more refined and detailed. Here is a detailed comparative and contrast analysis of the language skills, reading and writing development of children at two different stages, early childhood and middle childhood.

Comparative and Contrast Analysis

Table 1. Comparative and contrast characteristics of the age groups, early childhood and middle childhood (McDevitt, & Ormrod, 2004, p. 308)

Each of the characteristics considered above influences the tasks teachers give. Having analyzed the characteristic features of each stage, it is possible to enumerate some exercises which may help to promote children development. Here are some specific tasks which may strengthen students’ reading or writing skills in each developmental stage. The exercises are aimed at strengthening the already existing skills and improving them. Teachers may give students the task to work individually or in groups.

Table 2. List of the possible exercises aimed at developing reading and writing in different age groups

Therefore, it may be concluded that language skills, reading and writing development differ greatly at various stages of children development. Depending on the age of children, various exercises and activities may be used for reading and writing development. Teachers are to understand that many children have various levels of development.

Therefore, the tasks they should give to them should be created specially for them. However, teachers should also try to improve the skills of those who leg behind in order to make sure that all children have managed to reach the average level of development in accordance to the age stage. Children with the higher reading and writing abilities should be offered more complicated tasks as the additional ones after the common tasks are completed.

Reference List

McDevitt, T. M., & Ormrod, J. E. (2004). Child development: Educating and working with children and adolescents (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.