Language learning is one of the most powerful factors and incentives in the development of the child, the child discovers the access to all the achievements of human culture, forms the identity of the person as a whole; and in addition, it is the basis of psychological processes. It is closely linked with thinking. The ability to choose the right word is highly dependent on the size of the vocabulary, which contributes to the clarity and precision of thought.
Thus, the lexical development is significant and demands closer attention. The major purpose of the paper is to explore the mechanisms, biases, and experiences that are important for childrens lexical development. There are a lot of reasonable opinions that should be taken into consideration. However, I believe that there are three fundamental factors that contribute to positive lexical development. Some experts are sure that word learning biases are assumptions that help children to extend their vocabulary and learn new words faster (Hansen and Markman 592).
Whereas other experts claim that children learn new words when they look at the object and hear the definition (Parise et al. 842). In addition, there is a popular opinion that the ability and mechanisms of learning new words are highly dependent on the language peculiarities (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 146). So, children from different countries learn words in a different way.
Speech is one of the most important mental functions. Higher forms of cognitive activity and ability for conceptual thinking are shaped in the process of the development of speech. The meaning of the word is a generalization and therefore is not only the unit of speech but the unit of thought as well. They are not identical and are formed independently. Ellen Markman, in her numerous works, makes an accent on the mechanisms of associations and their significance to the lexical development of a child.
The ability to associate new words and their meaning contributes to positive development and extension of the vocabulary. The researcher states that a child should undergo three stages before a new world is acquired (Hansen and Markman 592). These stages involve the whole object assumption, the taxonomic assumption, and the mutual exclusivity assumption. To get better involved in the issue, every stage should be taken into consideration.
According to the whole object assumption, when a child hears a new word, he perceives the object in general, however, not parts. A number of experiments proved that when a child is given an object and is provided with a new word, he will think that this word refers to the whole object. As for the taxonomic assumption, it is worth noting that children tend to categorize objects based on the thematic relations. For example, during the experiment children related milk to cow, spoon to the soup as they have already learned these words and have already drawn associations to remember them better.
Hearing new words, a child will draw parallels between the words that he has already learned. So, when a child hears the word sheep, he will make a relation between milk, cow, and sheep (Hansen and Markman 593). According to the approach of the mutual exclusivity assumption, children choose an unknown object as a reference for the new word, because it is believed by default that one object belongs to the same category, and therefore, should be labeled. Consequently, the new word belongs to the unknown object. During the experiment, the children aged three and four were playing with two objects, namely known (the car) and unknown.
After that, the experimenter asked a child to give him an object using a new artificial word. In all the cases, children gave an unknown object. However, when the experimenter asked can you give it to me? children gave a car to the experimenter (Hansen and Markman 594).
A number of recent researches prove that the ability of a child to acquire new words is dependent on the native language (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 146). Children learn words according to some patterns; however, these mechanisms differ in children with different native languages. The languages under consideration are English and Korean. The English language is focused on the noun; thus, children pay more attention to objects, whereas the languages from the Asian group, Korean or Japanese, are orientated on the verb, and that is, children are more focused on actions (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 153).
During the experiment, children were checked for the ability to learn new words. The participants were showed pictures and according to the eye-tracking technologies, the researchers realized when the child recognizes the new word. The experiment proved that language peculiarities play an essential role in the process of lexical development. Children having English as a native language struggled with acquiring new verbs, whereas Korean children made it with ease (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 155). The researchers state that the syntax and structure of the language influence the way children perceive new words.
The process of acquiring new words by children is dependent on the social reasoning. The primary objective of children is to interpret the behavior, actions, and words of the speaker and to relate this information to the unknown objects. According to the theory proposed by John Locke, adults should pay a lot of attention to the glance of children (Parise et al. 843). The experiment was conducted, when children aged two misinterpreted the words because adults told them a new word while children were looking at another unknown object.
For example, when the infant looks at the adults face and hears the word biscuit he will misinterpret the world biscuit. Following the ideas described by John Locke and other researchers, the accent should be laid on the objects that the child is looking at (Parise et al. 844). This way, adults can contribute to a positive development and foster the process of the extension of the vocabulary.
In conclusion, it should be pointed out that there are a lot of mechanisms that improve the lexical development of the child. The mechanisms and experiments described in the paper can be considered as one of the most beneficial for implementation. The ability of a child to make associations, categorizations, language peculiarities, and significance of the eye contact should be taken into account as they influence the process of development in an impressive way.
The recent researchers prove that future academic performance and success are highly dependent on the experience the child has during early years. In addition, the ability of children to study, learn new languages, use logic, and critical thinking can be formed in the childhood. Thus, appropriate mechanisms of learning new words should be implemented into the process of education.
Works Cited
Hansen, Mikkel, and Ellen Markman. Childrens Use of Mutual Exclusivity to Learn Labels for Parts of Objects. Developmental Psychology 45.2 (2009): 592-596. Web.
Parise, Eugenio, Andrea Handl, Letizia Palumbo, and Angela Friederici. Influence of Eye Gaze on Spoken Word Processing: An ERP Study with Infants. Child Development 82.3 (2011): 842-853. Web.
Syrett, Kristen, Julien Musolino, and Rochel Gelman. How Can Syntax Support Number Word Acquisition? Language Learning and Development 8.2 (2012): 146-176. Web.
Children usually start their oral language development when they are six years old. The development starts with babbling and listening to people around them (Hoff, 2013). However, at the age of two, young children start talking, and their language becomes more intelligible for adults or older children. At the age of three, children usually start speaking and asking a lot (Charlesworth, 2013). Therefore, it can be beneficial to consider the way such children communicate as it may provide insights into some peculiarities of oral language development (associated hazards, obstacles, favorable conditions, and other features). The paper includes a brief analysis of the way oral language proficiency affects childrens interactions with others.
The two children come from monolingual middle-class families living in the urban area. The children are Caucasian. One of the children is a boy of 27 months (who will be referred to as Sam for convenience). The other child is a girl aged 37 months (who will be referred to as Jane for convenience). Sam is the only child while Jane has two siblings who are five and seven years old. The observation took place in the childrens houses with their moms in the room. The observer interacted with the children. At that, when interviewing Jane, her brother appeared, and she wanted to play with him. The observations lasted approximately 25 minutes. Importantly, the children know the observer, which may have affected their willingness to interact and their overall behavior.
It is necessary to note that the two children develop their oral language skills a bit differently as Jane is showing more success. Sam uses some words, but, likely, the vocabulary is not very wide. The boy also ignores the interlocutor and focuses on his activities more often as compared to Jane. Sam does not use complete sentences even short ones. He uses separate words to express his needs, wants, or attitude. He uses yes and no a lot. Instead of repeating parts of the question or provide clarifying information, Sam simply says yes or no (see Appendix A). The boy also babbled when he was absorbed by a game he invented. Sams phonological skills are quite limited as he does not pronounce properly many of the words used. Oral language skills are quite appropriate for his age. The boys mother notes that she tries to develop his oral language skills using various strategies. The woman regards her effort as insufficient as other children have larger vocabularies, better pronunciation, and so on. She believes that more interaction with peers could be beneficial. At that, Topping, Dekhinet, and Zeedyk (2013) claim that the interactions between parents and children are more important or oral language development as compared to the childs interaction with peers. Gurgel, Vidor, Joly, and Reppold (2014) states that such risk factors as interactions with parents, social environment, and encouragement.
Jane, on the contrary, uses simple sentences, tries to provide as much information as possible. Jane is likely to have quite an extensive vocabulary even though the short observation could not help in identifying the exact number of words in her vocabulary. Jane uses several grammatic structures such as plurals (bananas), possessives (mine), and comparative forms (better). The girl is quite talkative and eager to interact with an adult and a peer. She is willing to answer questions, invite people to play with her. Janes phonological skills are very good as she pronounces everything intelligibly. The girls progress can be explained by her interactions with siblings and her mothers effort (Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, Hammer, Maczuga, 2015).
It is necessary to note that childrens level of oral language proficiency has a significant impact on the way they interact with others. Morgan et al. (2015) stress that low oral language proficiency hurts the childs interaction with peers and adults. Childrens vocabulary is one of the most influential factors affecting childrens behavior. This claim can be illustrated with the findings of this observation. Sam, who has quite a limited vocabulary, is not as willing to communicate with others as compared to Jane. Jane can explain her needs and ideas, which makes communication more effective and, thus, more pleasant for both Jane and her interlocutor(s). Importantly, Jane also asked questions to learn about the world around her. Sam was willing to play with an adult, but only a few words were used when playing.
In conclusion, it is necessary to note that oral language development has a significant effect on the way children interact with peers and adults. Sam and Jane have different levels of oral language capacity, and they can be characterized by quite different behaviors when interacting with others. Jane is more willing to play and talk while Sam focuses on playing and tries to avoid talking too much. It is acknowledged that one of the major factors contributing to the childs success is the interaction with parents and peers.
References
Charlesworth, R. (2013). Understanding child development. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Gurgel, L., Vidor, D., Joly, M., & Reppold, C. (2014). Risk factors for proper oral language development in children: A systematic literature review. CoDAS, 26(5), 350-356.
Hoff, E. (2013). Language development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Morgan, P., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M., Hammer, C., & Maczuga, S. (2015). 24-month-old children with larger oral vocabularies display greater academic and behavioral functioning at kindergarten entry. Child Development, 86(5), 1351-1370.
Topping, K., Dekhinet, R., & Zeedyk, S. (2013). Parentinfant interaction and childrens language development. Educational Psychology, 33(4), 391-426.
Appendix A
ECH-515 Language Development Skills
Language Development Observation
Child #1 Age: 2 years
Child #2 Age: 3 years
Pre-linguistic Skills Examples of (in)appropriate cooing/babbling
nonolome, bogoloku
Not observed
Receptive Language Skills Examples of comprehension of language and appropriate responses
The child responds to the greeting by waving. He can point at parts of his body when asked. He brings the toys mentioned.
The child responds to greetings saying hello and bye. She answers questions concerning her age, her name, her parents names, her toys. She brings correct shapes and objects of different colors correctly.
Expressive Language Skills Examples of (in)appropriate expressive language
Inappropriate: see (instead of look), go (instead of lets go) Appropriate: give, yes, no, dont, sit
Appropriate: Give me this. Help me. Lets play. Take it. Im hungry. Look at me.
Oral Fluency Skills Examples of the oral language used to ask questions, respond to others, and to express thoughts or feelings
Do you go? (instead of Are you leaving?)
Its mine. (as a response to Whose doll is it?) Its nice. My toys are nice. I love my cat. I want more toys. Im happy. Why? Whats that? Where?
Vocabulary/Grammar Skills Examples of (in)appropriate vocabulary and grammar when speaking and/or writing
Appropriate plane, car, cat, orange
Appropriate: toys, doll, cat, ball, at work, nice cookies, best friend, she is better, her mummy.
Interaction with Peers/Adults Examples of (in)appropriate interaction with peers and adults for any stage of language development
The child is willing to play but ignores some questions if absorbed by some toy or activity.
The child is willing to play, shows her toys, and even provides some information about them. She is also willing to play with peers. She invites them to play games.
Response to Conversations Examples of understanding of everyday conversations and participation in conversation with one or more individuals.
Do you like pandas? Yes. Where is your daddy? Work. Whats this? Orange, hand, arm, leg Can I play with you? Yes. Can mommy join us? Yes. See (when addressing the observer and pointing at a tree).
Whats your favorite fruit? I like bananas. Where is your daddy? At work. What do you want to do? I want to dance. The doll is sleepy. No, she is hungry. She wants bananas. Im three.
Additional examples that describe the stages of language development.
The child calls some people by their names. He also uses no and yes a lot.
The girls pronunciation is very good as all the words are intelligible.
Memorizing and reading English vocabulary from the English textbooks assist students to recall them with precision and accuracy. In this, the more a student practices how to count, memorize, and learn through reading, the greater the effect of retaining much of what they learn in a class. To bring out the concept of the ABCs in childrens development, the book Chicka Chicka Boom Boom was drafted to serve the needs of young beginners. The books focus on ABC is depicted in a fun and simple manner to teach children subconsciously. The constant repetition and rhymes throughout the text make it seem like a song to the reader, further entertaining the children. These rhymes help the children to memorize the ABCs as they read the story. The book utilizes very creative skills to introduce these letters in the alphabet by climbing a symbolic coconut tree (Martin et al 10).
Furthermore, Martin et al. use repetitiveness by allowing the letters to fall from the tree once they have all been introduced to re-introduce them again. In this way, the childrens memorization is enhanced by this method. The author chooses to utilize colorful and bright pictures to improve the atmosphere and elaborate on the fun. The story creates fun for the children because of the clarity of the photographs and their relation to the text (Martin et al 30).
The other book that is very useful to the childrens literary development is The Poky Little Puppy. The book is a counting genre text that is meant to assist children to develop their counting skills. The repetitiveness utilized by the author is an effort to make sure that the children master the concept of counting. In this case, this is because the author makes the children count the characters in the story many times without consciously knowing the effect of this practice. The main character in the story, the Poky Little Puppy, is missing when others are counting themselves. Regardless of the storyline and the moral lessons learned in this story, the children have to learn the art of counting up to five (Lowrey et al 9-15). The author ensures that the rhythms, creativity, attractiveness, and the playfulness in the story keep the readers entertained as they read the tale of the five siblings.
The wordless story in this book is effective as it can be. More or less, the observer can learn and understand the storyline depicted by the pictures (DePaola 28). DePaola can ensure that the learners use their observation skills to understand the story in this book (DePaola 6). He uses clear and concise pictures to explain the predicament of both the hunter and the animals that he hunts on. Moreover, the author can utilize the same pictures to disguise the animals that the hunter is looking for in such a way that they are camouflaged from his sight (DePaola 8). The pictures are so simple and clear in this book, yet they contain so much detail. The children can see the progression of the story through simple illustrations yet in detail. Furthermore, the author uses facial expressions to explain feelings in the story. The book is full of charm and humor.
Works Cited
DePaola, Tomie. The hunter and the animals: a wordless picture book. New York: Holiday House, 1981. Print.
Lowrey, Janette Sebring, and Gustaf Tenggren. The poky little puppy. New York: Golden Book, 1997. Print.
Martin, Bill, John Archambault, and Lois Ehlert. Chicka chicka boom boom. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers, 1989. Print.
When considering effectiveness of the interview and my success, I will pay attention to such aspects as the ability to elicit the participants opinions, my interview performance as well as some ethical considerations. There are various types of interviews that can be effective in different settings. Some of these interviews provide more freedom and flexibility to both the researcher and the participant while others are more standardized. I chose a combination of general interview guide approach and informal conversational interview (Turner, 2010). These two approaches imply the use of pre-written questions used by the researcher in a way that best fits the situation. Thus, the researchers may choose the order of questions asked. The wording can be changed as well. The researcher is not confined to asking questions only as he/she can insert additional (explanatory) information as well as his/her ideas on various issues. This makes the interview similar to a conversation.
This format enabled me to remain flexible and maintain a friendly atmosphere while focusing on the goals of the interview. The friendly atmosphere established helped the interviewee relax and become more open. The interviewee was willing to participate in the discussion and provide his opinions on the matter. Importantly, the participant has to be free to express his/her viewpoints and, hence, he/she cannot be interrupted, encouraged/forced/assisted to answer in a particular way (Cortazzi, 2008). Of course, if the participant does not understand the question and asks for clarifications, the researcher should add some details. Jones (2013) stresses that the approach of a guided conversation is beneficial for the qualitative research as it provides the researcher with a bulk of details. The participant is not restricted to focus on particular questions as he/she can share his/her experiences and give evaluations to his/her actions. Of course, it is important to be careful when asking questions as researchers can be flexible but they have to stick to major points of their research (Patton, 2014).
I also used a format of the standardised open-ended interview, which also contributed to the necessary degree of flexibility and focus on major issues (Krysik & Finn, 2013). The choice was quite correct as I had a set of questions and I could see the reaction to this or that question, which enabled me to adjust my enquiry and maintain the friendly atmosphere. The interview was more like a discussion and sharing ideas. Of course, I was also able to elicit more precise and detailed answers. I believe this format is the most suitable for the goals of the interview as I was interested in the participants opinion on feasibility of my research. His ideas turned out to be very valuable. I took a closer look at the practical aspect of the issue. I understood that my research needed slight changes and more attention should be paid to the role of the community in the process of childrens integration into the multilingual environment.
Choosing the Participant Wisely
At this point, I would like to add that choosing the participant is also an important preparation stage for the interview. I employed a phenomenological approach that implies that participants are chosen on the basis of the researchers judgement as well as the purpose of the research (Groenewald, 2004). It is noteworthy that the vast majority of qualitative researches are based on this approach as the researcher focuses on evaluations of particular groups of people.
Tongco (2007) also stresses the importance of choosing samples wisely especially when it comes to qualitative research. Apparently, it is not enough to choose a representative of this or that group. It can be effective to select people who share certain features in common (background, socio-economic status and so on). I have acknowledged benefits of interviewing a person who is into the issue as he has personal experience and certain desire to share his ideas with others who find themselves in a similar situation.
Choosing the Right Questions
It is important to note that I asked good questions (Merriam, 2009, p. 95). These questions were mainly open and I did not try to provide possible variants of answers. These questions do not put any restrictions and the interviewee is free to respond in any way, which also helps to see the way he/she understands the question and feels about the subject matter (Anderson & Arsenault, 2005). The interviewee could use his own perspective and he was eager to share his ideas, which were quite helpful for me. I managed to avoid leading questions that also create bias and often make the participant to answer in a specific way (Driscoll, 2011). Of course, this can undermine validity of the results. This can also affect sincerity of the participant who would feel uncomfortable within certain boundaries and would try to answer in a way to please the interviewee. When considering the interview, I have to admit that some questions were not very effective as the participant could use very short answers (limited to agreeing or disagreeing). With a less responsive participant, this could lead to quite negative results, as I would be unable to understand the interviewees opinion on the matter.
The Use of Technology
I would like to add that using technology did not undermine effectiveness of my research. Again, the necessary trustworthy atmosphere was established even though the researcher and the participant did not meet in private. Wilson (2011) states that technology facilitates efficiency of qualitative research methods as people have already got accustomed to using it and do not feel the difference between face-to-face or computer-based communication. It is also important to note that the interviewee felt relaxed and comfortable as he was in his house (his zone of comfort). Mannay and Morgan (2014) emphasise that keeping the environment as natural as possible is beneficial for the qualitative research as people share their ideas and opinions frankly. Interestingly, Meho (2006) states that it is possible to conduct e-mail interviews, which will save a lot of time especially at the stage of data preparation and analysis. However, I believe the use of such applications as Skype will be the major computer-based technology utilised. The interview held shows that I need a face-to-face interaction to decipher nonverbal cues (which expands my understanding of the participants position) and to make sure that the necessary rapport is established. I believe issues associated with culture and interaction between people needs specific attention to emotions. Therefore, seeing the participant is quite important for the researcher. Of course, I will use emails to send and receive consent forms and so on.
Non-Verbal Communication
I also used my knowledge in nonverbal communication. Kee and Thompson-Hayes (2012) state that nonverbal communication is one of the most important components of the interview. I paid attention to nonverbal cues as it added valuable information. Thus, I could see that the interviewee was eager to communicate and respond to my questions. I could also trace the instances when questions were particularly interesting or challenging for the participant. I saw when the interviewee was particularly involved and when he was less focused. I could also trace meaningful emotions. The participant was somewhat more focused when he was talking about his childs experiences. He was smiling when he mentioned that he also encourages his child. Of course, the interview was a great practice for me as I could notice various clues that will help me in my future.
Establishment of the Necessary Atmosphere
As far as my interview performance is concerned, it was quite successful though some imperfections can still be found. One of my successes was establishment of the necessary rapport. To achieve this goal, I implemented a brief research on the participant. I wanted to know more about immigrants having small children in the USA. I read some blogs, newspaper articles and talked with people I know. Even such a brief research provided me with many helpful insights. Roulston (2010) stresses that understanding the participants (their gender, ethnicity, interests and so on) is important as it enables the researcher to put the right questions and put them in the right way. I believe I managed to understand certain peculiarities of the interviewee, which helped me to create the trustful atmosphere.
Personal Traits and Experiences of the Participants and the Researcher
Of course, my qualities, my ethnicity, age and so on also played a significant role in this process. Seidman (2013) stresses that the relationship between the interviewee and the interviewer depends on their personal features including age, ethnicity, gender, education, socioeconomic status and so on. It was quite easy to establish the appropriate relationship with the interviewee as we share a lot in common. For instance, we are both Saudi Arabian who were brought up in this country and, hence, we share similar values. We also pertain to the similar social strata. We are almost of the same age. We also have quite similar educational background, which also helps to create the necessary rapport. I also think that the fact that the participant has a degree had a significant impact on his decision to take part in the research. The interviewee was more eager to participate in the research as he completed certain academic researches as well and he understands their value.
At the same time, we are quite different. One of the major differences is the fact that the interviewee lives in the USA where he has to assimilate as well as maintain his own traditions and values while raising his child. He also sees the way multilingual environment affects his child and he has a particular (very personal) view on the matter. Of course, his opinion on the way the childs behaviour is affected by the multilingual environment may be quite biased as he has had certain issues when trying to fit in.
For me, the research is less personal, which is quite good for validity of the research as I can be unbiased (or as unbiased as possible). Of course, I may miss many things that are obvious for the participant who faces some issues every day. However, I believe that these differences did not spoil the atmosphere and the rapport established. Rossi (2013, p. 96) states that educational research often implies quite specific relationship between the researchers and the participant as the researcher may often hold a position of influence over research participants . However, this was not the case as the interviewee was more eager to help me as he might feel that I did not have the opportunity to observe my own child in the multilingual environment and, hence, I needed certain help to identify the most meaningful aspects of the problem. In my case, I was more dependent on the participant as I needed his evaluation of my projects feasibility.
Explaining the Relevance of the Research
It is necessary to add that I was quite successful when explaining the relevance of the research. At that, I should admit that similarities we share made the process very easy. I simply named the topic of the research and the participant noted that the topic was quite important. He also asked me why I chose him to participate. After my explanation, the interviewee agreed that the topic was relevant and it had a direct impact on him or rather his child. Notably, choosing the right participants and understanding their peculiarities makes it quite easy to explain the relevance of the research. I believe that being exposed to challenges I will explore in my research, the participant is willing to explain his attitude towards many things and help me identify the most important aspects to consider.
Detected Flaws
Questions
As has been mentioned above, some of my questions were not very effective. I have to admit that the wording was quite inappropriate as the participant could simply say yes or no. I also feel I could ask some more questions that could help me to understand whether my research was feasible enough. Of course, the time was quite limited but I think I could ask some additional questions.
I am particularly dissatisfied with my utterance that included the reference to Hymes theory. I asked the question as if the interview was to know major aspects of the theory. I did not explain it to the participant and it was quite inappropriate to ask the interviewee about the reasons to view the matter from the perspective of the theory mentioned above. The interviewee answered the question in accordance with his understanding (ignoring the theory and focusing on certain role of the community). However, the participant could give a more complete answer if he was aware of the major points of Hymes theory.
Ethical Concerns
Furthermore, I have to admit that I failed to pay the necessary attention to ethical concerns. Webster (2013) stresses that having a signed ethical consent is only a part of the sustainable and ethical approach that has to be applied. It is clear that ethical research is the one where questions and answers are ethical, the relationships between the researcher and the participant are ethical and ethical issues are explicitly addressed (if applicable). Clearly, all my questions were ethical and they did not make the interviewee feel uneasy. However, I feel I failed to engage the interviewee in the importance of certain ethical issues. I could put a direct question as to particular ethical issues associated with the research. This could provide me with the necessary insights into the way people see the problem. Johnson and Christensen (2013) stress that ethical concerns are not limited to sexuality or drug abuse and it is important to address a variety of ethical issues in a research. I think it would be beneficial for the research if I asked the interviewee about possible ethical issues that could arise. Clearly, the participant lives in quite a different community and he can see specific ethical issues children in multilingual communities face. This information could help me develop more effective questionnaires.
Participants Comments
As for the participants opinions and the way he responded, I would like to stress that he was very friendly and responsive. Again, nonverbal cues I traced suggest that he was quite pleased to take part in the research. The participant smiled and nodded whenever he agreed. It is also necessary to add that the interviewee was very attentive and serious. He wanted to make everything as clear as possible. Thus, when he was talking about his child going through a period of changes, he hesitated trying to choose the right and the most precise words. He also tried to give quite detailed answers.
Importantly, when listening to the participant and especially when analysing his responses, I paid attention to nonverbal cues as well as wording, which is essential as it enables the researcher to elicit the most relevant information (Hale & Napier, 2013). For instance, I felt the participant was about to use the word problems as the child who had to integrate into a society that is different often faces certain issues (misunderstanding, alienation or even violence). However, the participant chose the word changes . This shows his positive attitude to the process of integration. The participant understands the importance of effective integration into the community, and he also knows that this process (as well as certain challenges) is inevitable. It is also clear that the participant supported his child and tried to help him go through the hard period. As has been mentioned above, he also encountered certain issues associated with integration into the community and he had already developed certain techniques to make the integration effective and as smooth as possible. Rubin and Rubin (2005) state that close analysis of particular words of participants, which often contain several additional meanings, is crucial and, hence, the researcher has to unveil the meanings enclosed in the participants responses.
The participant shared his viewpoints openly and he stressed the importance of the community in the integration process. He admitted that linguistic and cultural aspects are often intertwined and they needed to be analysed in terms of the life in the community. His perspective expanded the boundaries of my research and I saw particular gaps in my understanding of the issue.
Relevance and Benefits of This Reflection
Analysis of the present interview helped me to see imperfections of my research methods. In this respect, I would like to note that reflective commentary approach has proved to be effective for me (Shenton, 2004, p. 68). Shenton (2004) notes that the researcher has to understand him/herself to be able to avoid bias and implement the most effective research. A reflective commentary is a summary of major achievements and issues the researcher encounters during a research or different phases of his/her research. I intend to write reflective commentaries during a number stages of my research. This will be especially important at the preparation stage and when interviews will be held. This will help me remain focused and avoid possible mistakes and bias.
For instance, this reflection helped me to see that I should fill in the gap concerning ethical considerations. Leadbeater et al. (2006) state that ethical concerns are specifically burning when it comes to the research involving children and adolescents. During my research, I will focus on behaviours of these two groups and I will also address their parents. Of course, I will have to be more ethically sensitive and have the necessary skills to implement the research effectively. Thus, when analysing texts I will pay specific attention to five key areas of ethical competence : competence, informed consent, confidentiality, power, social justice (Evans, Hearn, Uhlemann & Ivey, 2010, p. 19). Apart from receiving signed informed consent forms, I will make sure that my questions are ethically acceptable. I think I may need to change wording or omit some questions when talking to some people. This will depend on participants profiles. Of course, participants will be free to ignore questions they find inappropriate. Again, implementing a brief research on major groups of participants may help me develop proper questionnaires and to be able to analyse participants responses in a more efficient way, as I will understand, at least, some motivations of participants.
As has been mentioned above, I have acknowledged the need to be more prepared to the interview as I was unable to choose the right questions in some cases. Cone and Winters (2011) provide a detailed guideline for getting ready for the interview. It is clear that the preparation stage is complex and needs specific attention. I will implement a research on participants. I will try to elicit more information on the mental models of people who will take part in the research, as this will enable me to analyse their responses more efficiently. Mental models are sets of beliefs, values and knowledge that affect peoples behaviour and decision-making (Cone & Winters, 2011). Of course, I will have to speak the language of the participants, as this will ensure full understanding.
In future, I will also avoid asking questions that contain information participants are not aware of. For instance, the case with my question on the relevance of Hymes perspective for my research is quite suggestive. It is clear that first I had to introduce major aspects of the approach to the participant to understand his opinion. However, this would take some time, which is quite limited during the interview. Thus, I could simply incorporate major aspects of Hymes approach into my question and, in that way, I could understand whether the participants sees the perspective appropriate for my research.
Apart from that case, it is clear that I have to pay more attention to the wording. I feel I need more preparation. Of course, I will adjust the questions to make the interview similar to a conversation but I will have a pre-written set of questions. This will help me remain focused and precise (Dey, 2005). I was a bit nervous during the experiment. Though it was not very noticeable (my voice did not shake, there was no hesitation in my speech) but my psychological state affected the way I chose words. I feel I had to be more precise.
In conclusion, I can say that even though there were some flaws, the interview was quite successful. My performance is satisfactory. Of course, I will have to improve some of the techniques I used. I will also add some changes to the research that will become more relevant and valid. I found the interview and the reflection very effective, as I am now able to fill in the gap in my knowledge and skills.
Interview with Hussain
Background
Hussain is an American of a Saudi Arabian descent and with the corresponding cultural heritage. He was interviewed by the author of the research via Skype.
Interview
Interviewer (I): Hello, Hussain. It is very nice to meet you. Thank you for taking your time to answer my questions.
Hussain (H): The pleasure is mine.
I: I will ask you several questions regarding the feasibility of my research project. I will need some pieces of advice from you based on your experience of moving from Saudi Arabia to the US and helping your son accommodate to the new cultural environment. Does that sound all right?
H: Sure, go ahead.
I: Thank you. I am planning to consider the effects that multiculturalism has on the development of Saudi Arabian children.
H: That sounds like an interesting idea (smiles). However, I am a bit curious about why you decided to choose me for this interview.
I: I did, because my research revolves around the Saudi Arabian children, who develop in a diverse and multicultural environment, such as the one that your son ended up in as your family moved to the United States.
H: (nodding) Oh that makes sense. Actually, my son had a few issues when integrating into the American society.
I: Thats very interesting. In fact, it touches upon one of my research questions, What are the effects of multilingualism on childrens language development and behaviour in a Saudi Arabian community? So, from what I understand, it all boiled down to language issues. Am I right?
H: Not quite. Sure, he had to ask people to talk slower and use simpler words a lot, but he also how do I put it? (stops, looking for the right word) he went through a lot of changes.
I: What kind of changes were these?
H: At first, he seemed to be rather aggressive when there was a misunderstanding, whether a linguistic or a cultural one. However, after the assistance that we received from the Saudi Arabian community, he started learning to solve conflicts.
I: So, basically, what you say is there is an obvious link between the ethnographic community and the development of speech skills.
H: Pretty much.
I: The theory about the connection between ethnographic communities and the process of speech development was suggested by Dell Hymes. Do you think that there is a reason to view the problem from the perspective of Hymes theory?
H: Yes, I believe that it was the influence of the community that helped my son to adjust to the new environment and develop English speaking skills. Of course, dont forget to give my son some credit for studying well, too! (Smiles)
I: If you were to address this topic, would you have asked this question differently?
H: The question about multiculturalism?
I: & and its effects on the children developing in a Saudi Arabian community.
H: (Choosing words carefully) I would also address the issue of intercultural conflicts.
I: Do you mean the kind of conflicts based on language difference or on the one between the two cultures?
H: Id say, both, because, personally, I believe they are intertwined. The differences between cultures define the differences between languages.
I: Indeed, they are. Well, I wish you, your son and your wife the best of luck. Thank you for the interview, Hussain!
H: Youre welcome (smiles). Good-bye!
I: See you!
Consent Form
The Effects of Multilingualism on Saudi Arabian Childrens Behaviour and Language Development
Purpose of the Study
You are being asked to participate in the research on the impact of multiculturalism on Saudi Arabian childrens behaviour and language development. The purpose of this study is to identify exact ways multilingualism affects Saudi Arabian childrens development and behaviour in American and Saudi Arabian communities.
Methodology
If you agree to participate, we will have an interview that will include questions concerning your child who is now raised in the US community and is affected by multilingualism. The interview will last 15-20 minutes and will be held with the help of Skype. With your permission, your answers will be tape-recorded.
Risks
There is a risk that some of the questions asked can be sensitive for you. However, if this will be the cases you can choose not to answer the question. You may also withdraw from the interview at any moment.
Confidentiality
All of the information provided will be completely confidential and available to the researcher only.
Statement of Consent
I have read the information provided above and I agree to participate in the research and I agree to have the interview tape-recorded.
Your Signature____________________________ Date________________________
Your Name___________________________________________________________
Anderson, G., & Arsenault, N. (2005). Fundamentals of educational research. London, UK: Routledge.
Cone, J., & Winters, K. (2011). Mental models interviewing for more effective communication. Web.
Cortazzi, M. (2008). Narrative analysis. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Dey, I. (2005). Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists. London, UK: Routledge.
Driscoll, D.L. (2011). Introduction to primary research: Observations, surveys, and interviews. In C. Lowe & P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing (pp. 153-174). San Francisco, CA: Parlor Press LLC.
Evans, D., Hearn, M., Uhlemann, M., & Ivey, A. (2010). Essential interviewing: A programmed approach to effective communication. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
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Hale, S., & Napier, J. (2013). Research methods in interpreting: A practical resource. London, UK: A&C Black.
Johnson, R.B., & Christensen, L. (2013). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. London, UK: SAGE Publications.
Jones, D. (2013). A focus on interviewing. In S. Rizvi (Ed.), Multidisciplinary approaches to educational research: Case studies from Europe and the developing world (pp. 156-170). Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Kee, K.F., & Thompson-Hayes, M. (2012). Conducting effective interviews about virtual work: Gathering and analysing data using a grounded theory approach. In S. Long (Ed.), Virtual work and human interaction research (pp. 192-213). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Krysik, J.L., & Finn, J. (2013). Research for effective social work practice. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Leadbeater, B., Riecken, T., Benoit, C., Banister, E., Brunk, C., & Glass, K. (2006). Community-based research with vulnerable populations: Challenges for ethics and research guidelines. In B.J.R. Leadbeater (Ed.), Ethical issues in community-based research with children and youth (pp. 3-22). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto.
Meho, L.I. (2006). E-mail interviewing in qualitative research: A methodological discussion. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57(10), 1284-1295.
Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
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Language learning is one of the most powerful factors and incentives in the development of the child, the child discovers the access to all the achievements of human culture, forms the identity of the person as a whole; and in addition, it is the basis of psychological processes. It is closely linked with thinking. The ability to choose the right word is highly dependent on the size of the vocabulary, which contributes to the clarity and precision of thought.
Thus, the lexical development is significant and demands closer attention. The major purpose of the paper is to explore the mechanisms, biases, and experiences that are important for childrens lexical development. There are a lot of reasonable opinions that should be taken into consideration. However, I believe that there are three fundamental factors that contribute to positive lexical development. Some experts are sure that word learning biases are assumptions that help children to extend their vocabulary and learn new words faster (Hansen and Markman 592).
Whereas other experts claim that children learn new words when they look at the object and hear the definition (Parise et al. 842). In addition, there is a popular opinion that the ability and mechanisms of learning new words are highly dependent on the language peculiarities (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 146). So, children from different countries learn words in a different way.
Speech is one of the most important mental functions. Higher forms of cognitive activity and ability for conceptual thinking are shaped in the process of the development of speech. The meaning of the word is a generalization and therefore is not only the unit of speech but the unit of thought as well. They are not identical and are formed independently. Ellen Markman, in her numerous works, makes an accent on the mechanisms of associations and their significance to the lexical development of a child.
The ability to associate new words and their meaning contributes to positive development and extension of the vocabulary. The researcher states that a child should undergo three stages before a new world is acquired (Hansen and Markman 592). These stages involve the whole object assumption, the taxonomic assumption, and the mutual exclusivity assumption. To get better involved in the issue, every stage should be taken into consideration.
According to the whole object assumption, when a child hears a new word, he perceives the object in general, however, not parts. A number of experiments proved that when a child is given an object and is provided with a new word, he will think that this word refers to the whole object. As for the taxonomic assumption, it is worth noting that children tend to categorize objects based on the thematic relations. For example, during the experiment children related milk to cow, spoon to the soup as they have already learned these words and have already drawn associations to remember them better.
Hearing new words, a child will draw parallels between the words that he has already learned. So, when a child hears the word sheep, he will make a relation between milk, cow, and sheep (Hansen and Markman 593). According to the approach of the mutual exclusivity assumption, children choose an unknown object as a reference for the new word, because it is believed by default that one object belongs to the same category, and therefore, should be labeled. Consequently, the new word belongs to the unknown object. During the experiment, the children aged three and four were playing with two objects, namely known (the car) and unknown.
After that, the experimenter asked a child to give him an object using a new artificial word. In all the cases, children gave an unknown object. However, when the experimenter asked can you give it to me? children gave a car to the experimenter (Hansen and Markman 594).
A number of recent researches prove that the ability of a child to acquire new words is dependent on the native language (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 146). Children learn words according to some patterns; however, these mechanisms differ in children with different native languages. The languages under consideration are English and Korean. The English language is focused on the noun; thus, children pay more attention to objects, whereas the languages from the Asian group, Korean or Japanese, are orientated on the verb, and that is, children are more focused on actions (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 153).
During the experiment, children were checked for the ability to learn new words. The participants were showed pictures and according to the eye-tracking technologies, the researchers realized when the child recognizes the new word. The experiment proved that language peculiarities play an essential role in the process of lexical development. Children having English as a native language struggled with acquiring new verbs, whereas Korean children made it with ease (Syrett, Musolino, and Gelman 155). The researchers state that the syntax and structure of the language influence the way children perceive new words.
The process of acquiring new words by children is dependent on the social reasoning. The primary objective of children is to interpret the behavior, actions, and words of the speaker and to relate this information to the unknown objects. According to the theory proposed by John Locke, adults should pay a lot of attention to the glance of children (Parise et al. 843). The experiment was conducted, when children aged two misinterpreted the words because adults told them a new word while children were looking at another unknown object.
For example, when the infant looks at the adults face and hears the word biscuit he will misinterpret the world biscuit. Following the ideas described by John Locke and other researchers, the accent should be laid on the objects that the child is looking at (Parise et al. 844). This way, adults can contribute to a positive development and foster the process of the extension of the vocabulary.
In conclusion, it should be pointed out that there are a lot of mechanisms that improve the lexical development of the child. The mechanisms and experiments described in the paper can be considered as one of the most beneficial for implementation. The ability of a child to make associations, categorizations, language peculiarities, and significance of the eye contact should be taken into account as they influence the process of development in an impressive way.
The recent researchers prove that future academic performance and success are highly dependent on the experience the child has during early years. In addition, the ability of children to study, learn new languages, use logic, and critical thinking can be formed in the childhood. Thus, appropriate mechanisms of learning new words should be implemented into the process of education.
Works Cited
Hansen, Mikkel, and Ellen Markman. Childrens Use of Mutual Exclusivity to Learn Labels for Parts of Objects. Developmental Psychology 45.2 (2009): 592-596. Web.
Parise, Eugenio, Andrea Handl, Letizia Palumbo, and Angela Friederici. Influence of Eye Gaze on Spoken Word Processing: An ERP Study with Infants. Child Development 82.3 (2011): 842-853. Web.
Syrett, Kristen, Julien Musolino, and Rochel Gelman. How Can Syntax Support Number Word Acquisition? Language Learning and Development 8.2 (2012): 146-176. Web.
Children usually start their oral language development when they are six years old. The development starts with babbling and listening to people around them (Hoff, 2013). However, at the age of two, young children start talking, and their language becomes more intelligible for adults or older children. At the age of three, children usually start speaking and asking a lot (Charlesworth, 2013). Therefore, it can be beneficial to consider the way such children communicate as it may provide insights into some peculiarities of oral language development (associated hazards, obstacles, favorable conditions, and other features). The paper includes a brief analysis of the way oral language proficiency affects childrens interactions with others.
The two children come from monolingual middle-class families living in the urban area. The children are Caucasian. One of the children is a boy of 27 months (who will be referred to as Sam for convenience). The other child is a girl aged 37 months (who will be referred to as Jane for convenience). Sam is the only child while Jane has two siblings who are five and seven years old. The observation took place in the childrens houses with their moms in the room. The observer interacted with the children. At that, when interviewing Jane, her brother appeared, and she wanted to play with him. The observations lasted approximately 25 minutes. Importantly, the children know the observer, which may have affected their willingness to interact and their overall behavior.
It is necessary to note that the two children develop their oral language skills a bit differently as Jane is showing more success. Sam uses some words, but, likely, the vocabulary is not very wide. The boy also ignores the interlocutor and focuses on his activities more often as compared to Jane. Sam does not use complete sentences even short ones. He uses separate words to express his needs, wants, or attitude. He uses yes and no a lot. Instead of repeating parts of the question or provide clarifying information, Sam simply says yes or no (see Appendix A). The boy also babbled when he was absorbed by a game he invented. Sams phonological skills are quite limited as he does not pronounce properly many of the words used. Oral language skills are quite appropriate for his age. The boys mother notes that she tries to develop his oral language skills using various strategies. The woman regards her effort as insufficient as other children have larger vocabularies, better pronunciation, and so on. She believes that more interaction with peers could be beneficial. At that, Topping, Dekhinet, and Zeedyk (2013) claim that the interactions between parents and children are more important or oral language development as compared to the childs interaction with peers. Gurgel, Vidor, Joly, and Reppold (2014) states that such risk factors as interactions with parents, social environment, and encouragement.
Jane, on the contrary, uses simple sentences, tries to provide as much information as possible. Jane is likely to have quite an extensive vocabulary even though the short observation could not help in identifying the exact number of words in her vocabulary. Jane uses several grammatic structures such as plurals (bananas), possessives (mine), and comparative forms (better). The girl is quite talkative and eager to interact with an adult and a peer. She is willing to answer questions, invite people to play with her. Janes phonological skills are very good as she pronounces everything intelligibly. The girls progress can be explained by her interactions with siblings and her mothers effort (Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, Hammer, Maczuga, 2015).
It is necessary to note that childrens level of oral language proficiency has a significant impact on the way they interact with others. Morgan et al. (2015) stress that low oral language proficiency hurts the childs interaction with peers and adults. Childrens vocabulary is one of the most influential factors affecting childrens behavior. This claim can be illustrated with the findings of this observation. Sam, who has quite a limited vocabulary, is not as willing to communicate with others as compared to Jane. Jane can explain her needs and ideas, which makes communication more effective and, thus, more pleasant for both Jane and her interlocutor(s). Importantly, Jane also asked questions to learn about the world around her. Sam was willing to play with an adult, but only a few words were used when playing.
In conclusion, it is necessary to note that oral language development has a significant effect on the way children interact with peers and adults. Sam and Jane have different levels of oral language capacity, and they can be characterized by quite different behaviors when interacting with others. Jane is more willing to play and talk while Sam focuses on playing and tries to avoid talking too much. It is acknowledged that one of the major factors contributing to the childs success is the interaction with parents and peers.
References
Charlesworth, R. (2013). Understanding child development. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Gurgel, L., Vidor, D., Joly, M., & Reppold, C. (2014). Risk factors for proper oral language development in children: A systematic literature review. CoDAS, 26(5), 350-356.
Hoff, E. (2013). Language development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Morgan, P., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M., Hammer, C., & Maczuga, S. (2015). 24-month-old children with larger oral vocabularies display greater academic and behavioral functioning at kindergarten entry. Child Development, 86(5), 1351-1370.
Topping, K., Dekhinet, R., & Zeedyk, S. (2013). Parentinfant interaction and childrens language development. Educational Psychology, 33(4), 391-426.
Appendix A
ECH-515 Language Development Skills
Language Development Observation
Child #1 Age: 2 years
Child #2 Age: 3 years
Pre-linguistic Skills Examples of (in)appropriate cooing/babbling
nonolome, bogoloku
Not observed
Receptive Language Skills Examples of comprehension of language and appropriate responses
The child responds to the greeting by waving. He can point at parts of his body when asked. He brings the toys mentioned.
The child responds to greetings saying hello and bye. She answers questions concerning her age, her name, her parents names, her toys. She brings correct shapes and objects of different colors correctly.
Expressive Language Skills Examples of (in)appropriate expressive language
Inappropriate: see (instead of look), go (instead of lets go) Appropriate: give, yes, no, dont, sit
Appropriate: Give me this. Help me. Lets play. Take it. Im hungry. Look at me.
Oral Fluency Skills Examples of the oral language used to ask questions, respond to others, and to express thoughts or feelings
Do you go? (instead of Are you leaving?)
Its mine. (as a response to Whose doll is it?) Its nice. My toys are nice. I love my cat. I want more toys. Im happy. Why? Whats that? Where?
Vocabulary/Grammar Skills Examples of (in)appropriate vocabulary and grammar when speaking and/or writing
Appropriate plane, car, cat, orange
Appropriate: toys, doll, cat, ball, at work, nice cookies, best friend, she is better, her mummy.
Interaction with Peers/Adults Examples of (in)appropriate interaction with peers and adults for any stage of language development
The child is willing to play but ignores some questions if absorbed by some toy or activity.
The child is willing to play, shows her toys, and even provides some information about them. She is also willing to play with peers. She invites them to play games.
Response to Conversations Examples of understanding of everyday conversations and participation in conversation with one or more individuals.
Do you like pandas? Yes. Where is your daddy? Work. Whats this? Orange, hand, arm, leg Can I play with you? Yes. Can mommy join us? Yes. See (when addressing the observer and pointing at a tree).
Whats your favorite fruit? I like bananas. Where is your daddy? At work. What do you want to do? I want to dance. The doll is sleepy. No, she is hungry. She wants bananas. Im three.
Additional examples that describe the stages of language development.
The child calls some people by their names. He also uses no and yes a lot.
The girls pronunciation is very good as all the words are intelligible.
Memorizing and reading English vocabulary from the English textbooks assist students to recall them with precision and accuracy. In this, the more a student practices how to count, memorize, and learn through reading, the greater the effect of retaining much of what they learn in a class. To bring out the concept of the ABCs in childrens development, the book Chicka Chicka Boom Boom was drafted to serve the needs of young beginners. The books focus on ABC is depicted in a fun and simple manner to teach children subconsciously. The constant repetition and rhymes throughout the text make it seem like a song to the reader, further entertaining the children. These rhymes help the children to memorize the ABCs as they read the story. The book utilizes very creative skills to introduce these letters in the alphabet by climbing a symbolic coconut tree (Martin et al 10).
Furthermore, Martin et al. use repetitiveness by allowing the letters to fall from the tree once they have all been introduced to re-introduce them again. In this way, the childrens memorization is enhanced by this method. The author chooses to utilize colorful and bright pictures to improve the atmosphere and elaborate on the fun. The story creates fun for the children because of the clarity of the photographs and their relation to the text (Martin et al 30).
The other book that is very useful to the childrens literary development is The Poky Little Puppy. The book is a counting genre text that is meant to assist children to develop their counting skills. The repetitiveness utilized by the author is an effort to make sure that the children master the concept of counting. In this case, this is because the author makes the children count the characters in the story many times without consciously knowing the effect of this practice. The main character in the story, the Poky Little Puppy, is missing when others are counting themselves. Regardless of the storyline and the moral lessons learned in this story, the children have to learn the art of counting up to five (Lowrey et al 9-15). The author ensures that the rhythms, creativity, attractiveness, and the playfulness in the story keep the readers entertained as they read the tale of the five siblings.
The wordless story in this book is effective as it can be. More or less, the observer can learn and understand the storyline depicted by the pictures (DePaola 28). DePaola can ensure that the learners use their observation skills to understand the story in this book (DePaola 6). He uses clear and concise pictures to explain the predicament of both the hunter and the animals that he hunts on. Moreover, the author can utilize the same pictures to disguise the animals that the hunter is looking for in such a way that they are camouflaged from his sight (DePaola 8). The pictures are so simple and clear in this book, yet they contain so much detail. The children can see the progression of the story through simple illustrations yet in detail. Furthermore, the author uses facial expressions to explain feelings in the story. The book is full of charm and humor.
Works Cited
DePaola, Tomie. The hunter and the animals: a wordless picture book. New York: Holiday House, 1981. Print.
Lowrey, Janette Sebring, and Gustaf Tenggren. The poky little puppy. New York: Golden Book, 1997. Print.
Martin, Bill, John Archambault, and Lois Ehlert. Chicka chicka boom boom. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers, 1989. Print.
When considering effectiveness of the interview and my success, I will pay attention to such aspects as the ability to elicit the participants opinions, my interview performance as well as some ethical considerations. There are various types of interviews that can be effective in different settings. Some of these interviews provide more freedom and flexibility to both the researcher and the participant while others are more standardized. I chose a combination of general interview guide approach and informal conversational interview (Turner, 2010). These two approaches imply the use of pre-written questions used by the researcher in a way that best fits the situation. Thus, the researchers may choose the order of questions asked. The wording can be changed as well. The researcher is not confined to asking questions only as he/she can insert additional (explanatory) information as well as his/her ideas on various issues. This makes the interview similar to a conversation.
This format enabled me to remain flexible and maintain a friendly atmosphere while focusing on the goals of the interview. The friendly atmosphere established helped the interviewee relax and become more open. The interviewee was willing to participate in the discussion and provide his opinions on the matter. Importantly, the participant has to be free to express his/her viewpoints and, hence, he/she cannot be interrupted, encouraged/forced/assisted to answer in a particular way (Cortazzi, 2008). Of course, if the participant does not understand the question and asks for clarifications, the researcher should add some details. Jones (2013) stresses that the approach of a guided conversation is beneficial for the qualitative research as it provides the researcher with a bulk of details. The participant is not restricted to focus on particular questions as he/she can share his/her experiences and give evaluations to his/her actions. Of course, it is important to be careful when asking questions as researchers can be flexible but they have to stick to major points of their research (Patton, 2014).
I also used a format of the standardised open-ended interview, which also contributed to the necessary degree of flexibility and focus on major issues (Krysik & Finn, 2013). The choice was quite correct as I had a set of questions and I could see the reaction to this or that question, which enabled me to adjust my enquiry and maintain the friendly atmosphere. The interview was more like a discussion and sharing ideas. Of course, I was also able to elicit more precise and detailed answers. I believe this format is the most suitable for the goals of the interview as I was interested in the participants opinion on feasibility of my research. His ideas turned out to be very valuable. I took a closer look at the practical aspect of the issue. I understood that my research needed slight changes and more attention should be paid to the role of the community in the process of childrens integration into the multilingual environment.
Choosing the Participant Wisely
At this point, I would like to add that choosing the participant is also an important preparation stage for the interview. I employed a phenomenological approach that implies that participants are chosen on the basis of the researchers judgement as well as the purpose of the research (Groenewald, 2004). It is noteworthy that the vast majority of qualitative researches are based on this approach as the researcher focuses on evaluations of particular groups of people.
Tongco (2007) also stresses the importance of choosing samples wisely especially when it comes to qualitative research. Apparently, it is not enough to choose a representative of this or that group. It can be effective to select people who share certain features in common (background, socio-economic status and so on). I have acknowledged benefits of interviewing a person who is into the issue as he has personal experience and certain desire to share his ideas with others who find themselves in a similar situation.
Choosing the Right Questions
It is important to note that I asked good questions (Merriam, 2009, p. 95). These questions were mainly open and I did not try to provide possible variants of answers. These questions do not put any restrictions and the interviewee is free to respond in any way, which also helps to see the way he/she understands the question and feels about the subject matter (Anderson & Arsenault, 2005). The interviewee could use his own perspective and he was eager to share his ideas, which were quite helpful for me. I managed to avoid leading questions that also create bias and often make the participant to answer in a specific way (Driscoll, 2011). Of course, this can undermine validity of the results. This can also affect sincerity of the participant who would feel uncomfortable within certain boundaries and would try to answer in a way to please the interviewee. When considering the interview, I have to admit that some questions were not very effective as the participant could use very short answers (limited to agreeing or disagreeing). With a less responsive participant, this could lead to quite negative results, as I would be unable to understand the interviewees opinion on the matter.
The Use of Technology
I would like to add that using technology did not undermine effectiveness of my research. Again, the necessary trustworthy atmosphere was established even though the researcher and the participant did not meet in private. Wilson (2011) states that technology facilitates efficiency of qualitative research methods as people have already got accustomed to using it and do not feel the difference between face-to-face or computer-based communication. It is also important to note that the interviewee felt relaxed and comfortable as he was in his house (his zone of comfort). Mannay and Morgan (2014) emphasise that keeping the environment as natural as possible is beneficial for the qualitative research as people share their ideas and opinions frankly. Interestingly, Meho (2006) states that it is possible to conduct e-mail interviews, which will save a lot of time especially at the stage of data preparation and analysis. However, I believe the use of such applications as Skype will be the major computer-based technology utilised. The interview held shows that I need a face-to-face interaction to decipher nonverbal cues (which expands my understanding of the participants position) and to make sure that the necessary rapport is established. I believe issues associated with culture and interaction between people needs specific attention to emotions. Therefore, seeing the participant is quite important for the researcher. Of course, I will use emails to send and receive consent forms and so on.
Non-Verbal Communication
I also used my knowledge in nonverbal communication. Kee and Thompson-Hayes (2012) state that nonverbal communication is one of the most important components of the interview. I paid attention to nonverbal cues as it added valuable information. Thus, I could see that the interviewee was eager to communicate and respond to my questions. I could also trace the instances when questions were particularly interesting or challenging for the participant. I saw when the interviewee was particularly involved and when he was less focused. I could also trace meaningful emotions. The participant was somewhat more focused when he was talking about his childs experiences. He was smiling when he mentioned that he also encourages his child. Of course, the interview was a great practice for me as I could notice various clues that will help me in my future.
Establishment of the Necessary Atmosphere
As far as my interview performance is concerned, it was quite successful though some imperfections can still be found. One of my successes was establishment of the necessary rapport. To achieve this goal, I implemented a brief research on the participant. I wanted to know more about immigrants having small children in the USA. I read some blogs, newspaper articles and talked with people I know. Even such a brief research provided me with many helpful insights. Roulston (2010) stresses that understanding the participants (their gender, ethnicity, interests and so on) is important as it enables the researcher to put the right questions and put them in the right way. I believe I managed to understand certain peculiarities of the interviewee, which helped me to create the trustful atmosphere.
Personal Traits and Experiences of the Participants and the Researcher
Of course, my qualities, my ethnicity, age and so on also played a significant role in this process. Seidman (2013) stresses that the relationship between the interviewee and the interviewer depends on their personal features including age, ethnicity, gender, education, socioeconomic status and so on. It was quite easy to establish the appropriate relationship with the interviewee as we share a lot in common. For instance, we are both Saudi Arabian who were brought up in this country and, hence, we share similar values. We also pertain to the similar social strata. We are almost of the same age. We also have quite similar educational background, which also helps to create the necessary rapport. I also think that the fact that the participant has a degree had a significant impact on his decision to take part in the research. The interviewee was more eager to participate in the research as he completed certain academic researches as well and he understands their value.
At the same time, we are quite different. One of the major differences is the fact that the interviewee lives in the USA where he has to assimilate as well as maintain his own traditions and values while raising his child. He also sees the way multilingual environment affects his child and he has a particular (very personal) view on the matter. Of course, his opinion on the way the childs behaviour is affected by the multilingual environment may be quite biased as he has had certain issues when trying to fit in.
For me, the research is less personal, which is quite good for validity of the research as I can be unbiased (or as unbiased as possible). Of course, I may miss many things that are obvious for the participant who faces some issues every day. However, I believe that these differences did not spoil the atmosphere and the rapport established. Rossi (2013, p. 96) states that educational research often implies quite specific relationship between the researchers and the participant as the researcher may often hold a position of influence over research participants . However, this was not the case as the interviewee was more eager to help me as he might feel that I did not have the opportunity to observe my own child in the multilingual environment and, hence, I needed certain help to identify the most meaningful aspects of the problem. In my case, I was more dependent on the participant as I needed his evaluation of my projects feasibility.
Explaining the Relevance of the Research
It is necessary to add that I was quite successful when explaining the relevance of the research. At that, I should admit that similarities we share made the process very easy. I simply named the topic of the research and the participant noted that the topic was quite important. He also asked me why I chose him to participate. After my explanation, the interviewee agreed that the topic was relevant and it had a direct impact on him or rather his child. Notably, choosing the right participants and understanding their peculiarities makes it quite easy to explain the relevance of the research. I believe that being exposed to challenges I will explore in my research, the participant is willing to explain his attitude towards many things and help me identify the most important aspects to consider.
Detected Flaws
Questions
As has been mentioned above, some of my questions were not very effective. I have to admit that the wording was quite inappropriate as the participant could simply say yes or no. I also feel I could ask some more questions that could help me to understand whether my research was feasible enough. Of course, the time was quite limited but I think I could ask some additional questions.
I am particularly dissatisfied with my utterance that included the reference to Hymes theory. I asked the question as if the interview was to know major aspects of the theory. I did not explain it to the participant and it was quite inappropriate to ask the interviewee about the reasons to view the matter from the perspective of the theory mentioned above. The interviewee answered the question in accordance with his understanding (ignoring the theory and focusing on certain role of the community). However, the participant could give a more complete answer if he was aware of the major points of Hymes theory.
Ethical Concerns
Furthermore, I have to admit that I failed to pay the necessary attention to ethical concerns. Webster (2013) stresses that having a signed ethical consent is only a part of the sustainable and ethical approach that has to be applied. It is clear that ethical research is the one where questions and answers are ethical, the relationships between the researcher and the participant are ethical and ethical issues are explicitly addressed (if applicable). Clearly, all my questions were ethical and they did not make the interviewee feel uneasy. However, I feel I failed to engage the interviewee in the importance of certain ethical issues. I could put a direct question as to particular ethical issues associated with the research. This could provide me with the necessary insights into the way people see the problem. Johnson and Christensen (2013) stress that ethical concerns are not limited to sexuality or drug abuse and it is important to address a variety of ethical issues in a research. I think it would be beneficial for the research if I asked the interviewee about possible ethical issues that could arise. Clearly, the participant lives in quite a different community and he can see specific ethical issues children in multilingual communities face. This information could help me develop more effective questionnaires.
Participants Comments
As for the participants opinions and the way he responded, I would like to stress that he was very friendly and responsive. Again, nonverbal cues I traced suggest that he was quite pleased to take part in the research. The participant smiled and nodded whenever he agreed. It is also necessary to add that the interviewee was very attentive and serious. He wanted to make everything as clear as possible. Thus, when he was talking about his child going through a period of changes, he hesitated trying to choose the right and the most precise words. He also tried to give quite detailed answers.
Importantly, when listening to the participant and especially when analysing his responses, I paid attention to nonverbal cues as well as wording, which is essential as it enables the researcher to elicit the most relevant information (Hale & Napier, 2013). For instance, I felt the participant was about to use the word problems as the child who had to integrate into a society that is different often faces certain issues (misunderstanding, alienation or even violence). However, the participant chose the word changes . This shows his positive attitude to the process of integration. The participant understands the importance of effective integration into the community, and he also knows that this process (as well as certain challenges) is inevitable. It is also clear that the participant supported his child and tried to help him go through the hard period. As has been mentioned above, he also encountered certain issues associated with integration into the community and he had already developed certain techniques to make the integration effective and as smooth as possible. Rubin and Rubin (2005) state that close analysis of particular words of participants, which often contain several additional meanings, is crucial and, hence, the researcher has to unveil the meanings enclosed in the participants responses.
The participant shared his viewpoints openly and he stressed the importance of the community in the integration process. He admitted that linguistic and cultural aspects are often intertwined and they needed to be analysed in terms of the life in the community. His perspective expanded the boundaries of my research and I saw particular gaps in my understanding of the issue.
Relevance and Benefits of This Reflection
Analysis of the present interview helped me to see imperfections of my research methods. In this respect, I would like to note that reflective commentary approach has proved to be effective for me (Shenton, 2004, p. 68). Shenton (2004) notes that the researcher has to understand him/herself to be able to avoid bias and implement the most effective research. A reflective commentary is a summary of major achievements and issues the researcher encounters during a research or different phases of his/her research. I intend to write reflective commentaries during a number stages of my research. This will be especially important at the preparation stage and when interviews will be held. This will help me remain focused and avoid possible mistakes and bias.
For instance, this reflection helped me to see that I should fill in the gap concerning ethical considerations. Leadbeater et al. (2006) state that ethical concerns are specifically burning when it comes to the research involving children and adolescents. During my research, I will focus on behaviours of these two groups and I will also address their parents. Of course, I will have to be more ethically sensitive and have the necessary skills to implement the research effectively. Thus, when analysing texts I will pay specific attention to five key areas of ethical competence : competence, informed consent, confidentiality, power, social justice (Evans, Hearn, Uhlemann & Ivey, 2010, p. 19). Apart from receiving signed informed consent forms, I will make sure that my questions are ethically acceptable. I think I may need to change wording or omit some questions when talking to some people. This will depend on participants profiles. Of course, participants will be free to ignore questions they find inappropriate. Again, implementing a brief research on major groups of participants may help me develop proper questionnaires and to be able to analyse participants responses in a more efficient way, as I will understand, at least, some motivations of participants.
As has been mentioned above, I have acknowledged the need to be more prepared to the interview as I was unable to choose the right questions in some cases. Cone and Winters (2011) provide a detailed guideline for getting ready for the interview. It is clear that the preparation stage is complex and needs specific attention. I will implement a research on participants. I will try to elicit more information on the mental models of people who will take part in the research, as this will enable me to analyse their responses more efficiently. Mental models are sets of beliefs, values and knowledge that affect peoples behaviour and decision-making (Cone & Winters, 2011). Of course, I will have to speak the language of the participants, as this will ensure full understanding.
In future, I will also avoid asking questions that contain information participants are not aware of. For instance, the case with my question on the relevance of Hymes perspective for my research is quite suggestive. It is clear that first I had to introduce major aspects of the approach to the participant to understand his opinion. However, this would take some time, which is quite limited during the interview. Thus, I could simply incorporate major aspects of Hymes approach into my question and, in that way, I could understand whether the participants sees the perspective appropriate for my research.
Apart from that case, it is clear that I have to pay more attention to the wording. I feel I need more preparation. Of course, I will adjust the questions to make the interview similar to a conversation but I will have a pre-written set of questions. This will help me remain focused and precise (Dey, 2005). I was a bit nervous during the experiment. Though it was not very noticeable (my voice did not shake, there was no hesitation in my speech) but my psychological state affected the way I chose words. I feel I had to be more precise.
In conclusion, I can say that even though there were some flaws, the interview was quite successful. My performance is satisfactory. Of course, I will have to improve some of the techniques I used. I will also add some changes to the research that will become more relevant and valid. I found the interview and the reflection very effective, as I am now able to fill in the gap in my knowledge and skills.
Interview with Hussain
Background
Hussain is an American of a Saudi Arabian descent and with the corresponding cultural heritage. He was interviewed by the author of the research via Skype.
Interview
Interviewer (I): Hello, Hussain. It is very nice to meet you. Thank you for taking your time to answer my questions.
Hussain (H): The pleasure is mine.
I: I will ask you several questions regarding the feasibility of my research project. I will need some pieces of advice from you based on your experience of moving from Saudi Arabia to the US and helping your son accommodate to the new cultural environment. Does that sound all right?
H: Sure, go ahead.
I: Thank you. I am planning to consider the effects that multiculturalism has on the development of Saudi Arabian children.
H: That sounds like an interesting idea (smiles). However, I am a bit curious about why you decided to choose me for this interview.
I: I did, because my research revolves around the Saudi Arabian children, who develop in a diverse and multicultural environment, such as the one that your son ended up in as your family moved to the United States.
H: (nodding) Oh that makes sense. Actually, my son had a few issues when integrating into the American society.
I: Thats very interesting. In fact, it touches upon one of my research questions, What are the effects of multilingualism on childrens language development and behaviour in a Saudi Arabian community? So, from what I understand, it all boiled down to language issues. Am I right?
H: Not quite. Sure, he had to ask people to talk slower and use simpler words a lot, but he also how do I put it? (stops, looking for the right word) he went through a lot of changes.
I: What kind of changes were these?
H: At first, he seemed to be rather aggressive when there was a misunderstanding, whether a linguistic or a cultural one. However, after the assistance that we received from the Saudi Arabian community, he started learning to solve conflicts.
I: So, basically, what you say is there is an obvious link between the ethnographic community and the development of speech skills.
H: Pretty much.
I: The theory about the connection between ethnographic communities and the process of speech development was suggested by Dell Hymes. Do you think that there is a reason to view the problem from the perspective of Hymes theory?
H: Yes, I believe that it was the influence of the community that helped my son to adjust to the new environment and develop English speaking skills. Of course, dont forget to give my son some credit for studying well, too! (Smiles)
I: If you were to address this topic, would you have asked this question differently?
H: The question about multiculturalism?
I: & and its effects on the children developing in a Saudi Arabian community.
H: (Choosing words carefully) I would also address the issue of intercultural conflicts.
I: Do you mean the kind of conflicts based on language difference or on the one between the two cultures?
H: Id say, both, because, personally, I believe they are intertwined. The differences between cultures define the differences between languages.
I: Indeed, they are. Well, I wish you, your son and your wife the best of luck. Thank you for the interview, Hussain!
H: Youre welcome (smiles). Good-bye!
I: See you!
Consent Form
The Effects of Multilingualism on Saudi Arabian Childrens Behaviour and Language Development
Purpose of the Study
You are being asked to participate in the research on the impact of multiculturalism on Saudi Arabian childrens behaviour and language development. The purpose of this study is to identify exact ways multilingualism affects Saudi Arabian childrens development and behaviour in American and Saudi Arabian communities.
Methodology
If you agree to participate, we will have an interview that will include questions concerning your child who is now raised in the US community and is affected by multilingualism. The interview will last 15-20 minutes and will be held with the help of Skype. With your permission, your answers will be tape-recorded.
Risks
There is a risk that some of the questions asked can be sensitive for you. However, if this will be the cases you can choose not to answer the question. You may also withdraw from the interview at any moment.
Confidentiality
All of the information provided will be completely confidential and available to the researcher only.
Statement of Consent
I have read the information provided above and I agree to participate in the research and I agree to have the interview tape-recorded.
Your Signature____________________________ Date________________________
Your Name___________________________________________________________
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Undesired birth outcomes are key determinants that affect the survival and early experiences of a baby. This thesis develops by drawing from research findings of various disciplines including developmental sociology, psychology, medicine, and education.
This paper will consider how multiple contexts from preconception to childcare are subject to socio-economic level, cultural background, and health influence when shaping early development in children below the age of 2 years. The paper uses peer-reviewed articles to explore the topic and generate integrated information.
Introduction
The preconception period is the time during which couples plan their gestation, while pregnancy is the period taken for a child to develop in the womb, while immediate and running to about two months is the postpartum period. These moments are fundamental and reproductive women should give priority to their general well-being in terms of physical health, mental health, socio-economic wellbeing, and other external factors.
During this period, it is wise to evaluate and make necessary adjustments in lifestyle and choose a diet that helps in the elimination of any possible obstetric undesirable outcomes. This paper incorporates the aforementioned factors to discuss the normative development of a baby by examining the typical changes that are believed to alter the early experiences of a child.
The paper will also seek to elaborate how children differ and what adds up to these variations during early development. The paper concludes by identifying that postnatal health, parental awareness, and socio-economic disparities significantly influence newborn complications, thus leading to undesired early child experiences.
Literature review
This paper entails a detailed analysis of current information sourced from peer-reviewed academic sources related to this topic by adding to the already established knowledge as well as reviewing the work. According to Martina, Stefan, Eduardo, and Sven (2014), obesity amongst reproductive women plays a major role on both pre-birth and after birth childrens development.
Martina et al. (2014) posit that overweight pregnant women are at a great risk of oxygen deficit on the fetus, thus creating complications on the baby upon birth. However, other studies dispute this argument by claiming that even average weighing women may develop complications.
It should be noted that this study highlights that underweight pregnant women encounter several birth complications as well. Other studies predict that pregnancy and baby complications arise from poor or undesired health conditions (Witt, Wisk, Cheng, Hampton, & Hagen, 2012). The majority of the reviews are consistent and they show a multi-disciplinary integration, thus making the information the most viable to adopt.
Findings
This research hypothesized that most of the early child experiences and complications are significantly associated with the wellbeing of the mother. The conditions exposed to the expecting woman and the immediate environment largely determine the fate of the newborn. Figure 1 below elaborates on several individual factors that risk early developmental complications among children such as low birth weight or premature births.
Figure 1: Individual Risk Factors. Source: (Witt et al., 2012)
Figure 1 above shows that early child experiences are predetermined as early as at the preconception stage when both parents play an important role, which projects to pregnancy through, postpartum to the caregiving stage after birth. The framework shows that the latter is due to the cumulative effect.
Although independent effects such as illnesses or environmental effects might arise after childbirth, they still have a correlation to the former. The non-live births are indicated because they are a possible outcome of birth complications, but they do not account highly since early child experiences are not involved to support this thesis.
Discussion
Early child development from postnatal to 2 years of development is a very crucial stage, which determines a childs cognitive, intellectual ability, socio-emotional, and physical development even beyond the early age. A childs development is determined by several biological factors [nature] and environmental factors [nurture].
Some factors promote child development while others hinder it, thus causing undesired developmental outcomes. Some of the factors that compromise postnatal development include chronic factors such as poor care giver-child interactions, postnatal nutrition, infections, neglect, poverty, and limited access to postnatal childcare health services. Possible causes that may influence birth complications and lead to poor early child development are discussed below.
Obesity
Maternal overweight and obesity have been increasing steadily since the past decade. Studies show escalating prevalence of delivery complications and postnatal baby disorders among obese and overweight pregnant women. Even though these assertions are not always certain, studies have shown consistency in reporting and the probability stays higher for obese and overweight women to have birth complications as compared to average weighing women.
However, this assertion is biased since no study identifies that underweight expecting mothers face childbirth complications. Conventionally, obesity and overweight women are the highly debated topics with Martina et al. (2014) suggesting that neonatal complications such as difficulties in breathing are reported in babies born of obese and overweight women.
Obesity is associated with complications leading to cord coiling and risking the possibility of birth asphyxia, which is a condition that leads to weak breathing or no breathing during or after birth. However, underweight pregnant women have potential birth complications as well. For example, cases of preterm birth [babies born before the gestating 37 weeks] are often associated with underweight women.
Babies born before the due time need to be supported in incubators, which do not provide the needed fetus supplements. Although the majority of them survive and develop completely, later in life, they may show incidences of learning difficulties, but adjust to compete with other children reasonably.
Preconception, pregnancy and postpartum
Parental planning during preconception is very vital and it is subject to mental health, physical, and psychological well-being of the partners. If there are socio-economic difficulties, then the preconception decisions are influenced negatively. These effects are transmitted to pregnancy and later to the child after birth.
Women who have poor preconception mental and physical health are reported to have complications in their pregnancy and they are likely to have stillbirths with few cases of live births having complications (Witt et al., 2012). The cumulative effects spill over during birth and after birth.
The newborns may have physical deformations, low weight, or they may be born prematurely. The resultant effect shows why children experience different developmental conditions. At the age of two years, children with complications exhibit high incidences of coping difficulties, but they manage to adopt if accorded proper parental care.
Figure 2. Source (Witt et al., 2012)
Figure 2 above displays the predicted outcomes on cases reported of any complications, non-live births, and low baby weight with regard to racial and ethnic affiliation as influenced by socio-economic disparities. The conceptual framework above indicates that women with poor social support are reported to have babies with low weight.
The study shows that black women are likely to have pregnancy complications resulting in higher rates of low birth weights as compared to their white counterparts. These disparities can be explained by the inferiority complex among black women and unawareness due to the reluctance to acquire parental education.
Parenting environment
Polluted environment can cause adverse problems on birth outcomes via several underlying biological complications. Smoking during pregnancy can lead to induction of inflammatory processes and vulnerability to infections. Air pollution influences the blood pressure for the pregnant women especially in areas with adversely pollution. The changes in blood pressure affect the development of the fetus, which may lead to high susceptibility to infant related infections (Lee, Roberts, Catov, Talbott & Ritz, 2013).
Poverty
Poverty is a universal phenomenon, which can affect anybody. Although postpartum complications can occur to any family, poverty and after birth complications are closely intertwined and it raises the possibilities of undesired conditions such as disabilities and poor intellectual progress. Expectant women leading poor lifestyles are highly likely to have poor health, poor diets, and exposure to polluted neighborhoods.
These elements culminate in poor fetal development. Infants born under such conditions are highly vulnerable to physical and mental dysfunctions. Children raised in poverty are more vulnerable to postnatal complications, as compared to those in high socio-economic cadre due to the wide exposure to health risks (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2012). In addition, poverty influences the quality of preconception to postpartum care of the mother, and thus the wellbeing of the baby is compromised.
Care giver-child interactions
Depressive childcare environments pose major risks when nurturing the adjusting of the baby. Parental care is very vital even when the baby might appear to be less interested. The caregiver should keep close and informed care by ensuring stable health of both the child and the caregiver.
Some cultural beliefs place negative attitudes, for instance, towards children with disabilities. This aspect limits the social support accorded to a family, thus causing detrimental effects on psychological health of the parents, hence altering their concentration and ability to respond to the needs of their babies. However, the babies develop within a regressive lifestyle and respond with bad health or poor coordination (Gonzalez-Mena, & Eyer 2012).
Strengths and limitations
This study integrated multi-disciplinary data covering wide socio-demographic and psycho-medical analysis; hence, it is rich in consistent findings supported by empirical evidence. On the other hand, the study met some drawbacks when interpreting the findings.
The disparities are due to the assumptions that people who experienced poor preconception socio-economic and mental health influenced the early development of the child thereby underestimating the results. The study did not consider the possible birth complications related to the genetic composition. In addition, underreporting was a major setback since most people felt that giving parental information was intrusion to their private life.
Assessment and future planning
Birth complications intervention has been a highly debated topic, and thus much has been done to minimize the cases, but new trends in medical complications are emerging with time. This aspect requires accurate assessment and clear understanding of proper preconception, pregnancy, and postnatal care. This goal can be achieved by involving parents in parental education conducted by professional childcare providers.
Parents are the key actors in early child planning process. Primary and keen health care for the expectant women is the starting point to ensuring stable births and desirable development of the child. Primary health care workers can help pregnant women to address some impending complications, which parents do not anticipate. Social medical programs like free Medicare and pregnancy screening should be established to cater for the less privileged.
Some of the simple, but most ignored aspects that determine the physical development of the child up to two years and beyond include using correctly sized diapers for kids. Oversize diapers may force extra spreading of legs to contain the extra fabric, which might lead to rickets. In addition, a form of holding aping the kangaroo care is advisable. This involves holding the baby around the caregivers chest allowing skin contact to enable warming, which keep childs temperature at stable levels.
Conclusion
Despite the continuing efforts to understand and control birth complications, the rate of their occurrence is high. Explanations given for birth complications include preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum health care. Due to lack of childcare education, most infants experience mild effects, which uninformed mothers fail to figure out.
This situation gradually develops and it can cause serious and permanent risks such as deafness, blindness, or slow intellectual progress. The majority of parents deal directly with the young children and they contribute largely to their development, and thus they should be educated and given social support for the sake of the toddlers.
This paper predicts possible future birth complexities and recommends further research to identify the emerging medical situations largely due to the changing lifestyles.
For instance, eating habits, violence, dressing code during pregnancy, and polluted neighborhoods expose the young ones to negative developmental problems. Since birth complications are a global affair, governments should join forces and make suitable reforms. Policy makers should direct enough funding to preconception and pregnancy programs and moderate the current efforts on treating the postpartum problems.
References
Berk, E. (2011). Infants, Children, and Adolescents. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Australia.
Gonzalez-Mena, J., & Eyer, D. W. (2012). Infants, toddlers, and caregivers: A curriculum of respectful, responsive, relationship-based, care and education. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Lee, P., Roberts, M., Catov, J., Talbott, O., & Ritz, B. (2013). First Trimester Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution, Pregnancy complications and adverse birth Outcomes in Allegheny County, PA. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(5), 545-555.
Martina, P., Stefan, J., Eduardo, V., & Sven, C. (2014). Maternal overweight, obesity, and risks of severe birth-asphyxia-related complications in term infants: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Maternal Obesity and Birth Asphyxia, 11(5), 1-9.
Witt, P., Wisk, F., Cheng, R., Hampton, M., & Hagen, W. (2012). Preconception Mental Health Predicts Pregnancy Complications and Adverse Birth Outcomes: A National Population-Based Study. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 16(7), 1525-1541.
Hill and Morris (2008) conducted a five-study meta-analysis of welfare program interventions on maternal employment and child development.
Specifically, the aim was to find out whether maternal participation in welfare-based employment and supplemental-income intervention had favorable effects on the development of very young children who were from 6 months to three years of age when the programs started.
All this is a contribution to the Next Generation Project, a well-intentioned effort to investigate the effect of welfare on the children of beneficiaries. The period under investigation is the middle the to late 1990s, at a time when pilot programs were underway to afford parents on welfare employment opportunities and therefore reduce dependence on dole-outs.
Research Design
Hill and Morris justify the experiment label in their report title since the five studies comprising the meta-analysis Bloom et al. (a benchmark measure in 2000 and post-assessment of cognitive and behavioral outcomes two years later); Bos et al., a one-time dipstick measure in 1999; Gennetian and Miller (also a once-off assessment in 2000; Huston et al., (2003 only); Michalopoulos et al. (2002 only); Morris & Michalopoulos (also a one-time measure in 2000) were about trials ( field experiments ) in varying locations around the U.S. and Canada of an intervention consisting of jobs, income disregards or supplements. This then is the independent variable in all five studies that Hill and Morris assembled for the meta-analysis.
For clarity, an income disregard is the term used in the U.K. and Canada for, respectively, total tax credits and the increase in annual income that does not count for tax purposes. This does not quite have the same potent effect on family wellbeing as the tax rebates that the U.S. Congress passed earlier this year. A tax rebate check amounts to windfall income (not non-taxed income) that, the administration hopes, tax-filing Americans will cheerfully spend and thus help resuscitate an economy moribund since the second half of 2007.
The dependent variables consisted of standardized scores which the authors calculated from data produced by follow-up measures of the cooperating researchers. Standardization of achievement/cognitive and behavioral outcomes could have gone a long way towards the reliability of the meta-analysis were it not for the fact that the five programs employed a varying range of survey instruments: the Academic subscale of the Social Skills Rating System; single-item parent ratings of how well a child was perceived to do in school; the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised and a math skills test for measurement of cognitive achievement; the Behavior Problem Index; and either the short or 25-item version of the Positive Behavior Scale.
Reliability and Validity
A meta-analysis usually involves an effort to combine the results of several studies boasting precisely equivalent sampling methods and research designs so that regression analysis, for instance, might benefit from the relative stability of very large samples. However, Hill and Morris acknowledge that the studies, conducted in varying locations and boasting different features, differ in important respects.
The size and policy context of income disregards/supplements differed materially. For instance, the Florida Family Transition Program (FTP) exempted the first $200 and half of any remaining income from the tax owed by a family. This is not as generous as it sounds since the state provided families on welfare no more than $303 each month for a family of three. On the other hand, the Canadian counterpart Self-Sufficiency Project (SSP) paid out 50% of the difference between actual income and threshold annual income of $25,000 that the government considered just. In the first case, a family that survived solely on welfare would gross $3,636 for the year but have to report a taxable income of just $1,718. A Canadian family that eked out subsistence-level existence at C$3,636 annually could look forward to receiving an income supplement of C$10,682, theirs to spend.
In effect, one confronts an independent variable that differs so much in implementation details and impact on family income that validity is clearly sacrificed. Hill and Norris could not even control the key independent variable for consistency, much less manipulate the IV as standard experimental study designs call for.
Since welfare is clearly not enough to live on from month to month, four of the programs had mechanisms to encourage employment-seeking. One program implemented this by reducing benefits if the recipients did not search for work or at least participate in occupational training. Connecticut simply set a time limit for being on the dole. Two programs were thought of including child care for mothers who found work. But the fifth program simply made no provision for garnering employment and, again, this degrades the reliability of cross-comparison immeasurably.
Conclusion
Ultimately, Hill and Norris are chagrined to admit that their combinative study failed to reveal any favorable effects on child development. They could only point to isolated domain- and age-specific effects (2008, p. 1557) with respect to positive social behavior for one age group and improved scholastic achievement, solely for those who were 2 years of age when the interventions commenced. Neither theory nor the varying circumstances of each study permitted the authors to conclusively explain these unremarkable findings.
In fact, this whole undertaking is a non-experimental study because Hill and Morris were at least twice removed from, and therefore exercised no control over, both parents and children. Never having been in the research settings and hence, in no position to manipulate the IVs, the researchers were relegated to processing the information secondhand. Such are the limitations of correlational, passive, naturalistic, and observational studies, widely-publicized examples of these being those reporting risk factors for lung or colon cancer. Such non-experimental studies can never make conclusions on cause and effect, the very same trap that Hill and Morris fell into.
References
Hill, H. D. & Morris, P. (2008). Welfare policies and very young children: Experimental data on stageenvironment fit. Developmental Psychology, 44 (6): 15571571.