Category: Chemical Reaction

Abstract

The elements of a crime are complex. Criminologists still argue whether the dominating cause is sociological, psychological, or something else. Additional blockade to progress is the fact that criminal violence is not a single status, but rather a diverse set of afflictions. The study controlled for a host of possible intervening factors, including gender, diet, illicit drug use, psychiatric medications, the season of the year, dietary processor of serotonin, alcohol and tobacco use, body mass, socioeconomic status, IQ, and history of suicide attempts. Today’s biological theorists have made significant studies in linking violent or disruptive behavior to body chemistry. Also, aggressive behavior in men may be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of the neurotransmitter. Experts point out that no relationship between serotonin levels and aggression was seen in the female subject. Unfortunately, low cortisol levels were associated with the early onset of aggression.

Ingested Substances and Nutrition

One of the first studies to focus on chemical imbalances in the body as a cause of crime was reported in the British medical journal “Lancet in 1943” ( Rick Nevin). The authors of the study linked the murder to hypoglycemia or low blood sugar. Low blood sugar, produced by too much insulin in the blood or by near-starvation diets, was said to reduce the mind’s capacity to reason effectively to judge the long-term consequences of behavior. Even the courts have accepted the “notion that excess sugar consumption resulting in hyperglycemia may be linked to the crime”( Rick Nevin). The interesting case was found in the early 1980s, Dan White, a former San Francisco police officer, was given a reduced sentence after his lawyers used what came to be known as the Twinkie Defense .They argued that Whites nightlong binge on large amounts of Coca-Cola before he murdered San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and City Councilman Harvey Milk was evidence of White’s unbalanced mental state. According to Rick Nevin “the consumption of junk food was presented as evidence of depression because White was normally very health conscious”.

Also, some studies have implicated food additives, such as the flavor enhancer monosodium glutamate, dyes, and artificial flavoring, in producing criminal violence. Some prison program has been designed to limit the intake of dietary stimulants through nutritional management and substitution of artificial sweeteners for refined sugar. Some studies appear to show that diets deficient in various vitamins and other nutrients can increase aggressiveness and agitation, and can open the door to crime. Although, Stephen Schoenthaler, a researcher at the California State University in Stanislaus, has demonstrated significant declines in bad behavior in incarcerated adults and school children receiving specifically designed vitamin-mineral supplementation. In addition to schoolchildren receiving vitamin supplements showed “a 47% lower rate of antisocial behavior than children who received placebos” ( Rick Nevin). The drop in disciplinary infractions among children taking the supplements was due mostly to a decrease in infractions by those who had been identified as habitual offenders before entering the study.

Environment Pollution

Various substances found in our environment are linked to criminal behavior. First and foremost, the researches reasoned that toxic metals affect individuals in complex ways. Because lead diminishes a person’s normal ability to detoxify poisons, it may heighten the effects of alcohol and drugs. Industrial pollution, automobile emissions, lead-based paints, and aging water delivery systems are all possible sources of lead contamination. It is undeniable that “brain chemistry is altered by risk to massive metals and other toxins, people lose the natural restraint that holds their violent tendencies in check” ( Rick Nevin).Some studies focused on prenatal substance exposure to substances like tobacco smoke, and alcohol. L. Goldschmidt and his colleagues reported the results of a ten-year study that monitored the development of children of more than 600 low-income women. The study began during the women’s pregnancies, found that prenatal marijuana use was significantly related to increased hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, increased delinquency, and externalizing problems. It is a well-known fact that prenatal alcohol exposure also seems to be linked to delinquency and psychiatric problems later in life. Perhaps we should also point out the fact that biological factors do not operate in environment vacuum, nor do environmental factors operate in biological vacuum. These biological factors affect criminal behaviors.

Psychobiotics

A new field of study called psychobiotics has begun to emerge that looks at the psychological and behavioral effects that bacteria can have on the mind, feelings, and emotions. What is more, the central focus of the study is what is referred to as gut bacteria. Although bacteria are a single-celled organism, they are generally far smaller than human tissue cells. One cannot deny that in human beings, gut bacteria, taken in total, weigh more than the human brain. Current analysis has established that gut bacteria transport a vast array of genes that can contribute thousands of chemicals. According to John Cryan “many of these chemicals, once produced, are absorbed through the digestive system into the blood. Some of them are linked to brain signaling and include bacteria produced dopamine, and serotonin”(2014). In other words, gut bacteria appear to produce chemical messengers that interact with the brain and nervous system.

Hormones

A photo of professional wrestler used sex hormones such as testosterone, have been linked to aggressive behavior. A hormone is “a chemical substance produced by the body that regulates and controls the activity of certain cells or organs” (Paul C. Bernhardt). The male sex hormone is testosterone, for example, has been linked to aggression and appears to play an important role in increasing the propensity toward violence and aggression among men. It is undeniable that testosterone is a steroid hormone. Although females produce some testosterone, it is normally present in far higher quantities in the blood and tissues of males. Some scientific suggested that testosterone is the agency primarily responsible for male criminality and that its relative lack in women leads them to commit fewer crimes. According to Psychosomatic Medicine, “most studies on the subject have consistently shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increased aggressiveness in men, and focused studies have unveiled a direct relationship between the amount of the chemical present and the degree of violence demonstrated by sex offenders” ( Dan Olweus, 1980). Also, some studies demonstrated a link between testosterone levels and aggression in teenagers. Adolescent problem behavior and teenage violence rise in proportion to the amount of testosterone in the blood of young men. However, some scientists also agree that high levels of testosterone in the blood of young men may have some effect on behavior, but the effect is likely to be moderated by the social environment.

Serotonin

Paul C. Bernhardt found that testosterone “might not act alone in promoting aggression” (Paul C. Bernhardt,1997). Bernhardt discovered that aggressive behavior in men may be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. According to some experts, serotonin plays a huge aspect in the adjustment of learning, mood, and sleep, and the constriction of blood vessels. Men whose brains are lacking in serotonin, feel the effects of frustration more acutely and therefore tend to respond to frustration circumstances more aggressive, especially when testosterone levels are high. Serotonin had been called a “ behavior -regulating the chemical,” and animal studies have demonstrated a link between low levels of serotonin in the brain and aggressive behavior (Paul C. Bernhardt,1997). The most common proof used to help the chemical imbalance theory is the influence of antidepressant medication. These pills work by gaining the total amounts of serotonin and other neurotransmitters in the brain.

The arguments I have presented in this paper suggest that a chemical imbalance in the brain is pronounced to occur when there’s ether too much or too little of certain chemicals. We cannot ignore the fact that both the rational and emotion centers of the brain are implicated in ethical choices. Thus, biological sex differences may also be an influence on women’s and men’s predisposition to crime and, unethical behavior.

Work cited

1. Dan Olweus et al., “Testosterone, Aggression, Physical and Personality Dimensions in Normal Adolescent Males,” Psychosomatic Medicine , pp.1-10.
2. John Cryan, “A Light of Psychobiotics,” New Scientist, January 25,2014, pp.28-29
3. Paul C. Bernhardt , “Influences of Serotonin and Testosterone in Aggression and Dominance : Convergence with Social Psychology,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, pp.44-48

The chemistry in forensic techniques is very important, and is a necessity in our world today. Forensics techniques are applied in many different ways. Although it is often forgotten, every person leaves behind a small part of their individual self wherever they happen to go without even realizing it. For this reason, forensics are often the key factor in providing evidence to solving crimes whether it is through fingerprinting, blood, or even a single strand of hair. Crime always has been and continues to be a significant problem all over the world. These crimes prove the importance of forensic science and have even sparked public interest in forensics within media and television. From shows such as Sherlock Holmes to CSI, this field of science and chemistry grasps the attention of all people, including children and students who do not have a great desire to learn. Not only does this increased interest give more people the opportunity to learn about science within school, but they also enjoy doing so. This interest in forensic science is not a surprise. Scientists have equipment, tools, chemicals, and techniques that are unbelievable. Forensic techniques have only continued to advance and improve within the past several decades, and scientists still continue to shock with amazing new developments.

There are dozens of different branches within forensics, but commonly, they all apply the use of chemistry in order to function properly. Forensic techniques have been used in analyzing criminal evidence since as long ago as the eighth century. During this time, identification through fingerprinting was beginning to be applied in China. In 1248, the first document to suggest science to solve a crime, Hsi Yuan Lu, was written, which provided information on how a person who died from being strangled, could be significantly identified from a person who has drowned. By the nineteenth century, developments increased. “This period saw the development of tests for blood, the invention of the Marsh test for arsenic in 1832, and studies on bullet ‘fingerprinting’ in the 1880s” (Newton 6).

In this period, the first valuable information for analyzing human blood was discovered by Christian Friedrich Schonbein, who used the chemical, hydrogen peroxide along with bloodstains, discovering that these two combined caused a type of foaming. This was a huge breakthrough because it identified the difference between a stain of blood and an everyday stain. Blood is arguably the most important proof in any violent crime scene. This type of forensic science involving the study of blood and fluids is referred to as serology.

Although the beginning studies of serology were in the 1860s, advancements and research did not progress much until the more recent, 20th century. For a time, doctors believed that all blood was the same, and believed it could be transferred from person to person. This was proved wrong because of the discovery of the chemistry of blood, and the different blood types. Blood is a mix of cells, with the most important as red blood cells, which are behind the act of oxygen being transferred to lungs. These cells are covered with different molecules, with different functions. These form a pattern, which vary from person to person, and cause a person’s body to fight off any pattern they are not familiar with. “These attacking molecules are antibodies. For each specific molecule unfamiliar to a person’s immune system -molecules known as antigens- the immune system will produce a specific antibody” (Newton 35). These chemical patterns and antigens form the various blood types that scientists are now very familiar with today.

But how does this information help forensic scientists to identify criminals and investigate crime scenes? There are many different ways to apply chemistry in crime scene investigations, including, “Genetic fingerprinting , the obtaining or comparing of genetic fingerprints for identification; the comparison of DNA in a person’s blood with that identified in matter found at the scene of a crime, etc” (Jeffreys 1). If a bloodstain is discovered within a crime scene, and it is discovered to be type A, that narrows the suspect list significantly. This is known as the ABO system in forensic serology.

Like serology, fingerprinting plays a large role in identifying criminals and individuals in general. Fingerprinting has been used for centuries, as far back as the third century by the Chinese. However, studies did not begin until the 1960s, when Nehemiah Grew discovered the uniqueness in the designs on the tips of each person’s fingers. Fingerprints are the only part of a person’s entire body that is not smooth. Fingerprints are entirely individual and are not repeated among any two people, even if those two people are twins. Another interesting trait of fingerprints is the fact that a person’s will never change throughout their lifetime. However, the process of DNA fingerprinting is also made difficult because of the uniqueness of each person’s fingerprints. This makes it more difficult to be sure that two compared sets are identical.

DNA fingerprinting takes multiple steps in order to be complete. The strands of DNA that are used in this process are known as VNTRs, which is an acronym for variable number tandem repeats. They include the “variable number” in the name, because the pattern of the DNA will repeat over and over again in the strands. Although DNA is already tiny, scientists begin the process by cutting the DNA into even smaller pieces. They are able to do so through the use of chemicals known as enzymes. “Enzymes are special proteins that have very specific functions. Restriction enzymes can find specific DNA sequences and break DNA apart at that sequence. These enzymes are derived from bacteria that use them to break up the DNA of any organism they might invade” (Hunter 29). The second step the scientist takes is separating these pieces from each other, and categorizing them based on their various sizes. These are then placed on X-ray film, which then provides an image of the pattern of the DNA pieces. However, before placed on the X-ray, they must be secured by a strong, thin membrane, otherwise they will not be preserved for a long time and can easily be destroyed. When a forensic scientist views the image of the DNA of a suspect and compares this image to one of DNA from a crime scene, this can either prove the person guilty or innocent, providing a strong form of evidence. Although this process is pricey and is not very efficient, it is helpful and accurate when it comes to a court case or to determining the truth behind an unsolved crime.

This is not the only method that scientists have discovered in testing fingerprints. One of the most influential tests that has been developed in fingerprinting is the chemical test, which relies on a chemical reaction to change color.

In this test, silver nitrate covers the surface that is being tested for fingerprints, and it is then exposed to a light source, whether it is natural or artificial. This causes the reaction to take place and as a result, the fingerprints become evidently seen on the tested surface within a short amount of time. This method is very different compared to the previously mentioned method, but is just as effective. This method is also more efficient. Forensic scientists continue to conduct research and seek new ways to test fingerprints as well as seeking to improve existing processes.

Although it is very different from serology and fingerprinting, toxicology is similar to these two types of forensic techniques because it is also a very important way of establishing crimes. Toxicology is defined as the “biological, physiological, and pharmacological properties of drugs and poisons to the medical and legal implications associated with their abuse or medical administration” (Newton 65). Blood alcohol concentration is the percentage of alcohol in the bloodstream and in most states, the legal limit is 0.08. Drunk driving is the cause behind thousands of accidents each year, in which at least one of the drivers involved had a blood alcohol concentration higher than 0.01. Toxicologists are responsible for determining whether someone has been drinking and how much they have drank. They also have the responsibility of proving whether a person, living or dead, has consumed a poisonous chemical or a drug, and to determine what drug or poison this person consumed. These poisonous chemicals can vary from basic cleaning supplies, to advanced poisons such as cyanide and strychnine.

What makes alcohol “alcoholic”? This would be the organic chemical, chemical formula CH3CH2OH, which is more commonly known as ethanol. When alcohol is consumed, most of it makes its way into the bloodstream. This is why alcohol level is tested in blood alcohol concentration. Alcohol in blood is identifiable within a couple minutes of it being consumed.

Carbonation also plays a factor in a bloodstream with alcohol. If the alcoholic drink has bubbles, this raises the rate of the alcohol being absorbed into the bloodstream. However, a person’s body uses both the chemical process of oxidation and the process of excretion to get rid of this alcohol over a period of time. “Oxidation takes place in the liver, where the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, in conjunction with the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), converts ethanol first to acetaldehyde, then to acetic acid, and eventually to carbon dioxide and water” (Newton 67).

Blood alcohol concentration became intriguing to forensic scientists in the mid-1930s with the Eighteenth Amendment. The amendment prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol in the United States. The revoking of this amendment created many problems in the United States and led to an increase in abuse of alcohol. The first testing for alcohol came to be testing a person’s breath. This came with the “Drunkometer”, which was a test created by a biochemist by the name of Rolla Harger. Through this test, a person breathed into a balloon. The air that is held within this balloon is then released into a chemical solution. This chemical solution would change color according to the amount of alcohol present within the air released. This reaction that takes place is ethanol reacting with potassium permanganate.

In this reaction, the red-orange dichromate ion converts to green chromium ion. With the increased amount of ethanol, the more complete the reaction between the two. This reaction provides the blood alcohol concentration level and is easily shown. This system is used all over the world today, including within many schools, police departments, companies, and businesses.

Along with testing for alcohol, a toxicologist is also responsible for testing for the presence of poison and drugs within a person’s body. Over the last couple decades, use of illegal drugs has increased significantly, even among children as young as 12 years old. “According to the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health produced by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration, 19.7 million Americans over the age of 12 had reported using an illicit drug during the previous month” (Newton 81).” This information is important to toxicologists and forensic scientists because these drugs are illegal, are often related to crime and criminals, and often are a frequent cause of death. The presence of drugs is also important because many companies use drug testing to determine who they want as their employees. Many schools around the world also put drug testing to use by testing students and athletes.

In order to determine whether a drug is involved, two tests must take place. The first is known as a screening test, which limits the number of drugs or poisons that may be present, but does not determine the exact drug or poison that is present. This is where the confirmatory test plays its part. This test is used to find the exact chemistry of a substance and determine whether a substance is actually in a sample.

Poisons can be much more difficult to identify compared to drugs because there are over 10,000 that are known to man. Out of these 10,000 different poisons, there are only two categories that they are identified in. Poisons are referred to as either organic, or inorganic. There are hundreds of different testing methods, many of which are specific to a certain poison. One of these methods includes the Forrest test, which is a screening, rather than a confirmatory, test. This test is made exclusively for the poison imipramine. However, similar techniques to this one are used in other poison methods. Imipramine is a tricyclic organic compound, and is often used to battle depression. Forrest may sound complicated to create, but is another test that is simply meant to change color through a chemical reaction to prove and highlight the presence of another substance. “Forrest reagent is made by mixing 25 milliliters of a 2 percent aqueous solution of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) with equal volumes of concentrated sulfuric acid, concentrated perchloric acid (HClO4), and concentrated nitric acid” (Newton 89). This test is performed by stirring this substance along with sample urine. If the results are positive, it will change from a yellow-green color, to a deeper dark green-blue. Tests very similar to this one are used to reveal the appearance of poisons such as desipramine, trimipramine, and clomipramine. Once this screening test is carried out, it is follow by a more powerful confirmatory test. This will assure that the results are accurate and no mistakes have been made. Toxicology has had one of the greatest impacts in forensic science and has made a great amount of contributions. There are now hundreds of chemical tests to find traces of alcohol, drugs, and poisons that early scientists never even imagined they would ever have.

In conclusion, chemistry in forensic techniques has had a huge impact in our world, and continues to today. Without these processes, scientists would not be able to discover the advanced information they now have. Also, our justice system would not be nearly as strong and many criminals may have gotten away with terrible things they have done, while many innocent people may have been accused because of the lack of evidence to prove people innocent or guilty. Serology, Fingerprinting, and Toxicology are only three of the many types of forensic techniques, and all of them are important and beneficial. Scientists everyday continue to search for new ways to apply chemistry in forensic techniques, and surely they will continue to shock the world with their advancements and amazing techniques.

Works Cited

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2. Hunter, W. (2014). DNA Analysis. Broomall, PA: Mason Crest.
3. Jeffreys, A. J. (2005). Genetic fingerprinting. Nature Medicine, 11(10), 1035+. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A192625766/SCIC?u=albu16399&sid=SCIC&xid=a9abc5e0
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8. Walker, M. (2014). Entomology & palynology. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest.

Forensic sciences and criminalistics have existed since ancient times, but until recently it was unknown. Throughout history, crimes have occurred in which there has always been an attempt to find the person responsible for applying justice. Many have been the crimes that have gone unpunished due to the absence of a science that was dedicated to solving them. It is when the need arises to create forensic sciences, which helps to find the culprits and provides them with the corresponding punishment. The purpose of this work is to make known the existing relationship between chemistry and forensic sciences.

‘The forensic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that is responsible for classifying and dosing all signs related to an alleged criminal act. Forensic chemistry is based on the premise that when two objects come into contact, there will be an exchange between the two, in other words, ‘each contact leaves a trace’ (Danylla, 2011). The forensic chemistry is in charge of applying the chemical principles to solve cases of judicial interest. It currently mainly focuses on chemical analysis as a fundamental tool for track processing. There are several areas where forensic chemistry plays an important role. Toxicology is the one that covers the most popular applications. The most abundant cases are related to the consumption of alcohol and narcotics by drivers.

The legislation of several countries establishes a limit for the content of alcohol in the blood of a driver in order to reduce the probability of traffic accidents, so when an accident of this nature exists, it is necessary to verify the conditions in which they found the driver (s) to determine the existence of the infraction and execute the corresponding sanctions. In addition, the consumption of alcohol is an aggravating circumstance when there are deaths in between. Other cases of toxicological interest are those related to poisonings and intoxications. There are several substances that are considered in a toxicological analysis: drugs of abuse, analgesics, beta-blockers, antidepressants, among others, whose presence and level of concentration can give indications of illicit use of controlled substances, overdose or poisoning. Additionally, within this area, there is a type of toxicological analysis applied to the field of sports, called anti-doping control. On the other hand, forensic chemistry also intervenes in the analysis of non-biological matrices. In investigations involving firearms, waste is usually analyzed on the skin or clothing after a shot is fired for the purpose of relating them to the device from which it originated.

This type of analysis is especially helpful in cases of homicides. The residue of a shot is mainly composed of certain metals (lead, arsenic, and antimony) commonly used in bales. Thanks to the instruments currently available, an analysis can be carried out that meets these requirements; however, the results are subject to the skill and experience of the forensic chemist since the mere presence of these substances does not necessarily indicate that a firearm has been fired, but that supplementary information and a critical analysis of the results are required to arrive at a conclusive observation. Sometimes fires are caused in homes or warehouses through the use of flammable substances that accelerate the combustion process. By means of an adequate chemical-forensic analysis, the accidental or provoked nature of the fire could be determined. When an event of this nature has been provoked, a portion of the flammable substances used, usually gasoline and petroleum derivatives, is absorbed in certain materials present in the scene and remains unburned, thus allowing its detection. Petroleum derivatives have appreciable differences at the time of analysis and even, under certain conditions, it is possible to distinguish between gasoline of different qualities and provenances. Finding an accelerant or flammable substance in the place of the accident helps to establish the place of origin of the event and, therefore, to the reconstruction of the facts.