Category: Child Development

Understanding the matrix of children’s developmental stages provides various advantages for the future profession and teacher’s strategies arrangement. The matrix can mainly provide guidance to manage the most relevant point to focus on. For instance, the need for group activity and peer interactions in 3rd-5th grade, accompanied by a rebellious attitude towards authority and parents, can help to develop a more efficient collaborative approach during this age (Burneo-Garcés et al., 2019). It will help children to deepen their social abilities and shift the center towards learning through the comfortable surrounding of peers. A similar methodology can be utilized according to the needs of other age groups and their strength in cognition or social engagement.

In addition to general needs, the matrix also can be the guide to determining individualized approaches for students. For instance, following the wildly accepted pattern, choosing children with diverse developmental processes is easier. It will help to detect faster and address specific issues or behaviors to regulate each child’s growth or personal needs. Similarly, the guide helps the teacher evaluate the class’s interests and provides tactics to enhance the most relevant parts of the personality. For instance, in my future practice, I will address the emergence of abstract reasoning in 6^th-8^th grades through cognitive exercises and reflective activities, such as conceptual evaluation and hypothetical depictions.

References

Burneo-Garcés, C., Cruz-Quintana, F., Pérez-García, M., Fernández-Alcántara, M. Fasfous M. & Pérez-Marfil L. (2019) Interaction between socioeconomic status and cognitive development in children aged 7, 9, and 11 years: A cross-sectional study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 44(1), 1-16. Web.

Cowie, H. (2019). From birth to sixteen. Children’s health, social, emotional, and linguistic development. Routledge.

Driscoll, M. P. (2013). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.

Developmental assessment of children aims to determine if the child develops at the same pace as other children of the same age (Bellman, Byrne, & Sege, 2013). In the developmental assessment, “The comparison group is obtained from a representative sample of the population that the child comes from” (Bellman et al., 2013, p. 1). The assessment process usually involves the evaluation of the child’s performance by four developmental domains: gross and fine motor skills, speech and language, social and personal activities of daily living, and performance and cognition (Bellman et al., 2013, p. 1).

Developmental assessment is essential for a pediatric care provider as it provides an opportunity to produce “a definitive diagnosis and a more individualized approach to guide the plan of care and manage the child’s concerns” (Burns, Dunn, Brady, Starr, & Blosser, 2013, p. 51). Assessment is a lengthy process that involves monitoring the child’s development over time, which is why it also makes it possible for the care provider to determine if the proposed care plan is yielding results, as well as to tailor the plan to achieve a higher level of effectiveness (Moodie, Daneri, Goldhagen, Halle, Green, & LaMonte, 2014).

Finally, the results of the assessment can be used by the care provider to supply the parents with suggestions and provisions for home care. The developmental screening and assessment are composed of several key components, including “the child’s attention, activities, verbalization, connection with the parent, processing of information, quality of movements, cooperation, and ability to follow requests” (Burns et al., 2013, p. 52). Each one of the components is evaluated based on the child’s age (Burns et al., 2013).

The choice of the most accurate tool for use in the assessment process depends on the developmental components evaluated, as well as on the age of the child. For instance, in order to assess the communication, motor and social skills of an English-speaking 3-year-old child, I would choose Ages and Stages Questionnaire, because it covers the domains and age listed (Moodie et al., 2014). However, in the case with older children, parent evaluation questionnaires may be more reliable, as parents had a chance to observe the child’s development over a significant period of time and could notice difficulties or problems that other screenings would not address.

Using the Parents’ Evaluation of Developmental Status tool, it is also possible to examine children coming from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds, as the forms used in the assessment process are translated into 14 languages (Moodie et al., 2014).

Overall, in the examination of basic biological functioning components, I would consider the elements that are most crucial to child’s wellbeing, such as motor and cognitive function, language, and communication skills. I believe that any disruptions to these features can have a great impact on the child’s welfare and further development, which is why addressing them is critical to provide tailored health care services for the child.

Moreover, they are relatively easy to assess, and there are reliable assessment and screening methods that evaluate these components. I also think that the evaluation of the components listed would be useful in examining children of all ages, as the development of these functions continues throughout childhood and is not limited to a particular stage. Finally, by assessing these components, I would also be able to determine if any smaller developmental components need to be addressed, as most of them are somehow linked to the features listed.

References

Bellman, M., Byrne, O., & Sege, R. (2013). Developmental assessment of children. The BMJ, 346(e8687), 1-9. Web.

Burns, C. E., Dunn, A. M., Brady, M. A., Starr, N. B., & Blosser, C. G. (2013). Pediatric primary care (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders.

Moodie, S., Daneri, P., Goldhagen, S., Halle, T., Green, K., & LaMonte, L. (2014). Early childhood developmental screening: A compendium of measures for children ages birth to five (OPRE Report 2014,­11). Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Introduction

The goal of this assignment is to summarize the article Young Children Discover How to Deceive in 10 Days: A Microgenetic Study, authored by Xiao Pan Ding, Gail D. Heyman, Genyue Fu, Bo Zhu, and Kang Lee. The article covers a study during which children were asked to play a game of hide-and-seek in order to better comprehend how they learn deception and which skills play a role in the process. The following facets of the article will be discussed: the background, the methods used, and the conclusions.

Background Section

The authors were prompted to conduct this study in order to test what they call the Cognitive-Social Hypothesis of learning deception. This hypothesis posits “that both cognitive skills and social experience play an important role in this discovery process” (Ding, Heyman, Fu, et al., 2018). Moreover, another reason is that they identified a gap in the existing research on deception in children, specifically “its initial discovery and the roles that children’s social experience and cognitive skills play in its emergence” (Ding, Heyman, Fu, et al., 2018). Other studies on the subjects were conducted under conditions that did not align with what was questioned and therefore could not prove or disprove the Cognitive-Social Hypothesis.

Methods Section

As for the subjects of the study, they were Han Chinese children, aged approximately 36 months. The socioeconomic status of the families was diverse “in terms of parental income, occupation, and educational levels” (Ding, Heyman, Fu, et al., 2018). The number of children that participated in the study was 84, and the proportion of boys to girls was almost equal.

To test their theory that cognitive skills and social experience are the main skills that children need to learn deception, the authors needed a way to observe and measure both. For this reason the children were asked to participate in a series of tests. The cognitive skills were measured once by two tasks on the first day of the experiment.

A microgenetic method was used “to closely track how children of about 36 months of age discover deception in a competitive zero-sum game” (Ding, Heyman, Fu, et al., 2018). In order to gain social experience, the children played a game of hide-and-seek. They would be asked to hide a treat in one of two cups while the experimenter had her eyes closed. Then the experimenter would open their eyes and ask where the treat was. If the treat was found in the cup pointed out by the child, it would go to the experimenter. If it was not, the child would win and get to keep the treat. This game was repeated every day for the next nine consecutive days, save for weekends.

Conclusion Section

As per the results, it was found that most children did not lie on the first day. From the second day on, this started to shift gradually, and by the 10^th day of the study, most children did lie to get the treat. The authors identified three groups of children that showed different results: the fast-discovery group, the intermediate-group, and the slow-discovery group. These groups correlated with the results of the cognitive function tests: the children that scored high on those tasks were the ones to learn to lie faster and vice versa. This correlation shows that the initial hypothesis has been proven: cognitive function and social experience directly influence how children learn deception.

Among the most interesting findings of the study is that it is possible to directly observe children develop a skill quickly and measure the projects. Moreover, the authors acknowledged that their study had its limitations, namely, that it is impossible to tell whether the children truly learned how to lie or simply how to receive a treat in this particular situation. These factors provide room for further studies on this subject.

Reference

Ding, X. P., Heyman, G. D., Fu, G., Zhu, B., & Lee, K. (2018). Young children discover how to deceive in 10 days: A microgenetic study. Developmental Science, 21(3). Web.

Introduction

The textbook “Child Development in your classroom, Chronological Approach” is based on the chronological approach to child development, which means that it discusses development in terms of milestones that children reach at different ages. This approach is helpful in understanding child development, but it is important to remember that not all children develop at the same pace or in the same way. Furthermore, it is important for educators to be familiar with different research methods and to be able to critically evaluate research in order to determine whether or not it is applicable to their own practice.

Key Ideas in Child Development

The key ideas in the chapter are the different stages in which children develop, and how we can create effective, mental developing and appropriate classrooms that are involved in all the stages of a child’s development. The main stages of a child development include:

• Sensorimotor development stage (birth to 2 years)
• Preoperational development stage (2 years to 7 years)
• Concrete operational development stage (7 years to 11 years)
• Formal operational development stage (11 years and up)

Each stage has different characteristics, and it is important to create a classroom that is appropriate for each stage. For example, in the sensorimotor stage, children explore their environments and learn through their senses. They need a safe environment with lots of opportunities to explore. In the preoperational stage, children begin to use symbols and languages and they need opportunities to practice using them. In the concrete operational stage, children begin to think logically and they need opportunities to practice problem solving skills. In the formal operational stage, children are able to think abstractly, they need opportunities to practice thinking about complex concepts (Bergin & Bergin, 2019).

Significant Learning Issues

One significant learning issue is how to create a developmentally appropriate classroom. This is important because it can help children learn more effectively and retain more information. Developmentally appropriate classrooms are designed specifically for the developmental stage of the children in the class. This means that the activities, materials, and environment are all appropriate for the stage of development that the children are in. For example, in a sensorimotor classroom, the activities would be designed to help children in using their senses to learn. In a preoperational classroom, the activities would help children make good use of different symbols and languages. In concrete operational classrooms, activities would help children in practicing different ways to solve problems. In formal operational classrooms, activities would be directed in helping children think in an abstract way.

Middle childhood emotional development is characterized by increasing self-control and a more developed ability to control feelings (Zembar & Blume, 2019). Although children get more adept at controlling their emotions when they grow older, children still feel a broad spectrum of emotions, both positive and negative. However, parents and other adults can help children develop emotionally by offering support and guidance as well as modeling proper emotional reactions. Moreover, children’s emotional growth is inextricably tied to their cognitive growth, and as children’s reasoning becomes much more sophisticated, so does their ability to comprehend and regulate their emotions.

On the other hand, another important learning issue addressed in Chapter 12 is the need to give children a chance to explore and express their emotions in healthy ways. According to the author, children who do not have these opportunities may suffer from regulating emotions later in life (Shaffer & Bjorklund, 2020). Furthermore, the chapter emphasizes the necessity of assisting youngsters in developing an awareness of themselves and empathy.

Principles from the Readings that Relates to these Issues

The principles from the readings that relate to this issue are the different ways in which children grow and develop. This is important because it helps to understand how children learn and what they need in order to learn effectively. It is also important to understand the different stages of child development in order to create a developmentally appropriate classroom for the respective development stages. It is also critical to provide a supportive and safe environment for children to explore and try different emotional and social reactions. For example, we should let them explore different ways in which they can do things like playing, interaction with others, reaction to feelings or incidences among others things.

References

Bergin, C.C., & Bergin, A.D. (2019). Child Development in your classroom, chronological Approach. Cengage Learning.

Shaffer, E., & Bjorklund, A. (2020). Middle childhood development. Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Zembar, M. J., & Blume, L. B. (2019). Middle childhood development: A contextual approach. Prentice Hall.

“Children in middle childhood go through tremendous changes in the growth and development of their brain” (Paris et al. 238).

The given line can be viewed as the most important sentence of the chapter for me. First of all, it describes the period of middle childhood and introduces the idea that it is characterized by significant changes. A child undergoes significant alterations, which means the period is critical for the future life of an individual. Second, the sentence explains that alterations impact both the body of a child and his/her brain. It means that along with the evolution of muscles, systems, and parts of the body, a young person acquires new thinking patterns that will be critical in the future.

“During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies” (Paris et al. 276).

I consider this sentence the critical line of the whole chapter because of several reasons. First, it shows that the periods are vital for the development of children’s cognitive abilities as they develop their memory, the ability to focus, and memorize things. These aspects are central to the successful transition to adulthood and future socialization. Second, the sentence outlines the essential elements of the cognitive function of a child that should be given attention to ensure a child evolves appropriately, and there is no need for additional interventions. That is why I view the line as the most important one in the chapter.

“That exaggerated sense of self as “biggest” or “smartest” or “tallest” gives way to an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses” (Paris et al. 306).

First of all, the given line explains the critical change occurring in children’s mentality during their growth. It shows that they acquire a greater experience of comparing themselves with others, which evidences cognitive flexibility (Paris et al. 306). They learn that interaction in society implies considering strengths and weaknesses to attain success. Moreover, the line shows that children make the first steps in developing their critical thinking. They stop using exaggerated ideas from the past and refer to their self-concepts or beliefs about their personal identity (Paris et al. 306). It is an important phase of children’s transformation and socialization, meaning they will be able to act within a society.

“The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual’s height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens” (Paris et al. 327).

I assume this is the central sentence of the chapter. First of all, it states that during adolescence, individuals experience a rapid increase in their height and weight. These body changes are a crucial part of the person’s development and necessary for the complete transformation into an adult. At the same time, the line shows the causes of this transformation, such as hormones. It means that the body of the person starts to function differently, focusing on the production of elements required for further life. In such a way, the line is vital for understanding the physical development of adolescents.

“Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas” (Paris et al. 362).

The line outlines the scope of cognitive development peculiar to an adolescent. First, it shows that a teen starts using more complex concepts to formulate his/her judgments and attitudes toward a particular idea. Moreover, it demonstrates that a person becomes capable of abstract thought, which is a critical difference between a child and an adult (Paris et al. 362). At the same time, these alterations are linked to the cognitive changes in the brain, the prefrontal complex responsible for forming judgments, which evolves due to hormones (Paris et al. 363). In such a way, the sentence describes teens’ cognitive development and helps to understand their importance.

“Adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?”” (Paris et al. 384).

I think the sentence is critical for understanding the social and emotional development of an adolescent. First, it introduces the central questions a teen asks themselves to understand their role in society. It indicates a significant shift in their cognition as young people start to view them as part of communities and want to find their place there. At the same time, it shows that adolescents’ sense of self becomes relational as they analyze their cooperation with others (Paris et al. 384). These transformations and questions are critical for forming a person’s identity and determining his/her future relations with others and development.

Work Cited

Paris, Jennifer, et al. Child Growth and Development. College of the Canyons, 2018.

Abstract

Background

There is general agreement that pre-schooling has a direct effect on the children’s ability to acquire literacy, scientific, and numeracy knowledge which are crucial in cognitive development. There have been increased focus on early childcare and pre-school policies; this has resulted in the movement which urges parents to take their children to nursery. Despite the policies, there are no conclusive studies that have sought to determine the extent to which the nursery school care affects children’s development. Therefore, there is a need for a study to explore whether there are any developmental differences between nursery and non-nursery school children. The target age for the study is children aged between two and three years.

Objective

The purpose of the project is to analyze if there are positive effects among the children going to nursery. This will be imperative because the information obtained can be used to inform the parents and policymakers on the merits or lack of it for the nursery childcare.

Project Description / Method

The project is a quantitative study method in which 60 study participants were recruited. The participants are the parents of children aged between 2 and 3. The participants were divided into two groups in which thirty parents had children who go to the nursery while the remaining thirty included parents of children who were not yet enrolled in the nursery. The parents were provided with questionnaires that probed the different aspects of children’s development.

Sampling was by use of both simple random and snowball in which parents with the kids going to the nursery were identified from the school and given questionnaire while those not going were reached through the snowball method. The findings of the study established that there were significant differences. The children going to nursery school showed improved social, communicative, and cognitive development compared to the non-nursery children.

Conclusion

Parents should be encouraged to take their children to the nursery to enhance their development and prepare them for primary schooling.

Introduction

Topic Overview

In many countries across the globe, there is a notable emphasis on pre-school education. In the U.S., 42% of 4-year-olds normally attend publicly funded pre-schools, and there is a substantial number attending private pre-schools (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Generally, there has been vigorous debate on the merits of taking children aged between 2 to 4 years to the nursery; however, in most cases, the discussions are not informed by conclusive research evidence. As such, the following paper considers the positive impacts of preschool childcare and whether there are negative influences associated with not taking the child to the nursery. The study is expected to give up-to-date and non-partisan evidence to support or discount the debate.

Background/Literature Review

Early childhood education has gone through drastic changes since the 1990s. In the past, it used to be considered as part of the preparation for the compulsory school; however, today that has changed because some inconclusive research findings point to some positive transformations for the young children aged between two and five years. High-quality nursery care has a longer implication on the development of the child as a learner (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Different theory frameworks have been applied to explain the changes in terms of cognitive or psychoanalytic developments. A case in point is the Erikson’s Development Theory and Bandura’s Theory.

Erikson’s development theory

Erikson’s theory centers on psychosocial stages of development; the theory was significantly influenced by Feuds Theory on the topography of personality (McLeod, 2008). The theory is divided into eight stages that take place from early childhood to early adulthood, i.e., from infancy to 18 years. Successful completion of each stage leads to a better personality and helps the individual to acquire the basic virtues that relate to the particular developmental point; therefore, one stage endows the youngster with characteristics that are critical in resolving the requirement of the next stage. This signifies that a failure to complete one stage can negatively affect the subsequent developmental stage.

In the review of the children’s development, these stages could be best realized if the child is put in an environment that promotes holistic development (McLeod, 2008). For instance, about children aged between 2 and 3 years, the two significant psychosocial crises they need to address as per the theory are the second and the third stages. The second stage is autonomy versus shame at the ages between 1.5 and 3 years and it is marked by the child acquiring the basic virtue of ‘will’ if he/she completes the stage.

The other stage is the third stage in which the psychosocial crisis at hand is the initiative versus guilt. This stage takes place for children aged between three and five years. This is the period characterized by most parents deciding to take their children to pre-school. According to the provisions of the theory, children are supposed to acquire ‘purpose’ as a basic virtue. To achieve the desired virtues, Burger (2010) emphasizes the need for the children to be put in the right environment.

In this effect, the theory gives a critical view of the various stages of the development that can be applied to understand the needs of the children right from infancy. This is very relevant for every child as they search for their identity. Even though the theory does not advocate for nursery schools, the main emphasis is on providing the child with the best environment that will enhance positive development.

In contemporary times, many parents are involved with different work activities and not have adequate time to monitor the development of their children and expose them to the right socialization processes. The nurseries provide the opportunity for the child to grow in an environment that focuses on holistic development in terms of -social and learning abilities that are key to the future of the child. This does not necessarily point that the developmental stages as pointed in the theory can be developed only at the nursery. Children who are not disadvantaged in their home environment, cognitive and language development can still take place (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013).

In a report on the role of pre-school in Australia, Productivity Commission (2014) stated that “nurturing, warm and attentive carers are the most critical attributes of quality in any child care setting, especially for younger children” (p.4).

Concerning Erikson’s theory, the second stage, which is autonomy vs. shame or doubt, denotes the need for the caregivers to ensure a delicate balance. The child should not be assisted in every task because self-control is required but carefully to avoid the loss of self-esteem. This stage applies to children who are between two and three years. The nursery care setting allows the young kids to interact with their peers by playing, and hence allow the child to develop important social skills at an early age. Also, the children interact with trained professionals who monitor and assign them tasks that are relevant to the child’s developmental stage. Proper care at the stage will lead to the child becoming more secure and confident, and hence sets a good foundation for their future.

The third stage is the initiative vs. guilt, which is a transition from the second stage and takes place between the ages of 3 and 5 years. The stage is characterized by vigor action; the children can actively interact with other kids and identify friends. A key feature is that the children are more playful and can organize their play activities such as making games and arranging stack cards. These are signs of cognitive development, and there is a need for a caretaker who can guide the children at the stage to build their learning capabilities (Goodman & Sianesi, 2005).

Bandura’s social learning theory

In theory, Bandura’s argument is on behaviorist development based on operant conditioning and classical conditioning. The theory stipulates that mediating processes take place when there is a stimulus and a response and behavior are learned from a particular environment through observational learning. In the context of the children’s development, children learn by observing the behavior of the people they interact with. The youngsters may be confined at home or nursery. The perspective of classic conditioning or operant conditioning implies that children will have differences based on the environment they are exposed to during their early years (Bandura, 2001).

The environment provides the models from which the children can encode their behavior. Similarly, the behavior learned is reinforced by the internal or external factors which come into conduct with the child. In essence, at the ages of two and three years, children need to be conditioned to a learning environment that will influence their future. As such, in the review of the role of the pre-school in the development of the children, Goodman and Sianesi (2005) pointed out the learning environment at nursery reinforces learning abilities for the children and creates a foundation from which they can internalize some aspects such as language acquisition. It is important to note that the conditioning processes relate to the ‘identification of self’ as pointed out by Feud in explaining the internalization of behavior.

Regarding the mediation process learning, Bandura’s theory holds the view that all humans are, information processors. As such, the cognitive process is an important precursor of observational learning. The theory proposes four critical meditational processes that determine how the child develops. The processes include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention relates to the extent a child is exposed to a given behavior.

Retention entails the formation of the memory of the behavior. Therefore, at the third stage of reproduction, Bandura stipulates that that social learning does not take place immediately and hence the need to put the child in an environment in which the desired behavior can be reproduced. It is through the full development of the processes that the child starts to develop a critical evaluation. Just like the case of Erikson’s theory, the environment of growth determines how well the child fully acquires the processes.

According to Weiland and Yoshikawa (2013), there is evidence of developmental benefits noted among children who attend quality child care at the ages of 1-3 years; however, there is no evidence of long-term benefits to such learning. This is because some studies find positive effects, some negative and others no effect. The variances in the findings have been attributed to the age differences and the varying qualities of child care. The current study focuses on a particular age group; therefore, the results are not likely to be affected by age variance.

Aim/s and objective/s / hypothesis

The study objectives include:

1. To find out whether children who go nursery are more developed psychosocially than the children who do not.
2. To find out the effects nursery has on the development of the children.

Hypothesis: H₀. There is no positive benefit for taking children aged between 2 and 3 years to nursery school.

Project Description

Introduction

To collect reliable data for this study, the research method employed was quantitative. The quantitative method was used to carry out the study; it provided empirical data that was used to test the null hypothesis. The quantitative data were collected from parents who have children aged between two and three years. The sample size used for the study was 60 parents. This sample was divided into two groups of 30 parents each.

The first group comprised of the parents of children who attend nursery while the second group was for parents whose children were not going to nursery. The main reason for dividing the sample was to provide data that can be comparatively analyzed to establish whether there are developmental differences between the children. The following subsections provide details of how the research was conducted and the rationale applied in carrying out the research.

Sampling Procedure and Sample Size

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of the target population from the sample frame (Creswell, 2013). One of the key factors that enhance any kind of study is to ensure that a representative sample is selected. This requires a proper definition of the study population and specification of the sturdy frame and the sampling method to be applied. In the present study, the target population is the children; however, they cannot provide the required data so their parents are used as the key study participants to provide the required information. Therefore, the sampling frame is the parents with children aged between two and three years.

Two sampling procedures were used. The procedures were used based on the context of the study to ensure that objective inference could be drawn from the data collected. For the parents with children going to nursery schools, a simple random sampling method was used to identify the 30 parents with children in Inspire Children Nursery. The simple random method is a probability method that gives study participants an equal chance of being included in the study.

The method reduces inclusion bias. Even though the simple random method was used to select the parents to participate in the study, it is important to note that the location, which is Inspire Children Nursery, was purposely selected. The reason for getting the parents from the same learning center was to avoid the variations that have been identified in earlier studies due to different learning environments. It is important to note that differences in the quality of care have been one of the issues that led to the lack of conclusive findings on the role of the nursery in the development of children aged below five years.

In the second group, the sampling procedure used to include parents in the study was snowball sampling. Snowball sampling is a non-probability method which is based on a referral process. In this case, one study participant is used to identify other people who may be incorporated into the study. It is a chain-like process; therefore, one parent of a non-nursery going child was be identified and asked to refer the researcher to another parent.

The rationale for selecting the parents as the main sources of data was due to the experience they have with their children. Also, a sample size of 60 people ensured that diverse information on the children’s development could be deduced.

Data Collection

There are varied methods for collecting, in most cases the selection of the data collection method is influenced by the nature of the study and the type of the variable that is supposed to be measured (Creswell, 2013). In the present study, primary sources of data were used. The sources are the original materials or centers that have first-hand data. The primary sources give direct experiences about the phenomenon being investigated. For the study, the primary sources were the parents because they are best placed to provide objective information that relates to the growth and development of their children.

Instruments for Data Collection

The data collection instrument used in this study was the Ages and Stages Questionnaires (ASQ) and the social demographic questionnaire. The ASQ depended on the age of the child while the social demographic questionnaire collected general information that pertained to the child and the parent. Even though the ASQ questionnaires differed based on age, one thing in common was that they probed the development of the child. It is through these questionnaires that the parents were supposed to provide objective data about their children.

Data Analysis

The data collected from the parents was raw and needed to be operationalized to discover the trends relating to the topic under review. As a result, there was the necessity of a data analysis process. Data analysis comprises of applications that are used by the researcher to synthesize the data to make it easy to draw correlations. In the present study, the analysis was required to examine whether there existed differences between the children going and those not going to nursery. Therefore, the tool used to analyze the quantitative data was SPSS.

Ethical Considerations

In any study, ethical considerations are crucial as they ensure that the study does not negatively infringe on the rights of the people involved. Study ethics entail the behavior that stipulates the relationships between the stakeholders in the research. The main reason for ethics is to make sure that the participants’ reputation is not injured or the research processes do not have adverse consequences. The ethical considerations in any study are philosophical and are influenced by the nature of the study and the prevailing societal norms. In any research, key stakeholders include the researcher, the users of the results, and the participants. In the case of the present study, sensitive data about the development of the children will be collected.

The parents may not be willing to give some of the information if confidentiality is not assured. Therefore, there is a likelihood of ethical issues in the research approach. To address the issues, ethical clearance was obtained from the authorities. Clearance is important as it ensures that a study is confined to the intended purpose and that the study participants are protected from possible misuse of the data they provide. Besides, the parents participating in the study were also required to give written consent.

Procedure

As noted, for a study to be authentic there is the need to employ procedures that will ensure that the research findings are valid and reliable as the two form the basis for data interpretation. In the study, the primary focus was to determine whether there were developmental differences between children aged between 2-3 years who go to the nursery and their counterparts who do not. The reason for the selection of these age groups is because the years are the basis for the development of the academic and social foundations for the young ones (Burger, 2010). Also, in most jurisdictions, this is the minimum age for starting pre-school.

Therefore, the study procedure applied was first to seek ethical clearance from the concerned authorities. After the clearance had been given, the appropriate data collection tool was prepared and evaluated to determine whether it could collect reliable and credible data. In this case, the research instrument was the ASQ.

The next step entailed the identification of the study participants and seeking their consent to participate in the study. All the study participants were required to fill a social demographic questionnaire. The questionnaire gave overview information about the parent and the child. The variables captured by the social demographic questionnaire were the age of the participants, nationality, income, occupation, the average time the child spends with the parents, and the general information on the likes and dislikes of the child.

For the parents with the kids going to nursery, the parents were identified from the children attending Inspire children Nursery and were expected to collect their questionnaires from the nursery. For the other group of parents, they were identified through a referral process. The duration for answering the questionnaires was approximately 15 minutes. This process ensured that all the questionnaires were answered and returned for the subsequent analysis. The data collected was then entered into a computer for SPSS analysis.

It is important to note that this study excluded children with any form of disability either physical or mental. The rationale for the exclusion is because such children have individualized special needs; this implies that comparison can be drawn with other children without disabilities. Also, for children with disabilities, the needs vary considerably. It is important to note that there was no discrimination in terms of gender representation. Either male or female parent could be admitted into the study. Also, there was no age limit for the parents. The application of the outlined procedures ensured that the desired information was collected, which aided in providing the answers to questions that seek to find out the benefits of the nursery in the development of the child.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary of Findings

It is evident from the findings that children who go to the nursery performed better than their peers in terms of the parameters that were assessed. A case in point, the review of the parents’ responses showed that a high percentage of the children aged 3 years performed better on the parameters that were being tested compared to their counterparts who did not go to nursery. Some of the parameters in which nursery children showed higher performance included communication, socialization, and the ability to memorize some simple tasks. For instance, the copying ability for nursery children was relatively higher compared to the non-nursery children.

These findings relate to the dictates of the two theories in the literature review section. For example, Bandura’s operant conditioning and classic conditioning in which children learn from the models they are exposed to. The implication is that the children in the nursery are exposed to other kids who also act as peer models and the professional caretakers who can condition the children to certain developmental processes.

According to the analyzed data, the children who attend the nursery can perform better on cognitive tests. Also, the children had better communicative abilities, higher social competence, and less impulsive. The other positive effect reported is that the children were more cooperative when dealing with the caregivers. The findings also showed that children’s cognitive abilities for those in the Nursery were better developed compared to those who did not go.

The results did cut across the ages; for instance, enhanced the ability to memorize some tasks was reported among the nursery children aged between two and three years. The differences were pronounced among the children aged three years. For those with 24 months, the children going to nursery also performed better in the dimensions tested. However, the differences were not as much pronounced as for the three-year-olds. The findings attest to the fact that Nursery has a positive impact on the development of the child; it enhances holistic development in the various domains of the child.

Recommendations

For a long time, the association between the children’s attending nursery and they’re psychosocial development has been a major issue intriguing parents and policymakers. The findings of the current study provided a direction that the parents can rely on to make informed decisions about measures to take to ensure that their children get the best in the early years of life. Bearing in mind that there are past conclusive studies that have shown that the development of the brain is uniquely sensitive from birth to the school-going age, parents need to take measures to ensure they capitalize on the developing brain.

This is the stage that is the foundation for self-regulation, social interaction, and cognitive learning. This implies that at the early development stages, children need high-quality care to condition them to better physical, mental, and social development.

It is also evident that nursery education may have a direct effect on the cognition, emotional, and social development of the child and impacts positively on the school progress. Therefore, it is recommended that measures should be taken to encourage parents to take children to quality care nurseries which will lay a firm foundation for their holistic development. Secondly, there is a need for policymakers to increase their investments in the pre-schools to ensure that public nurseries are initiated across the country. The nurseries should provide quality care just as in the high-end private centers.

It is important to note that the current study focused only on one center; therefore, there may be variances if different nurseries with differing quality are studied. Thirdly, there is a need for awareness creation to all parents to embrace taking their children to the nursery immediately they reach two years. This is because it exposes the children to a favorable environment managed by professionals who monitor and aid the youngster in the psychosocial development.

Finally, there is also the need for further studies to explore the programs that result in high-quality care in the nursery schools; hence, provide a holistic overview of factors that policymakers should put into consideration.

References

Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265-299.

Burger, K. (2010). How do early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for children from different social backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 25(2):140-65.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Goodman, A., & Sianesi, B. (2005). Early education and children’s outcomes: how long do the impacts last? Fiscal Studies, 26(4), 513-548.

McLeod, S. (2008). Erik Erikson: development psychology. Web.

Productivity Commission. (2014). Childcare and early learning, draft report. Canberra: Australian Government Productivity Commission.

Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M. R., Espinosa, L. M., Gormley, W. T.,… & Zaslow, M. J. (2013). Investing in our future: The evidence base on preschool education. Society for Research in Child Development, 1(1), 3-24.

Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development, 84(6), 2112-2130.

At the age of five, most children develop differently and have unique characteristics, but there are common features of development that are common among five-year-old children. These children’s physical progression, motor proficiency, moral awareness, thinking skills, and language mastery change commonly or have a similarity. An unusual five-year-old child would have some of the features in child development different from the others.

His or her development would not be the same as a typical five-year-old child. Carlos Chavez is an example of such children. He is not a typical five-year-old child (Carlos Chavez represents the unusual five year old children). A typical five year old child would have improved motor proficiency, an average growth rate of 2- 3 inches per year, an unreasonable way of thinking, good language mastery and low moral awareness (Wilson & Steelman 27). This paper will describe how an unusual five year old child is different from other five year old children.

Motor proficiency: Typical five year olds have improved motor proficiency in tasks with the ability to perform several tasks accurately for example; fold papers into various geometrical shapes, catch balls, tie shoelaces and so many other body motor co-ordinations. Carlos has trouble folding papers into the correct shapes and does not even know which hand is more active than the other. The child has not established which hand to use for most tasks. The natural active and exploring body of typical five year olds does not exist in Carlos, instead, there is a child who still has very poor accuracy in tasks and therefore cannot copy design letters as others, cannot perform tasks such as tying shoelaces and others. He has trouble doing them accurately (Wilson & Steelman 27).

Language mastery: A typical five year old child should have mastered language very well. Carlos Chavez does not belong here. The age says five years but the development is unusual. Carlos cannot converse well and still uses short sentences to converse. His vocabulary is not fully grown to an average five year old working knowledge. Carlos cannot also produce the sounds easily as normal five year olds with primary teeth do (Wilson & Steelman 28).

Thinking skills: Most five year olds’ thinking skills have not developed to a level where they can think logically. The children only know that one event leads to the other. Two things happening at the same time to the children means one led to the other. They are also egocentric. Carlos can still not connect if one event leads to the other like the other children think. He can only recognize the events but cannot really make the connection of one leading to the other. A typical five year old for example would connect rainfall to leg injury if he/she hurt himself or herself during rain. They would think that the rain led to them getting hurt. Carlos cannot still recognize if the rain can lead to being hurt and may not appear terrified by the rain (Wilson & Steelman 28).

Conclusion

This paper has described how an unusual five year old child is different from other five year old children giving three reasons. In motor proficiency, the child (Carlos) is found to be poor in motor proficient tasks as compared to normal five year old children. The child’s language mastery is also poor given the poor sound production and vocabulary knowledge among others. The last reason for the unusual nature of Carlos as compared to other five year olds is the child’s underdeveloped thinking skills. All these explained reasons show that Carlos is an underdeveloped (unusual) five year old child.

Works Cited

Wilson, Timothy., and Steelman A. R., A Profile of the Typical Five-Year Old Child, Early Childhood Education Journal, Springer: Netherlands, (21) 2, 27-28, 1993.

Introduction

Children are different from adults. Unlike adults, they may be spontaneous and unpredictable. The complexity of their nature is made worse by the fact that they may be unable to express themselves verbally. Given the unpredictable nature of these young individuals, researchers have realized that the best way to understand them is to make observations (Berger, 2014).

In this report, the author is going to document the findings of an observation conducted on a child from a Cantonese background. The child is Alfred Huang, a three years old boy. Both his parents are Cantonese. The boy has an older brother and a younger sister. The observation approach is naturalistic as it targets one child.

Interview with Parents

How would you describe your child to someone who has not met him?

Alfred is a shy boy when in the company of new people. However, he is observant, especially when it comes to what other children are doing. He may not engage in conversation due to his limited English and Cantonese background. Nevertheless, he imitates what he has observed with the intention of getting attention. Once he has gathered enough courage, he seeks to play with the child who has got his attention.

What pleases you the most about your child’s development? What qualities and characteristics would you say are unique to your child?

Alfred is an adorable child and he relates well with his family members. He has a special relationship with his grandparents. Like children his age, he is inquisitive and seeks adults’ approval on what he does. Alfred is a well-mannered child. All the people around him commend him on his well-mannered responses to adult stimulus. Although he throws tantrums at times, he is not violent, something that we are grateful for. We are all happy with his growth and development so far.

Do you see any improvements needed in your child’s development?

Alfred is growing up normally and as a parent, I am happy with the progress. The only thing that makes me concerned is his shy and reserved nature. I do not want to say that I think it is a problem, but I would be happy if he could be a bit social to enable him to interact with other children, especially at playtime at school.

What is your opinion of the childcare and pre-school education your child is currently receiving, including the strengths and weaknesses?

Alfred’s school offers an environment that is healthy and interactive. I must say that the teachers are good at what they do. The environment has helped Alfred start to cultivate interactive skills. The boy has learned a few things that make him love school. I had feared that his shyness would make him dislike school. Although I do not think that it is a problem, I am concerned that he comes home a bit tired and almost irritable. I do not know what to attribute the behavior to. Perhaps it is because of a change in the routine he was used to before he started school.

How much television does your child watch in a day? Do you think that your child’s television watching is a positive or negative influence? Why?

Alfred is fascinated with the TV but only when the cartoons are being screened. He may perhaps spend about an hour as he is being prepared for bed. So far, the TV does not seem to have any negative influence on him since his exposure is intermittent. The family is disciplined on matters to do with the TV.

Please explain your parenting “style” and how you discipline your child when he has misbehaved.

As a family, we have decided that it would be more beneficial to talk to the child regarding discipline issues. In spite of this, it is important to know that children will always be children. When he is inattentive or does not respond to instructions, such as when he is told to stop doing something we regard as inappropriate, we may repeat the instructions twice. I cannot say that we have had a discipline problem with Alfred yet.

Please explain how you teach your child the moral and ethical values you believe to be important.

Teaching a child the moral value starts with the parent practicing and living an ethical life. Secondly, it is important to have some talk with the child and explain what is ethical and morally right and why it is important. The church is also a good place to introduce moral and ethical practices.

Describe in detail the following factors that could influence your child’s development

The child’s immediate surroundings, such as family, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and other relatives

We live at ABC in Hong Kong. It is a middle-class neighborhood. The child was born in the US. The child lives with the mother, father, grandmother, and grandfather. Alfred is likely to be influenced by the people around him positively. The reason is that they are good role models for the child. The boy is not yet subjected to the neighborhood interactions and I would expect that there would not be a lot of exposure to negative behavior.

Local institutions, such as schools, churches, hospitals, health clinics, and social services

Within the neighborhood, there is a small hospital that caters to the medical needs of the community. There is also a church. The church is full of wonderful people. Both the church and the school are two institutions that are likely to shape Alfred’s life. The larger community would also offer some form of support. However, I am concerned that the child may pick negative behavior. In spite of this, it is my hope that the love and guidance from the family members will steer Alfred in the right direction.

The larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, political processes, and the economic resources of the family

The larger social setting would have some influence on the child. I would, however, prefer to bring him up surrounded by the family members just as I have done so far. We live with both grandparents, who are an inspiration to the child. We like going out for dinner on Wednesday nights together as a way of bonding. I am planning on taking a holiday with all the people around Alfred.

Historical influences and conditions, including parental backgrounds

I was brought up by a humble couple who were very loving. However, they passed on early in my childhood and I had to live with an elderly aunt. Perhaps that is why I want Alfred to be surrounded by the people who matter in our lives. I do not want him to be lonely.

Influence from peers and friends, neighbors, teachers, and role models

The influences from the role models and teachers are likely to help Alfred grow up as an upright child. With regard to the influence of his peers and friends, I will have to keep a keen eye on him for possible negative peer pressure. I cannot choose who he associates with, but I can help him know when he is being misled.

Styles and Strategies used to Shape and Modify Alfred’s Behavior

I spent over two hours with the child and his mother. During that time, I was able to observe the kind of upbringing Alfred was getting. He has a loving family made up of his parents and his grandparents. Although it is evident that the mother dots on the child, it is clear from the interview that the parents’ approach to parenting is authoritative. Alfred’s mother, for example, is soft-spoken but firm at the same time. She takes time to listen and explain to Alfred what needs to be done. In addition, she displays flexibility in decision making (Berger, 2014, p. 299). The parents are observed as being patient and demonstrate the ability to accommodate the child’s behavior while maintaining authority over him. Such parenting, according to Berger (2014), is described as authoritative.

Authoritative parenting is demonstrated every time the mother wants the child to do something. Using her soft voice, she will instruct him while giving him the reason why she thinks the activity should be done as she has suggested. The child will respond by asking a question to confirm what the mother has said. The interaction between mother and child is involving and it demonstrates that a child can respond to authority when certain conditions are explained. Berns (2012) opines that giving the child a reason why certain activities and situations need to be responded to in a certain manner helps in the learning process.

From the observation, Alfred’s mother exhibits the characteristics of a parent who is consistent with what she wants and says. Although she is flexible, she does not compromise on what needs to be done (Berger, 2014). Although the observation and the interview did not provide an opportunity to discipline the boy, it can be assumed that the approach she has taken does not involve intimidation of the child or screaming at him so that he can feel scared. Sadly, many parents assume that screaming or beating up a child would make them highly disciplined (Berger, 2014).

Cognitive Development

According to Piaget’s theory of development, children are born with a simple mental structure (Berger, 2014). Learning is based on this structure. An observation of Alfred during the second visit revealed that his cognitive development is at the level of a normal three-year-old child. In order to confirm this assertion, I decided to use the video by Piaget to carry out the cognitive experiment. After getting acquitted with Alfred, I presented him with two glasses, which had some water.

The glasses were of the same type. When asked whether the two glasses had the same level of water or not, Alfred replied in the affirmative. When the water in one of the glasses was poured into a narrower and taller glass, Alfred could see the difference. However, he could not understand why the difference occurred.

Alfred can be described as being at the pre-occupational stage. Although he can clearly see the difference between the levels of water in the two glasses, it is obvious that he cannot comprehend how such a thing is possible (Berns, 2012). That observation is supported by Berger (2014). His mother took her usual role in explaining how and why the water in the two glasses appeared to be different. I left the mother and son practicing some more on the concept.

On the third observational visit, I suggested to Alfred’s mother that the three of us should play the dough game. We gathered the necessary materials and each of us, including Alfred who was excited by the opportunity to play with adults, made balls using the dough. As the game progressed, I asked his mother to make her ball into an extended strip of dough. Then we placed them together. Alfred, who was surprised that his mother’s dough seemed longer, was asked whether he thought the strip had the same amount of material as the others or not. He was hesitant to answer. It appeared as if he thought that the strip had more dough than the others, but he could not confirm.

According to Berger (2014), exercise is used to demonstrate the pre-occupational cognitive development. In a repeat exercise, Alfred was asked to group a set of colored balls into shapes. He demonstrated an understanding of the differences between the shapes. Although the child was able to display some element of perception of shape, he still needs more exposure to cognitive exercises. Consequently, it can be concluded that the child is within the cognitive growth stage. Of course, when left alone with the dough, he designed his own games. The games were a combination of what we had done and what his imagination told him.

One of my recommendations to the family is that Alfred is developing along the contours expected of a child of his age. Nevertheless, his growth would be enhanced if he was engaged in controlled experiments where the expected outcomes are demonstrable before he is allowed to play in his design (Berger, 2014).

Emotional and Social Development

Although Alfred appears as a shy boy, he demonstrates a remarkable level of emotional growth and sensitivity once he connects with his peers. Such an observation is usually associated with older children (Berger, 2014). When playing, he is the one who takes care of the children who are hurt. He does this by comforting them. We have had many instances where a child would fall and start crying. Alfred would go and sit down with the distressed child and offer emotional support.

He comforts the child by telling them that they are going to feel better. On one occasion at playtime, a child fell and slightly injured her knee. Alfred had the presence of mind to seek help since the injury was beyond his control. The emotional support demonstrates the development of social skills that the child will find useful in the future. To this end, Alfred’s emotional support to his friends and playmates is a reflection of what he witnesses at home (Berger, 2014, p.401).

Alfred’s demonstration of anger was not evident during the observations. On enquiring from his mother, she indicated that he sometimes gets upset when made to sleep, especially when there are guests around. He likes the company of his cousins when they make their weekly visits on Sunday evenings. Children who are shy may develop strong attachments to the few people they are able to interact with, especially those who are family members (Berns, 2012).

With regard to the issue of anger management, Alfred has learned from his mother that exhibiting violence is not the way to solve a problem. Children may react by hitting the annoying object. However, with demonstrable patience and by talking over such a reaction, the child should learn that it is not necessary to hit another person. The course of action for such a child is to report the offender to an adult and hope that justice will be delivered. Such lessons prepare a child for adult life where the incumbency of the decision-making process will lie on their heads (Berger, 2014, p.384).

As observed earlier, Alfred likes school. He often talks about his teachers and the other children. Although he is shy, he still enjoys being in school and the company of the other students. There are several children who like playing with Alfred and they make him happy. Being liked by other children is an important element in emotional development (Berger, 2014, p. 396). Alfred’s emotional development will also be enhanced by the morals that he is learning at church. The teachings of the Bible have a strong influence on young minds. In addition, they are important in shaping a child’s world outlook.

Unique Characteristics

One unique characteristic associated with Alfred is his shyness. The shyness is studied in detail in this report. Children who are shy find it hard to relate to strangers (Lao, Akseer, Bosacki, & Coplan, 2013). The second unique characteristic is exposure to two languages. Alfred is three years old and already can speak a little English and Cantonese (Hoff & Core, 2013). Exposure to the two languages is due to the fact that he was born in the US.

As such, he was exposed to English. His parents also communicate a lot in English. Exposure to the Cantonese language arises from the fact that his grandparents communicate using this language (Berger, 2014). His parents have relocated to Hong Kong to live with their aging parents.

Some psychologists have argued that exposure to two languages delays the development of the brain (Hoff & Core, 2013). They contend that this is because the brain is meant to process only one language. The contention has been proved wrong. According to such critics as Genesee, exposure to two languages does not demand from the brain more than what is observed when one is exposed to one language (Hoff & Core, 2013). Exposure to the two languages gives Alfred an advantage when communicating with members of the community. Hong Kong is an English and Cantonese speaking society. As such, the boy will have an advantage later in life. He will be able to communicate with both English and Cantonese speaking people.

Conclusion

Alfred is a healthy three years old child. His development has progressed through a normal curve, regardless of his reserved and shy nature. It is recommended that his parents and teachers should develop a program that would engage the boy in more socialization. The aim is to improve his confidence as he interacts with the other children. All children follow a similar developmental pattern. Some may be slow, but they soon catch up with their peers. Alfred is no exception.

References

Berger, K. (2014). The developing person through the life span (9th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Berns, R. (2012). Child, family, school, and community: Socialization and support (9th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning.

Hoff, E., & Core, C. (2013). Input and language development in bilingually developing children. Seminars in Speech and Language, 34(4), 215-226.

Lao, M., Akseer, T., Bosacki, S., & Coplan, R. (2013). Self-identified childhood shyness and perceptions of shy children: Voices of elementary school teachers. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 5(3), 269-284.

Article Description

Mesman, van Ijzendoorn, and Bakermans-Kranenburg are the authors of the article about parental sensitivity and its role in the establishment of family relationships and child development. The peculiar feature of this work is the author’s attention to ethnic minority families and the challenges they have to deal with regularly. Child development is a process that cannot be stopped or neglected. In this article, child development is discussed from the behavioral perspective in psychology. The investigations of Mary Ainsworth proved that material sensitivity played a crucial role in child development and promoted positive outcomes (Mesman, van Ijzendoorn, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2013). However, it is suggested not to use material sensitivity as the only concept for consideration in child development discussions, but try to take into consideration environmental changes, different behavioral models, and the needs of children, parents, and families.

Purpose

The purpose of the article under consideration is to examine the effects of parental sensitivity on children aged between 0 and 5 years in ethnic minority families. It is expected to define mean-level differences with majority parents and investigate the possible impact of socioeconomic factors on child outcomes (Mesman et al., 2012). The authors identify the connection between child behavior, family characteristics, and cultural factors. In addition, parental sensitivity is discussed in terms of family stress that may be caused by low incomes, single parenting, or teenage pregnancies.

Article Type

The authors of the article use a systematic literature review as the main research method. There are two hypotheses that have to be discussed in this study. On the one hand, the “no group difference” hypothesis is used to prove that despite the existing mean-level differences in human behaviors and cultures, culturally specific experiences cannot determine developmental processes (Mesman et al., 2012). On the other hand, there is the “group differences” hypothesis in terms of which the connection between family characteristics and child behavioral problems can be proved (Mesman et al., 2012). The chosen systematic literature review helps to evaluate several observational studies to clarify when parental sensitivity cannot be neglected and has to be supported by all family members and researchers.

Findings

With the help of the chosen research method, the authors are able to find little evidence for cultural explanations for child development. However, parental sensitivity is proved as a significant issue in positive child development that occurs in ethnic minority families. In this type of family, a low level of sensitivity is observed. It is explained by the presence of constant stressors and the inability to recognize child problems on time. Children’s well-being may be improved in case certain interventions to reduce family stress and enhance parental sensitivity are developed.

Implications

This article can be used in future research as a significant contribution to an understanding of parental relationships that are demonstrated in families with some socioeconomic problems. For example, there is an idea that the positive involvement of fathers, as well as the high quality of mother-father relationships, may reduce the number of negative outcomes in child development (Mesman et al., 2012). Positive sibling relationships can protect children in different ways, and the findings of this article that are supported by more than 20 studies can be used to promote new research and definite interventions.

Important Lessons

There are several important lessons that can be learned about the content of the article. First, the authors demonstrate how to establish and achieve research goals relying on the available material. Second, the authors show that there can be millions of studies on a similar topic, and it is necessary to make a right and properly weighted choice and stick to it during the whole writing process. Finally, the content of the article is helpful due to the identification of the main problems and challenges that may be observed in ethnic minority families and change a child’s developmental process. The psychology of a child is a complex issue, and an understanding of external factors in positive development is required.

Appropriateness to Developmental Psychology

This article fits into the overall field of developmental psychology in several ways. First, Berk (2013) explains that the quality of caregiving has to be properly identified in all families. Sensitive caregiving promotes the protection and security of all children. Second, Berk (2013) talks a lot about socioeconomic status in child development. This article focuses on this factor and defines the main outcomes of financial aspects in children’s development. Finally, stressful situations and factors in families are discussed by numerous researchers. This article, as well as the chosen textbook, is based on the evaluation of stressors in child psychological development.

Article’s Peculiarities and Differentiation from Other Sources

The peculiar feature of this article is a successful and clear combination of the results that have been taken from multiple studies. The authors are able to not only enumerate the factors and socioeconomic problems in families and their connection to child development but also think about new steps that can be taken to reduce stress and support ethnic minority families. In comparison to magazines’ and newspapers’ articles, this article has a clearly defined hypothesis and a theory that help to understand the importance of family involvement in child development, the worth of parental sensitivity, and the necessity to reduce stress and financial concerns to support children and their families in their int

References

Berk, L.E. (2013). Exploring lifespan development (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Mesman, J., van Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2012). Unequal in opportunity, equal in process: Parental sensitivity promotes positive child development in ethnic minority families. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 239-250. Web.

Introduction

Kylie is a four-year-old girl enrolled in a small preschool with children of other ex-pats in Hong Kong. Kylie’s father is Australian while her mother is Chinese. She basically speaks English, but her mother speaks to her in Mandarin so that she can understand other Chinese children. Her preschool has mostly foreign children and she seems to get along well with all of them.

She was born in Hong Kong but has traveled to Australia to visit her grandparents thrice. Since her parents’ work requires them to travel a lot, they have taken Kylie with them on their trips. Her father is a practicing architect while her mother works as an advertising executive. Both married in their early thirties and had Kylie in their mid-thirties. Kylie is their first and only child. She has a nanny to care for her in the absence of her parents, and her maternal grandparents also visit and stay with her most of the week.

This child observation report focuses on Kylie’s cognitive, social, and language development. The observation tools used were anecdotal records, checklists, and rating scales. The researcher shall be referred to as the observer in this report.

Observation Methods

Observations involve a keen and careful watch of another person or group of people and systematically recording what is seen and heard during that observation episode (Mertler, 2006). Observation is a useful method for use when researching children and their experiences. When the observer/researcher gets to interact with them and even participate in what they are doing, it is also known as “participant observation”. It is defined as “the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the research setting” (Schensul, Schensul & LeCompte, 1999, p. 91)

The researcher/observer observed Kylie in her preschool class, with the permission of her parents and the school administrators and teachers. This preschool implements a play-based program for the children. During play, it was noted that children learn naturally, demonstrating better communication and social interaction skills as well as creativity in their play. They also exhibit vivid imaginations and can think of more ideas. According to their teacher, play helps children develop problem-solving capacities. Hence the teachers design activities that are play-like and fun, but with inherent goals of developing the children’s skills and learning basic concepts.

The observer stayed unobtrusive as much as she can while she was observing Kylie. When allowed to interact with the child, she also noted down her observations in Kyle’s cognitive, social, and language development but in a way that does not interfere with their interactions. The observer came up with anecdotal records from her observation journal but requested Kylie’s teacher to provide her a copy of her checklists and rating scales for the said developmental domains. The observer gained further information about Kylie as she interviewed her teacher.

Anecdotal Records (See Appendix 1)

Kylie was observed in the playground playing with her peers and then she was observed in the classroom, working on the table on her own and with another child. The observer wrote down all her observations in a notebook while actively and unobtrusively observing Kylie. The anecdotal record in the appendix was written in an objective manner without any interpretation of her behaviors. It narrated how she initiated her interaction with her peers as she saw them playing. It also took note of what she said.

In the final anecdotal record, the observer was able to directly interact with the child and observe her up close. She recorded their conversation and then transcribed it. It showed a glimpse into Kylie’s language development.

Checklist (See Appendix 2)

The checklist used in observing Kylie’s development is derived from Allen & Marotz (2003). The checklist for four-year-olds provided basic skills expected at Kylie’s age.

Rating Scales (See Appendix 3)

Kylie was rated using the Personal and Social Development Scale, part of a full Rating Scale for K2 Students provided in class.

The observations on Kylie will focus more on her cognitive, social, and language development. Interpretations on the observations will be supported by some theories from the literature.

Analysis of Kylie’s Cognitive, Social, and Language Development

Based on Theory and Observation

Cognitive Development

Kylie belongs to Piaget’s Preoperational Period (two to seven years). This stage is a time when a child represents objects and knowledge by imitating them, engaging in symbolic play, drawing their ideas corresponding to their mental images and spoken language (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Children at this stage are not yet adept at conservation skills. This skill reflects the child’s awareness and knowledge that whatever physical order or arrangement objects are subjected to, their quantity, mass, and volume do not change. For example, 5 beads remain the same number whether they are lined up in a straight line or formed in a circle (Brewer, 2001). In the anecdote of Kylie and Jonathan playing with play dough, Kylie was not aware that the number and sizes of balls of playdough were related, and changing the size of balls in her share will not affect the quantity of her share unless Jonathan takes a piece of it. She just knew that he had to get from another source (Tina) to increase his share and to leave her with what is left of her share so she can make something she wants with the quantity left.

Kylie is a very smart little girl who can express herself well and use her imagination to suit her purpose. For example, in her play with other children, she was easily able to adapt to their imaginative play and provide her own ideas. She claimed to be a butterfly and even moved like one, also using movements and props to further show her ideas to others. In Piagetian terms, this is how children engage in symbolic play.

In the observer’s conversation with Kylie, it was observed that she stays within the topic and exchanges ideas with the observer. The developmental checklist provided by her teacher reported that Kylie can sit through a story for about 5 minutes, meaning her attention span is long, helping her maximize her learning. She also comprehends instructions well and can implement them with ease. She also knows her basic concepts expected for children her age, such as colors, shapes, numbers, and letters. According to her teacher, Kylie is a fast learner and is eager, and retains what she has learned easily. From the observations, she was recalling that ‘turtles, trucks and tigers’ all begin with the letter T. It was a very recent lesson in their class.

Much credit should be given to her home and preschool environment for encouraging Kylie to express herself well enabling the observer to evaluate her intelligence in just a short period of time.

Social Development

Kylie is in Erikson’s Initiative vs. Guilt Stage of Psychosocial Development (1963). In this stage, children attempt to show their independence by doing things on their own. One way is initiating help to others. However, due to their awkward movements, their noble intentions at helping may backfire by committing mistakes or having small accidents in the process. When this happens, they feel guilty for the damage done (Brewer, 2001). In the observation, Kylie initiated interaction with others. She seemed eager to join the group and they welcomed her with open arms. Being in the Initiative vs. Guilt Psychosocial stage, Kylie tries to belong to a group of her own which helps her plan out her actions within the group while staying within the prescribed social and moral boundaries (Nixon and Aldwinckle, 2003). They also learn how to resolve conflicts, which is essential in the development of their social-cognition and socio-emotional skills (Marion, 2007). When her friend Jonathan got some of the playdough she was playing with, Kylie was upset because she was planning to use it for her work. However, to resolve the conflict, she just gave Jonathan part of her share of the playdough and told him to ask another child for playdough. Here, she was learning how to compromise to the request of others while also achieving her own goals.

Language Development

According to Beaty (2009), even infants learn communication skills, mostly through non-verbal ways. These prepare them for the oral and written language they will be engaging in when they grow older. At 6 months of age, they rely on sounds to understand their world, aside from their other sensorial modes. At 20 months, they may have already learned a huge vocabulary especially if they are exposed to very verbal adults. This emphasizes the significance of good hearing and sensitive listening in language development. Kylie’s language development may have been eventful because she has a good vocabulary for her age. This may stem from the fact that being an only child, she is in the company of mature adults who talk around her, allowing her to learn the words they use. However, her pronunciation may not yet be too clear for some words

Lindfors (1987) theorizes that almost every child learns language communication even without any special training, as long as she is exposed to language structures in various interactions with others. Part of her cognitive development is the learning of a “deep-level, abstract, and highly complex system of linguistic structure and use” ( p. 90). This mostly happens in the first five years of life. According to Lev Vygotsky (1978), interaction with others helps stimulate and enhance children’s language development. If this is supported by and pleasant and interactive environment, then it can help the children reach “a higher level of knowledge and performance compared to what might be reached through his or her ability to improve independently” (Lightbown and Spada, 2006, p. 23). That is why adults around Kylie should support her curiosity and initiatives to learn more about the world around her. If she sees them excited about learning, then she will develop a love for learning as well.

It was amusing conversing with Kylie. The part where she confused ‘write’ from ‘right’ was seamless in its transition from the topic of writing words to directional concepts, and she went on to demonstrate how she had a left and a right hand. Her pronunciation of some words was still not too clear but understandable (‘tuhtels, twuks, tygrs’ for turtles, trucks, tigers). As she grows older she will be able to speak more clearly as her oral muscles develop

Kylie is at par or even above the level of her peers in terms of language. She is very fluent in her speaking, considering she is bilingual. Her first language is English, although her mother is trying hard to make her learn Chinese. However, she does not seem to be confused with the usage of the 2 languages. Perhaps this is because she is not as fluent in Mandarin as she is in English. With English as her first language, she is more comfortable expressing herself in that language. Learning Chinese may come easy for Kylie because she is in Hong Kong where most people speak the language. Swain & Lapkin (2000) argue that referring to the first language is most effective in learning the second language because the learner needs to have a familiar language base to draw from in order to learn something new. Hence, Kylie’s parents should work together in trying to balance her learning of both first and second languages. The studies of Bowers & Kennison (2011) and Kroll and Stewart (1994) prove that language learners shift from their first language to their second and back in understanding certain words.

Recommendations for Kylie’s Optimized Development

Kylie seems to be eager to befriend others, as she openly welcomes interactions. She is a very sociable little girl who is confident and pleasant to be with. The adults around her should encourage this so that her cognitive, social, and language skills will be further enhanced. However, she should also be taught about the dangers related to talking to strangers to prevent her from just going with them or giving delicate information to others.

Her parents and teachers in preschool seem to be doing well in helping Kylie develop the necessary skills expected of her age. It is Kylie that seems to go beyond those expectations. In these modern times, children are actually viewed as having the ability to understand their world better and can exhibit competence in a variety of skills even from a very young age. Being provided with the stimuli that can nudge Kylie to learn basic knowledge and skills, Kylie eagerly engages in higher-order thinking as she is curious to know more about what is being handed to her. Her preschool implements a developmentally-appropriate early childhood education program (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1997) and it seems to be working well with Kylie. It uses play as a technique for learning the basics, and perhaps, more. Such a play-like atmosphere in the preschool addresses the children’s interests, and it is likely to capture and hold their attention and address all domains of their development.

Self-Reflection on Observation

As the observer in this case study, I realized just how difficult it is to observe young children with the purpose of gauging how much they have developed. Still, despite this challenge, it is important to observe them determine how much they have learned and the proper direction of where they should go. Knowing some background information or theories on child development is essential in observing with a critical eye. It can help the observer interpret the speech and actions of the child better. It guides adults on the preparation of an environment conducive to learning and the provision of meaningful and relevant experiences to optimize their learning.

Unobtrusive observation is not as easy as it seems if one wants a more accurate evaluation of children. One should be very sensitive and detailed and be able to exercise restraint in the observation so that the child is not disturbed in her natural setting. Noting down the observations should stick to facts. Any subjective comments, if any, should be written on a separate sheet. This was difficult because Kylie was absolutely adorable that I, as an observer cannot help but watch out for her cute and amusing antics. However, I needed to be aware that it is Kylie’s cognitive, social, and language development that was being evaluated. I was excited to finally get the opportunity to talk to her up close. As expected, she bewitched me with her spunky and endearing personality. For a four-year-old, she was able to hold a sensible conversation and kept it interesting. It was obvious that she is a smart, confident, and gregarious little girl that one cannot help but be magnetized with her. Our interaction only lasted for about 15 minutes but I was able to learn so much about her. I am aware that not all children can be as easy to relate to as Kylie, that some can be difficult to coax out of their shells, and I am fortunate that I was assigned to observe Kylie.

References

Allen, K.E., & Marotz, L.R. (2003). Developmental profiles: Pre-birth through 12 (4th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.

Beaty, J.J. (2009). 50 Early childhood literacy strategies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Bowers, J.M. & Kennison, S.M. (2011). The role of age of acquisition in bilingual word translation: Evidence from Spanish-English bilinguals. Journal Of Psycholinguistic Research, 40(4), 275-289.

Brewer, J.A. (2001). Introduction to early childhood education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton.

Kroll, K., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connection between bilingual memory representations. Journal Of Memory And Language, 33, 149-174.

Lightbown, P.M. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Lindfors, J.W. (1987). Children’s language and learning (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Marion, M. (2007). Guidance of young children. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Mertler, G.A. (2006). Action research. Teachers as researchers in the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8: a position statement of the national association for the education of young children. Washington, DC, WA: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Nixon, D. & Aldwinckle, M. (2003). Exploring child development from three to six years (2nd ed.). Tuggerah, Australia: Social Science Press.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Schensul, S. L., Schensul, J. J. & LeCompte, M. D. (1999). Essential ethnographic Methods, observations, interviews, and questionnaires (Book 2 in Ethnographer’s Toolkit). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.

Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research 4(3), 251–274.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Appendix

Anecdotal Records

In the playground, Kylie was seen watching other children play. She saw some girls laughing and pretending they were butterflies and flowers in the garden. Kylie walked to where they were near the swings. She smiled when she heard them laugh out loud and sometimes laughed along as she inched forward to hear them better. Eventually, one girl asked her if she was a flower or a butterfly. Kylie said she’s a butterfly. Then she spread her arms sideways and flapped them like wings. Then she rode on one swing and said she left her wings at home. The girls took turns down the slide and then said flowers were being blown by the wind.

Back in the classroom, Kylie was observed playing with dough with other children, forming different-sized balls. Jonathan reached for one of Kylie’s big balls and flattened it on the table. Kylie said “Hey!” and got back the flattened dough. Jonathan frowned and said, “But I need some!”. Kylie ignored him and kept pounding on her play dough and moved all the pieces of dough away from Jonathan. He just stared at her quietly and after about a minute, Kylie gave him a piece of dough and told him, “Here.. go now and ask Tina. I want to make more with these”.

The observer approached Kylie while she was seated in the waiting area. Kylie was very pleasant to talk to, as she was not shy at all and was very verbal. The following is a snippet of their conversation.

Kylie: What are you doing?

Observer: I am writing.

Kylie: You not drawing?

Observer: No. How about you, what are you doing?

Kylie: Just waiting here for my mum. I can draw!

Observer: Oh really? What sort of things do you draw?

Kylie: ‘tuhtels, twuks, tygrs’ (turtles, trucks, tigers). All start with letter T!

Observer: Yes, you are right! Can you also write the letter T? (hands Kylie her notebook and pen)

Kylie: It’s easy! (writes capital letter T).

Observer: Wow! You are a good writer of letter T

Kylie: Thanks… I can also do it with my left hand.

Observer: Oh you mean right and left hands?

Kylie: I have two hands…. This is left (raises left hand) and this is right (raises right hand).

Checklist

Developmental Checklist for Four Year olds

Rating Scales (Personal and Social Development)