Category: Chemical Reaction

Nowadays, many people are interested in whether chemistry should be taught at public in school. Because some people did not like to study chemistry, and school did not have enough money for students to learn it，therefore they think school should cancel chemistry classes. However, it is necessary for students to study chemistry. To begin with, chemistry explain the nature world. Furthermore, it prepares for people to get better jobs. Moreover, learning chemistry is result in better informed citizens of nature knowledge. What’s more, chemistry can help us to save our earth. Chemistry is essential for human progress，so school should spend more money on chemistry courses，including chemistry.

The world is composed of materials. And chemistry is one of the main methods and means used by human beings to understand and transform the material world. Chemistry is a natural science that studies the composition, properties, structure and changes of substances at the molecular and atomic levels, including the creation of new substances, such as ununtrium (Uut), ununpentium (Uup), ununseptium (Uus), and ununoctium (Uuo). Only by learning and applying chemistry, can we acquire the ability to manipulate the materials of our surroundings so that we can improve our quality of life. Therefore, chemistry is the key to human progress from the discovery of new substances.

Chemistry is helpful for people’s careers. Chemistry opens up career options. There are many jobs in the chemistry areas. And even if you find jobs in other areas, you still gain beneficial analytical skills by studying chemistry. Chemistry revise the food industry, retail sales, transportation, art, homemaking, and so on. If you study any subject of the science, with the goal of wearing in a science field in the future, it is necessary for you to understand chemistry. Because all of the sciences include the materials and the interactions between types of matter. Everything in the world are inseparable from chemistry, so studying chemistry can make you more competitive to get better jobs.

Chemistry result in better informed citizens can make wiser decisions about the environment. Regard to disposing water pollution, use safe solvents can resolve harmful materials before discharge of sewage. Importantly, the world cannot develop without chemistry. Because of variability of chemistry, it allows us to understand the reason for chemical changes which are invisible to the naked eye. For instance, how water to turn into ice; how vapor to turn into cloud; why iron will rust. As a result, only by learning chemistry well, can we figure out many problems of our life and improve our living environment. Advances in chemistry enable water purification, conservation, sanitation and reuse. Technology developed by Nalco, an Ecolab company, enables companies to use less water and repurpose wastewater. Understanding chemistry improves the accuracy of life choices as well.

The major disadvantage of chemistry has transformation when materials get in touch with each other. We exploit the speciality to create useful materials–such as drugs, converting elements into energy, food, cleaners and so on. However, sometimes these elements can be started a war. Most of application chemistry is positive. And defusing war’s crisis needs chemistry. To the person who disagree with learning chemistry, many famous scientists have huge contribution in chemical areas. Such as growing food aspect, working with science and technology, and searching in the internet era. Marie Curie, discovered radium which will make ionizing radiation is produced when it decays. Because radium emits alpha and gamma rays and produces the radioactive gas radon. Radium gives off radiation that can destroy and kill cells and bacteria. Therefore, it is often used to treat cancer. In addition, the mixture of radium salt and beryllium powder can be used as a neutron source to detect oil resources, rock composition and so on. It is necessary for us to study chemistry.

Chemistry plays an important role in saving the earth. Nowadays, the problems of climate change are no time to delay. OpteonTM, a breakthrough low global warming potential refrigerant from Chemours, contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions while providing societal benefits. What’s more, Chemistry is the power behind low-carbon, renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. DuPont’s Solamet photovoltaic metallization pastes help make solar panels more energy efficient and can increase their power output by around 30 percent. From matter to earth, chemistry is very useful to us. So, we should try to learn chemistry well.

Work Cited

1. BEC CREW. (9 JUN 2016). The 4 Newest Elements on The Periodic Table Have Just Been Named, from https://www.sciencealert.com/the-4-newest-elements-on-the-periodic-table-have-just-been-named.
2. Satinder A.(18 MARCH 2013). Green Chemistry and Other Novel Solutions to Water Pollution: Overview, ACS Symposium Series, from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2013-1123.ch001.
3. Unknown. Chemistry: The Science Behind Sustainability, ACC’s Sustainability Principles, from https://www.americanchemistry.com/Sustainability/Overview.html.

I think there is a relationship between nursing and chemistry because nursing it is said to be a act and the science. And chemistry is science which shows how molecules of stuff interact with each other and the whole body of a person operate in molecular level. Which means us as nurses or as healthcare workers we need chemistry in order to understand what is going on within the body. I know it does not only relies on chemistry only but also on physics and biology.

I am sister Khumalo, I’m working as nurse practitioner at Zozimbini hospital. My work as a geriatric nurse practitioner(GNP) is to check or assess patients holistically. I order diagnostic or laboratories test without being told by a doctor. After they are than examining the samples in the laboratory I have to interpret the result and diagnose the patients. And after diagnoses them I have to prescribe treatment or medication without a doctor’s order I can do that all by applying the knowledge I have learn from chemistry. And the other thing I do as a NP I provide patients education and also interact with their families.

One of the things that I have to do at work that is related to chemistry is taking patients body temperature. The reason why I say it involves chemistry it is because when you check someone’s temperature you use measurement and the temperature must be accurate. Because some illness can be detected through change of body temperature. Sometimes a body changes its normal temperature to support the body’s own defense mechanisms and this also help me as a nurse practitioner to be able to prescribe medication according to the body temperature.

I use my chemistry knowledge when interpreting result after receiving them from the laboratory, the results have so much data so I need to be familiar with these things. That when I have to use what I have learnt from science that when interpreting result you interpret them on the background of a reference interval that Is used to distinguish health and diseases. The reason why I say it’s important to be familiar with all this thing it’s because it will help you if there are any systematic errors.

Some times a patients come to hospital for check up but that patient shows symptoms of someone who is diabetic. To be specific symptoms like loss of weight but has lots of appetite and patient urinate frequently. I then have to use test strip which is use to check glucose (sugar). Chemistry get in I when I have to apply to do the urine test strip which have to contain special chemical on it. If I put the strip into the patient urine sample and its changes colour means there is glucose or sugar presents in that urine sample. Which simply mean that person might be diabetic but I cannot conclude based on that. Blood test should be ordered so that at the laboratory they can check the level of glucose after the result we can then conclude it the patient is diabetic or not. Then we can start with the treatment plan.

Chemistry is related to nursing because as nurses I have to prescribe medication, I have to indicate dosage in which I have to tell patient how much they should consume at what time they have to take the medication. Which is using the knowledge you acquired in chemistry. Without chemistry I can even end up overprescribing or under prescribing or even end up giving patient wrong medication which can cause harm and or even worse lead to death. Using science laws can help me understand what the problems within patients’ body and help me make specific treatment plan. The knowledge that I acquired help me as a nurse to know that medication which belong to the same classification group or same brand do not work the same. Which then decreases the death rate that is due to lack of knowledge Because I get to know the side effect of each and every medication if it’s incorrectly used.

Orderly people turn to be at risk of becoming dehydrated because of medical condition which make it hard for them to obtain enough water and decrease thirst reflex which is the absence of feelings of thirst. Sometimes a patient come to the hospital because he or she got a running stomach. And you find out that there are no electrolyte solutions in the hospital pharmacy. Then me as a health practitioner I have to use homemade remedy. I have to make oral rehydration solution or glucose-salt solution which is used to restore lost electrolytes which are the minerals in the body found in blood, urine, tissues and other body fluids and treat diarrhea. The sugar is important because it improve absorption of water into the body. I have to be very careful with measurements when making the solution because too much salts can be dangerous and too much sugar can make diarrhea worse. And knowing chemistry help because when making the solution you have to boil water which include the state of matter.

I think we have to focus more on pharmacology which is the branch of medicine concerned with the uses, effect and modes of action of drugs. Pharmacology focuses more on medication and their effect on a person’s body. I think if I focus more here it will make my job much easier because my job requires me to assess, diagnose, treat and manage patients care. Knowing more about medical pharmacology can help me plan and to be able to manage patients’ medications. It will help me not to mix medications that are not supposed to be taken together. I remember the was this one incident that I prescribed two different medication that belong to the same group classification unknowingly that they are not supposed to work together. I think if we focus more here a bit can help me to have confidence when prescribing medication without doctors help.

And also, please let’s focus more on biochemistry because it’s involved the chemical practice that occur in living organisms. Biochemistry will help understand how the body function when the are diseases and infirmity and when it is healthy. The biochemistry also has to do with medication and how it works within the body. I think it is important for us to focus here because as a nurse I will not be dealing with patients only but I’ll also be dealing with the patients families so it important for me to understand the processes taking place so that I can be able to explain to their family. So, it is important for me to have biochemistry background. And also knowing about biochemistry can help me when I’m educating patients about certain diseases on what it does.

My profession really requires me to relay on skills that I should I’ve obtain in organic classes in order to be successful. Because in organic chemistry I have to learn about the names, composition, structure and synthesis of carbon compounds and their reaction to various other substance. And it is also part of food, chemicals and the most important thing medication and other things. So that why I thing it will really help me a lots if we focus more on this topic. In organic chemistry I will learn more about the important of chemicals bonds that are created between hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms and that this organic compound have to contain other elements.

During the study of organic chemistry I will learn why this organic compounds are important in humans. This will even help me understand how the oxygen moves from the lungs to the organs that need that’s need oxygen which will then help me when prescribing medication. We also use organic chemistry when checking patients blood pH to check if it acidic at acidic so that we will be able to start planning for suitable treatments. It’s also help knowing about organic chemistry when a patient changes medication because as nurse I should be able to know if the new prescribe medicine will not cause any harm within the body when it counteract with previous medication. In my own eyes I see that chemistry and nursing go hand in hand.

In conclusion I can say it is very important to take chemistry as one of your modules when doing nursing, Because there are other things that we as nurses learn in chemistry class and then we have to use it when working. Things like knowing how medication works their side effects and the dosage that it’s have to be taken in. How long a pills takes to get to the bloodstream. And what a should not be eaten or drunk while using these medication . It also help us understand what a doctor has prescribe a be able to see if an error has been made. Chemistry also help you understand how the body functions so I see chemistry related to nursing.

Introduction

Analytical chemistry considers and employs a variety of equipment and methods in order to separate, identify and quantify matter. After the first flame tests in 1860, the importance of qualitative and quantitative analysis has been identified and major advancements have been made with many of the spectroscopic and spectrometric methods only being refined in the late 20th century. One of these methods includes the analytical technique ‘mass spectrometry’. Mass spectrometry assesses the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. Since mass spectrometry has been developed it has had many applications including beneficial and unexpected consequences especially in the medical industry. (Wikipedia, 2020)

Mass Spectrometry

In order to identify the characteristics of molecules, a mass spectrometer needs to convert the sample into ions in order to be manipulated by external magnetic and electrical fields. There are three essential functions of a mass spectrometer. (Michigan State University, 2013)

These includes the:

• Ion source which is a small ionised sample (generally, a sample of cations)
• Mass analyser which sorts and separates ions according to their mass and charge
• Detector which takes measurements and relays the results to form a chart.

There are many methods used to achieve the three steps listed above. The most common procedure to ionise a sample occurs by passing a high energy beam of electrons through the sample. By accelerating and focusing the beam on the ions, the ions will separate which allow them to be bent by an external magnetic field. This information will then be detected electronically which is analysed by a computer. (Michigan State University, 2013)

The data received by the detector and analysed by the computer produces a mass spectrum. Each peak on the graph represents a ions having a specific mass-to-ion-ratio. The height of the peak shows the relative abundance of each ion, with the most abundant ion being assigned an abundance of 100. (Michigan State University, 2013)

Beneficial Consequences in Medicine

The uses of mass spectroscopy has had a large amount of beneficial consequences ranging from isotope dating to space exploration however this scientific development interacts more with humans through the medical applications that is has. Often, these developments have benefits but also have unexpected consequences.

Through extracting a mass spectrum from a virus’ protein shell, a group at the Carnegie Mellow University was able to identify the unknown virus after it was analysed by a mass spectrometer. This analyses also allowed the team to, unexpectedly, gain greater accuracy in improving the mass spectrum of a ‘von Willebrand’ factor which is essential for blood coagulation. Through mass spectroscopy and following a similar method, the medical industry took the first steps in identifying important biological molecules such as virus’ and clotting factors by simply analysing fragments of the molecule. (Carnegie Mellon University, 2017)

In a similar study lead by Silvia Balbo and Romel Dator, they explored how mass spectrometry can be used to evaluate chemical exposure from e-cigarettes which creates vapours from liquids containing nicotine. The team analysed the saliva of a group of users before and after a vaping session lasting 15 minutes. The team centred their research around carbonyl compounds, propylene glycol and glycerol. The study found that the users had 50 times the amount of acrolein and methylglyoxal as well as increased levels of in their saliva. These compounds are toxic and may act as a DNA adduct which is a segment of DNA which will eventually cause cancer. (Balbo, S & Dator, R, 2018).

Bibliography

1. Wikipedia, 2020, Analytical Chemistry, Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry#History, Accessed 17 April 2020
2. Michigan State University, 2013, Mass Spectrometry, Available at https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/Spectrpy/MassSpec/masspec1.htm, Accessed on 17 April 2020
3. Carnegie Mellon University, 2007, Mass Spectrometer Used to Weigh Virus Particle, Available at https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070823092122.htm, Accessed on 18 April 2020
4. Balbo, S & Dator, R, 2018, Mass Spectrometry Measures Chemical Exposures in E-cigarette Users’ Mouths, Available at https://cen.acs.org/analytical-chemistry/mass-spectrometry/Mass-spectrometry-measures-chemical-exposures/96/i34, Accessed on 18 April 2020

Chemistry plays a crucial role in keeping us healthy throughout our lifetime. Nowadays we ‘re living longer and healthier lives thanks to the large innovations primarily driven by the chemistry industry. The body luckily operates on its own due to the chemical reactions which are constantly occurring in our body, allowing for humans to only have the responsibility of sleeping and eating . Metabolic processing plants reuse the digestion products back into its simple building blocks, which then build our organs and tissues. By using proteins, food consumption, genetics, and chemical reactions to fats, it enables for the recovery of body systems like when you sprained your ankle and allows for the growth of hair and fingernails, it also allows for many more bodily functions which correlate to human health.

First off, enzymes are the primary stakeholders of metabolism, the molecules that accelerate the chemical reactions within our bodies. Enzymes are vital to human health, because our bodies can’t wait too long to obtain the crucial products of chemical reactions. Without the support of enzymes, the switch of nutrients and minerals to working biological components such as proteins, could take several weeks or years. When enzymes do not work properly, they can impact human health in a negative way, ultimately causing disease . For instance, cancer may cultivate when errors occur by the enzymes which copy DNA. Such errors may give rise to a misspelled gene which produces a faulty protein or no protein. “If that protein is the one that keeps a set of cells from multiplying out of control, you can imagine how its absence could bring about serious problems [Davis 2002]”.

Proceeding, adequate and safe drinking water is a fundamental key component of a human’s health and how the chemical components affect the body. With this said, it is as well a global health concern. One critical factor in water safety is the analysis of chemical components and how it affects human health. According to Jennifer L. Freeman, an Associate Professor in the School of Health Sciences at Purdue University, fluoride is a natural component of water supply in some parts of the world, but is supplemented to around 1 mg / L in drinking water. Fluoride is crucial for effective bone and tooth growth but it tends to induce dental discoloration at concentrations > 2 mg / L. Furthermore, exposure at 10 mg / L, results in fluorosis of the skeleton. “Fluoride also alters metabolism of essential nutrients [Freeman 2018]”. Fluorides that are consumed in water are mostly assimilated by diffusion from the gastrointestinal tract and dispersed to all tissues and organs.With over ingestion of fluoride, it can result in fluoride poisoning, causing abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Chronic toxicity of fluoride also leads to joint fatigue, distorted teeth, and more.

Continuing, urban communities around the world are increasing. Urban development encourages the need for farmers to use contaminated land for growth of food crops. Chemistry can be associated with this when looking into the consumption of specific elements and their effects on the human body. “In urban areas, land contamination with toxic metals is common as a result of industrial activity [Mahmood & Malik 2014]”. Metal contaminated soil is a primary route of human exposure to the toxic elements. Hazardous substances may enter the body by ingesting infected crop production, water, or by the inhalation of dust. More than 70 percent of the dietary intake has been associated with cadmium. Vegetables grown on polluted soil can acquire toxic metals, such as cadmium, contributing to the accumulation of toxic metals in liver cells and kidneys and leading to destruction of human health in these areas , as well as nervous and bone disorders.

Also, chemistry is crucial to the study of anatomy and physiology. All the cells in the body are made of chemicals, and all of the body’s activities and processes contain chemical reactions. Chemistry illustrates the body’s energy and nutrients, like why your body contains blood and why you breathe as well as what kinds of nutritional foods and supplements are crucial to life. For example, in body chemistry, oxygen is an essential element which transforms food into energy. Without oxygen the cells in the human body will not be capable of producing the chemicals they need to operate. Chemistry makes sense of how the body contains oxygen. For instance, “a chemical called hemoglobin travels back and forth between your lungs and your cells, carrying oxygen. A chemical reaction that occurs when hemoglobin returns to the lungs produces carbon dioxide, or CO2, which is why you breathe out carbon dioxide [Zamboni 2018]”.

To conclude, “we carry at least 700 chemicals in our body that were not part of the human body chemistry before the 20th century [Larsen & Olsen 2020]”. With the help of constant scientific advancements on human health, it allows us to further understand how chemistry plays a critical role in regards to human health. With this said, with the knowledge of enzymes, elements, and human anatomy, chemists can learn not only about new substances, but also about how chemistry plays a vital role in human health.

Introduction

In this research, it will discuss the role of chemicals to our human structure and function. It will be about the levels of chemical organization, chemical bonding, inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. This research should be able you to define the terms atom, element, molecule, and compound. It will describe the structure of an atom, compare the contrast ionic and covalent types of chemical compounds bonding. It will let you distinguish between organic and inorganic chemical compounds. It will also discuss the chemical characteristics of water, explain the concept of pH and discuss the structure and function of the following type of organic molecules which are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid.

Chemistry is part of our life. Chemical processes are when we digest food, the formation of body tissue and when our muscles are contracting. Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes and substances within the aspects of life. It classifies matter into levels of organization.

Levels of Chemical Organization

Matter is any substance that occupies space and has mass. Most chemicals in our body are in the form of molecules. Molecules is a group of two or more atoms bonded together by chemical bonds. It is the smallest particle of a chemical compound that also causes chemical reaction. Atom consists of several kinds of subatomic particles. The subatomic particles are protons, electrons, and neutrons. Protons have a positive charge particle in the nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge particle. Neutron is a non-charged particle in the nucleus. The combined protons and neutrons are the atom’s atomic mass. While the atom’s atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. The electrons can be found in the energy levels or orbitals surrounding the nucleus. The energy increases when it is farther away from the nucleus. The energy level can hold up to eight electrons. The closest energy level has one orbital to the nucleus and can hold two electrons. The next energy level has four orbitals and can hold up to eight electrons.

There are two substances of an atom. These are the elements and compounds. An element is a pure substance consists of only one kind of atom. A compound is a substance whose molecules have more than one atom.

Chemical Bonding

A chemical bonding make atoms more stable. It is an attraction between atoms, ions, or molecules that allows the formation of chemical compounds. If an atom’s outer energy level is full, it is chemically stable. The outermost energy level will be full by the reaction of atoms to one another in many ways. Atoms can share, donate, or borrow electrons to create this full energy level.

Ionic bond is one of the common ways to make the atom’s outermost energy level full. It makes the atom donate or borrow its outermost electrons to the other one who needs one or two. A compound who has a positive sign is a positive ion that means it lost an electron or donated electrons. A compound who has a negative sign is a negative ion that means it gained an electron or borrowed electrons. When positive and negative ions attract each other because of electrical attraction it forms ionic bonds. Ionic molecules can dissociate in water to form individual ions, we call this electrolyte. A covalent bond is also one of the ways to make atom’s outermost energy level is full. Instead of donating or borrowing electrons, it shares electrons to make the atom stable.

Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

Organic molecules contains carbon-carbon covalent bonds or carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds, while inorganic molecules do not. Inorganic molecules are water, some acids, bases, and salts. Water is a solvent that dissolves solute. It is involved in chemical reactions like Dehydration synthesis in which water is removed from small molecules to form larger molecules, and Hydrolysis in which water is added to a larger molecule to break it to a smaller molecules. To build ATP molecules it always involves a chemical reaction that transfers energy. When acids and bases mix and form salts, neutralization occurs. Acid is a substance that shifts the balance in favor of H+and base is against H+, the opposite of acid. Base is also known as alkaline. To determine if the concentration is acid or base, there is an aqueous solution. A pH is the mathematical expression of the acid or base, if the pH is above 7 it is basic, below 7 is acidic, and neutral or 7 is neither base or acid. When acids and bases mix and forms salts neutralization occurs.

Organic chemistry are carbohydrates, lipids, cholesterol, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates has sugars and complex carbohydrates. It stores energy for later use. It is made up of six carbon subunits called monosaccharides (single sugar), disaccharide (double sugar), and polysaccharide (made up of many monosaccharide units). Lipids are fats and oils. It has triglycerides made up of one glycerol unit and three fatty acids that store energy for later use. Phospholipids is also similar to triglyceride’s structure but it only have two fatty acids, and with a phosphorus containing group attached to glycerol. The phospholipid’s structure has a head that attracts water and a double tail that does not. Phospholipid also form membranes of cell. Cholesterol helps stabilize the phospholipid tails in cellular membranes and can convert into steroid hormones by the body. Protein is an organic chemistry that has a very large molecules made up of amino acids. There are two shapes of protein molecule that determines the role in body chemistry. The protein that allows to form structures of the body is called structural proteins. Examples of it are collagen and keratin. The other protein that participate in chemical processes of the body is called functional protein. It also includes growth factors, receptors, enzymes, hormones, and cell membrane channels. Chemical catalysts helps in chemical reaction to occur but are not reactants, enzymes is an example of a chemical catalyst. They are vital to the body chemistry. Protein can also bond to other organic compounds and form mixed molecules like glycoproteins or lipoproteins. Nucleic acid is one of the organic chemistry that are made up of nucleotide units. It has two forms of nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acid has basic building blocks called nucleotides. It consists of a phosphate, a sugar (deoxyribose and ribose) and a nitrogen base. Deoxyribonucleic acid is the cell’s master code used for assembling proteins. It consists of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine as the nucleotide bases. It forms strand or other structures in a twisted, double strand called double helix shape. On the other hand, Ribonucleic acid is used as the working copy of a gene temporarily, portion of a DNA code. It has adenine, uracil not thymine, guanine, and cytosine as the nucleotide bases. Lastly, the nucleic acids direct overall body structure and function by directing the formation of structural and function proteins.

Chemistry stands a very important role in our daily living. Understanding this concept will expand our knowledge of how it helps us in life. Chemistry is just not happens on us but also in our surroundings. With it, we can discover things like how they are formed and function.

The chemical building block (CBB) is a molecule which can be converted to various secondary chemicals and intermediates, and, in turn, into a broad range of different downstream uses. The organic building blocks assembly is an effective strategy to synthesize materials. Simple molecule structures such as tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) is an universal and magical monomer that are widely used in the construction of high polymer materials and nonlinear optics materials. The simplicity of manufacture greatly promote their application in material industry due to the fact that organic building blocks are processable either as the starting materials or as a precursor. More importantly, the material’s optical and electronic properties is tunable with the help of the large building block library as well as the enormous versatility of organic chemistry which has allowed the different applications in various areas.

Function-inspired design of molecular building blocks for their assembly into complex systems has been an objective in engineering nanostructures and materials modulation at nanoscale[1]. By identifying the appropriate molecular building blocks (monomers, and oli-gomers of arene or heteroarene back-bone) and employing different fabrication techniques, complex material systems can be produced with precise control over structure, properties, and functions. These building blocks are tailored in such a way as to achieve thermal and chemical stability, stimuli-responsiveness, photo-switchability, and electron-conductivity for perspective applications. Illustrating these customized building blocks, special focus is given to their assembly for the construction of various covalent/noncovalent structures including porous crystalline networks such as metal/covalent–organic frameworks (MOFs/COFs)

MOF crystal chemistry offers the potential to introduce desired properties and functionality prior to the assembly process by preselecting building blocks to contain desired structural and geometrical information that codes for a given underlying net[2]. The assembly process, referred to as the molecular building block (MBB) approach, permits access to MOFs with simple topologies, such as edge-transitive nets (nets with one kind of edge). What’s more, such complex and elaborate building blocks can be designed and attained as supermolecular building blocks (SBBs), larger building units based on the assembly of relatively simple and readily accessible building blocks. Utilization of these SBBs with a high degree of symmetry and connectivity, as well as the needed elaborate directional and structural information, permits access to novel MOF platforms.

References

1. Assembly of Molecular Building Blocks into Integrated Complex Functional Molecular Systems: Structuring Matter Made to Order. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 1907625.
2. A supermolecular building approach for the design and construction of metal–organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2014, 43, 6141

Chemistry had been regarded as a difficult subject for students by many researchers, teachers, and science educators because of the abstract nature of many chemical concepts, teaching styles applied in the class, lack of teaching aids, and difficult symbolic language of chemistry. For a better understanding of its concepts, students need to visualize chemical structures and molecules in three dimensions. Picturing chemical structures in three dimensions has consistently been troublesome. Traditionally, we have utilized molecular models for this reason, normally comprised of balls and sticks yet they have restrictions. Molecular models can’t be overlaid, they conflict. Moreover, they can’t be crumpled to an important 2D representation of that particle.

Computers can turn out being a splendid guide in teaching. Computers facilities an audio-visual representation of information. Accordingly making the way of learning interesting and interacting. Furthermore, education is not any more restricted to classrooms. The computer technology has made the fantasy of distance learning, a reality. Computer-aided learning adds a great component to education.

Immersive technologies comprising of virtual reality and augmented reality are amongst the fastest growing and fascinating technologies today. Immersive technologies create or extend reality and this is done by immersing the user in a digital environment having applications in different domains for example, web application, healthcare, transportation, construction, gaming and significantly in education. This technology is gaining momentum with every passing day and hour, transforming and helping us reimagine the future.

Virtual Reality (VR) is a computer technology that uses VR headsets to create a simulator environment and helps an individual to immerse into it to experience an entirely different reality. However the historical journey of virtual reality began back in the 1800s.This marvelous idea has been evolving from the time practical photography came into existence. Morton Heilig invented the first VR device called SENSORAMA in 1957. His multimedia device the SENSORAMA is considered one of the earliest VR systems. However the term virtual reality was coined later by Jaron Lanier in 1987 during his intense research on this evolving technology. Virtual reality is revolutionizing many industries like education, military, medicines and sports. Class VR is an innovative new concept in the educational industry which uses VR tech to raise engagement and knowledge retention for students of all ages. Class VR uses VR headset with the user-friendly interface for both students and teachers.

Immersive virtual reality make students to be able to connect microscopic reality with symbolic representation. By applying virtual reality in chemistry teaching, students are immersed into the molecular world where they are free to walk around the molecule and even through it. Objects can be picked up, their size can be changed by using different scales and be laid over one another. Students can visualize the bonding and structure of any molecule in three dimensions. They learn by experiencing themselves in same environment, by practicing and by immersing in that world.

Researchers have proposed that visualization such as simulations and animations offer help to learn chemistry. Finally, a set of atom and bond representations on human scale would empower our immersion in a molecular world. This immersive technology allows us to be hook up into the same space as those molecules. Chemists can also create their own virtual objects.

Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that projects computer generated augmentations on top of reality, helping us perform tasks better and efficiently. AR which falls in between reality and virtual reality is a method used to render real world data and presented intuitively so that virtual elements resemble the present reality to an extent. AR is not a new technology. Ivan Sutherland develop the first AR gadget called SWORD OF DEMOCLES during 1968. Google Maps, Google Lens, Snap chat filters, these all are examples of augmented reality. Pokémon Go is a popular video game that uses augmented reality. From Pokémon Go to training future surgeons augmented reality started to infiltrate industries of our society today. The main difference between VR and AR is that, AR augments reality, but doesn’t replace it. VR completely replaces your surroundings with a virtual environment.

Augmented Reality in education

Augmented reality in education is used to enhance students’ learning in interesting and interactive manner. As students learn effectively and effortlessly, it would spark their interest toward science. Throughout the most recent decade, the researchers have suggested utilizing the virtual world to persuade students to learn by giving more practical and immersive environment.

Researchers investigated the effectiveness of AR, and some compare traditional teaching methods. Among the types of active learning, collaborative learning is the method that has more advantageous effects on learning as learners share their understandings with their peers and this enhances their learning to much better extent. The environment for collaborative learning is enhanced and conducted by face-to-face communication with the help of computer and mobile technology. Thus AR combined with collaborative learning provides better learning outcomes.

Research shows that the immersive AR technology enhances students’ interest and motivates them to learn new skills and knowledge in depth as the interaction between students and environment is the main cause of interest. AR develops short term situational as well as long term individual interest for chemistry.

Researches have made to investigate the effectiveness of AR combined with traditional teaching methods like demonstration and student-centered hands-on approach and they found different results. They perceive that hands-on AR learning activities empower students’ concepts and knowledge and arouse interest in chemistry better than demonstration strategy especially in chemical reactions. As time passes, hands-on AR strategies allowed students to retain their conceptual understandings and causes students’ long standing engagement in science. Symmetry, chirality and solid state structures are the most challenging topics of chemistry where students find great difficulty in 3D visualization. Using this innovation in teaching, can possibly assist students to appreciate the reality presented by the teachers in symbolism.

Incorporation of AR in the classrooms and laboratory

The new emerging technologies, like smartphones, have made great impact on chemistry learning methods. Basically AR was envisioned and introduced decades ago, but proper implementation of this immersive technology requires particular skills of advanced computer programming. Early chemists had no such skills that are necessary for the utilization of AR technology. Then HP Reveal app is introduced which is free, user-friendly application, used to create useful AR content for chemical conceptualization as well as important instructional information for laboratory instrumentation.

AR content can be created in the instructor’s smartphone. Students download HP Reveal app in their smartphones and follow instructor’s HP Reveal account to get that AR content.

AR-based notecards are used as an example of this technology that contains many of the reaction mechanisms. Physical notecards contain Organic Chemistry I reactions and show only reagents and substrate, while AR notecards due to interaction with HP Reveal app, show the product of reactions with full hand-drawn curved arrow mechanism telling how the product is formed. Furthermore, these notecards show how this app can be utilized to set up instrumentations in laboratories.

AR in classrooms

Notecards have been used for memorizing main points in chemistry learning. With AR, those notecards would now be able to give more elaborative content for learning. For this purpose, HP Reveal app can be used to make notecards with augmented images and videos. Physical AR notecards contain QR code, reactants, chemical substrate and arrow pointing towards an unknown product. With the help of HP Reveal app, video is projected onto the AR notecards and the chemical structure of product become visible. After sometime, electron movement is shown in the mechanism with curved arrows.

Initially, Chemdraw was used to create molecular structures and import them into Microsoft PowerPoint with a square border. These notecards could be printed and used with HP Reveal app. QR code was generated for differentiation purpose using a free, online QR code generator. This QR code contains text that describes each reaction. If the QR code was found on the same place for nearly 20 cards, HP Reveal app may confused and give incorrect AR projections. According to Kyle N. Plunkett, variation in placement of QR codes on different notecards can solve this problem and provide access to 50-60 different notecards.

The AR projection content was created by simple recording. Video was recorded at resolution of 640×480 pixels. The application allows video size of 100 mb that’s why reducing the video length to 4 min. Even longer videos could be generated and then reduced in size by using video editing softwares.

AR in laboratory

The best possible use of lab equipment is significant for efficiency, safety and instrument’s life span. The transfer of inherited knowledge from an experienced equipment user to a beginner commonly happens verbally or through composed directions. There is a space for elective strategies for information transfer that can be accessible whenever. AR can provide information and can instructs user on how to use these instruments in the laboratory. The content was generated inside the smartphone using HP Reveal app.

To encourage the creation and access of information within laboratory, a single shared group account could be made in HP Reveal. Laboratory staff could work together to make AR content utilizing same account on multiple personal devices. To get access to AR projections, lab users could use personal accounts that follow the shared lab account.

In this way researchers made the incorporation of AR in the classrooms and laboratories effectively possible with the help of this user-friendly HP Reveal app for which no particular programming experience is required.

Abstract

The elements of a crime are complex. Criminologists still argue whether the dominating cause is sociological, psychological, or something else. Additional blockade to progress is the fact that criminal violence is not a single status, but rather a diverse set of afflictions. The study controlled for a host of possible intervening factors, including gender, diet, illicit drug use, psychiatric medications, the season of the year, dietary processor of serotonin, alcohol and tobacco use, body mass, socioeconomic status, IQ, and history of suicide attempts. Today’s biological theorists have made significant studies in linking violent or disruptive behavior to body chemistry. Also, aggressive behavior in men may be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of the neurotransmitter. Experts point out that no relationship between serotonin levels and aggression was seen in the female subject. Unfortunately, low cortisol levels were associated with the early onset of aggression.

Ingested Substances and Nutrition

One of the first studies to focus on chemical imbalances in the body as a cause of crime was reported in the British medical journal “Lancet in 1943” ( Rick Nevin). The authors of the study linked the murder to hypoglycemia or low blood sugar. Low blood sugar, produced by too much insulin in the blood or by near-starvation diets, was said to reduce the mind’s capacity to reason effectively to judge the long-term consequences of behavior. Even the courts have accepted the “notion that excess sugar consumption resulting in hyperglycemia may be linked to the crime”( Rick Nevin). The interesting case was found in the early 1980s, Dan White, a former San Francisco police officer, was given a reduced sentence after his lawyers used what came to be known as the Twinkie Defense .They argued that Whites nightlong binge on large amounts of Coca-Cola before he murdered San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and City Councilman Harvey Milk was evidence of White’s unbalanced mental state. According to Rick Nevin “the consumption of junk food was presented as evidence of depression because White was normally very health conscious”.

Also, some studies have implicated food additives, such as the flavor enhancer monosodium glutamate, dyes, and artificial flavoring, in producing criminal violence. Some prison program has been designed to limit the intake of dietary stimulants through nutritional management and substitution of artificial sweeteners for refined sugar. Some studies appear to show that diets deficient in various vitamins and other nutrients can increase aggressiveness and agitation, and can open the door to crime. Although, Stephen Schoenthaler, a researcher at the California State University in Stanislaus, has demonstrated significant declines in bad behavior in incarcerated adults and school children receiving specifically designed vitamin-mineral supplementation. In addition to schoolchildren receiving vitamin supplements showed “a 47% lower rate of antisocial behavior than children who received placebos” ( Rick Nevin). The drop in disciplinary infractions among children taking the supplements was due mostly to a decrease in infractions by those who had been identified as habitual offenders before entering the study.

Environment Pollution

Various substances found in our environment are linked to criminal behavior. First and foremost, the researches reasoned that toxic metals affect individuals in complex ways. Because lead diminishes a person’s normal ability to detoxify poisons, it may heighten the effects of alcohol and drugs. Industrial pollution, automobile emissions, lead-based paints, and aging water delivery systems are all possible sources of lead contamination. It is undeniable that “brain chemistry is altered by risk to massive metals and other toxins, people lose the natural restraint that holds their violent tendencies in check” ( Rick Nevin).Some studies focused on prenatal substance exposure to substances like tobacco smoke, and alcohol. L. Goldschmidt and his colleagues reported the results of a ten-year study that monitored the development of children of more than 600 low-income women. The study began during the women’s pregnancies, found that prenatal marijuana use was significantly related to increased hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, increased delinquency, and externalizing problems. It is a well-known fact that prenatal alcohol exposure also seems to be linked to delinquency and psychiatric problems later in life. Perhaps we should also point out the fact that biological factors do not operate in environment vacuum, nor do environmental factors operate in biological vacuum. These biological factors affect criminal behaviors.

Psychobiotics

A new field of study called psychobiotics has begun to emerge that looks at the psychological and behavioral effects that bacteria can have on the mind, feelings, and emotions. What is more, the central focus of the study is what is referred to as gut bacteria. Although bacteria are a single-celled organism, they are generally far smaller than human tissue cells. One cannot deny that in human beings, gut bacteria, taken in total, weigh more than the human brain. Current analysis has established that gut bacteria transport a vast array of genes that can contribute thousands of chemicals. According to John Cryan “many of these chemicals, once produced, are absorbed through the digestive system into the blood. Some of them are linked to brain signaling and include bacteria produced dopamine, and serotonin”(2014). In other words, gut bacteria appear to produce chemical messengers that interact with the brain and nervous system.

Hormones

A photo of professional wrestler used sex hormones such as testosterone, have been linked to aggressive behavior. A hormone is “a chemical substance produced by the body that regulates and controls the activity of certain cells or organs” (Paul C. Bernhardt). The male sex hormone is testosterone, for example, has been linked to aggression and appears to play an important role in increasing the propensity toward violence and aggression among men. It is undeniable that testosterone is a steroid hormone. Although females produce some testosterone, it is normally present in far higher quantities in the blood and tissues of males. Some scientific suggested that testosterone is the agency primarily responsible for male criminality and that its relative lack in women leads them to commit fewer crimes. According to Psychosomatic Medicine, “most studies on the subject have consistently shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increased aggressiveness in men, and focused studies have unveiled a direct relationship between the amount of the chemical present and the degree of violence demonstrated by sex offenders” ( Dan Olweus, 1980). Also, some studies demonstrated a link between testosterone levels and aggression in teenagers. Adolescent problem behavior and teenage violence rise in proportion to the amount of testosterone in the blood of young men. However, some scientists also agree that high levels of testosterone in the blood of young men may have some effect on behavior, but the effect is likely to be moderated by the social environment.

Serotonin

Paul C. Bernhardt found that testosterone “might not act alone in promoting aggression” (Paul C. Bernhardt,1997). Bernhardt discovered that aggressive behavior in men may be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. According to some experts, serotonin plays a huge aspect in the adjustment of learning, mood, and sleep, and the constriction of blood vessels. Men whose brains are lacking in serotonin, feel the effects of frustration more acutely and therefore tend to respond to frustration circumstances more aggressive, especially when testosterone levels are high. Serotonin had been called a “ behavior -regulating the chemical,” and animal studies have demonstrated a link between low levels of serotonin in the brain and aggressive behavior (Paul C. Bernhardt,1997). The most common proof used to help the chemical imbalance theory is the influence of antidepressant medication. These pills work by gaining the total amounts of serotonin and other neurotransmitters in the brain.

The arguments I have presented in this paper suggest that a chemical imbalance in the brain is pronounced to occur when there’s ether too much or too little of certain chemicals. We cannot ignore the fact that both the rational and emotion centers of the brain are implicated in ethical choices. Thus, biological sex differences may also be an influence on women’s and men’s predisposition to crime and, unethical behavior.

Work cited

1. Dan Olweus et al., “Testosterone, Aggression, Physical and Personality Dimensions in Normal Adolescent Males,” Psychosomatic Medicine , pp.1-10.
2. John Cryan, “A Light of Psychobiotics,” New Scientist, January 25,2014, pp.28-29
3. Paul C. Bernhardt , “Influences of Serotonin and Testosterone in Aggression and Dominance : Convergence with Social Psychology,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, pp.44-48

The chemistry in forensic techniques is very important, and is a necessity in our world today. Forensics techniques are applied in many different ways. Although it is often forgotten, every person leaves behind a small part of their individual self wherever they happen to go without even realizing it. For this reason, forensics are often the key factor in providing evidence to solving crimes whether it is through fingerprinting, blood, or even a single strand of hair. Crime always has been and continues to be a significant problem all over the world. These crimes prove the importance of forensic science and have even sparked public interest in forensics within media and television. From shows such as Sherlock Holmes to CSI, this field of science and chemistry grasps the attention of all people, including children and students who do not have a great desire to learn. Not only does this increased interest give more people the opportunity to learn about science within school, but they also enjoy doing so. This interest in forensic science is not a surprise. Scientists have equipment, tools, chemicals, and techniques that are unbelievable. Forensic techniques have only continued to advance and improve within the past several decades, and scientists still continue to shock with amazing new developments.

There are dozens of different branches within forensics, but commonly, they all apply the use of chemistry in order to function properly. Forensic techniques have been used in analyzing criminal evidence since as long ago as the eighth century. During this time, identification through fingerprinting was beginning to be applied in China. In 1248, the first document to suggest science to solve a crime, Hsi Yuan Lu, was written, which provided information on how a person who died from being strangled, could be significantly identified from a person who has drowned. By the nineteenth century, developments increased. “This period saw the development of tests for blood, the invention of the Marsh test for arsenic in 1832, and studies on bullet ‘fingerprinting’ in the 1880s” (Newton 6).

In this period, the first valuable information for analyzing human blood was discovered by Christian Friedrich Schonbein, who used the chemical, hydrogen peroxide along with bloodstains, discovering that these two combined caused a type of foaming. This was a huge breakthrough because it identified the difference between a stain of blood and an everyday stain. Blood is arguably the most important proof in any violent crime scene. This type of forensic science involving the study of blood and fluids is referred to as serology.

Although the beginning studies of serology were in the 1860s, advancements and research did not progress much until the more recent, 20th century. For a time, doctors believed that all blood was the same, and believed it could be transferred from person to person. This was proved wrong because of the discovery of the chemistry of blood, and the different blood types. Blood is a mix of cells, with the most important as red blood cells, which are behind the act of oxygen being transferred to lungs. These cells are covered with different molecules, with different functions. These form a pattern, which vary from person to person, and cause a person’s body to fight off any pattern they are not familiar with. “These attacking molecules are antibodies. For each specific molecule unfamiliar to a person’s immune system -molecules known as antigens- the immune system will produce a specific antibody” (Newton 35). These chemical patterns and antigens form the various blood types that scientists are now very familiar with today.

But how does this information help forensic scientists to identify criminals and investigate crime scenes? There are many different ways to apply chemistry in crime scene investigations, including, “Genetic fingerprinting , the obtaining or comparing of genetic fingerprints for identification; the comparison of DNA in a person’s blood with that identified in matter found at the scene of a crime, etc” (Jeffreys 1). If a bloodstain is discovered within a crime scene, and it is discovered to be type A, that narrows the suspect list significantly. This is known as the ABO system in forensic serology.

Like serology, fingerprinting plays a large role in identifying criminals and individuals in general. Fingerprinting has been used for centuries, as far back as the third century by the Chinese. However, studies did not begin until the 1960s, when Nehemiah Grew discovered the uniqueness in the designs on the tips of each person’s fingers. Fingerprints are the only part of a person’s entire body that is not smooth. Fingerprints are entirely individual and are not repeated among any two people, even if those two people are twins. Another interesting trait of fingerprints is the fact that a person’s will never change throughout their lifetime. However, the process of DNA fingerprinting is also made difficult because of the uniqueness of each person’s fingerprints. This makes it more difficult to be sure that two compared sets are identical.

DNA fingerprinting takes multiple steps in order to be complete. The strands of DNA that are used in this process are known as VNTRs, which is an acronym for variable number tandem repeats. They include the “variable number” in the name, because the pattern of the DNA will repeat over and over again in the strands. Although DNA is already tiny, scientists begin the process by cutting the DNA into even smaller pieces. They are able to do so through the use of chemicals known as enzymes. “Enzymes are special proteins that have very specific functions. Restriction enzymes can find specific DNA sequences and break DNA apart at that sequence. These enzymes are derived from bacteria that use them to break up the DNA of any organism they might invade” (Hunter 29). The second step the scientist takes is separating these pieces from each other, and categorizing them based on their various sizes. These are then placed on X-ray film, which then provides an image of the pattern of the DNA pieces. However, before placed on the X-ray, they must be secured by a strong, thin membrane, otherwise they will not be preserved for a long time and can easily be destroyed. When a forensic scientist views the image of the DNA of a suspect and compares this image to one of DNA from a crime scene, this can either prove the person guilty or innocent, providing a strong form of evidence. Although this process is pricey and is not very efficient, it is helpful and accurate when it comes to a court case or to determining the truth behind an unsolved crime.

This is not the only method that scientists have discovered in testing fingerprints. One of the most influential tests that has been developed in fingerprinting is the chemical test, which relies on a chemical reaction to change color.

In this test, silver nitrate covers the surface that is being tested for fingerprints, and it is then exposed to a light source, whether it is natural or artificial. This causes the reaction to take place and as a result, the fingerprints become evidently seen on the tested surface within a short amount of time. This method is very different compared to the previously mentioned method, but is just as effective. This method is also more efficient. Forensic scientists continue to conduct research and seek new ways to test fingerprints as well as seeking to improve existing processes.

Although it is very different from serology and fingerprinting, toxicology is similar to these two types of forensic techniques because it is also a very important way of establishing crimes. Toxicology is defined as the “biological, physiological, and pharmacological properties of drugs and poisons to the medical and legal implications associated with their abuse or medical administration” (Newton 65). Blood alcohol concentration is the percentage of alcohol in the bloodstream and in most states, the legal limit is 0.08. Drunk driving is the cause behind thousands of accidents each year, in which at least one of the drivers involved had a blood alcohol concentration higher than 0.01. Toxicologists are responsible for determining whether someone has been drinking and how much they have drank. They also have the responsibility of proving whether a person, living or dead, has consumed a poisonous chemical or a drug, and to determine what drug or poison this person consumed. These poisonous chemicals can vary from basic cleaning supplies, to advanced poisons such as cyanide and strychnine.

What makes alcohol “alcoholic”? This would be the organic chemical, chemical formula CH3CH2OH, which is more commonly known as ethanol. When alcohol is consumed, most of it makes its way into the bloodstream. This is why alcohol level is tested in blood alcohol concentration. Alcohol in blood is identifiable within a couple minutes of it being consumed.

Carbonation also plays a factor in a bloodstream with alcohol. If the alcoholic drink has bubbles, this raises the rate of the alcohol being absorbed into the bloodstream. However, a person’s body uses both the chemical process of oxidation and the process of excretion to get rid of this alcohol over a period of time. “Oxidation takes place in the liver, where the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, in conjunction with the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), converts ethanol first to acetaldehyde, then to acetic acid, and eventually to carbon dioxide and water” (Newton 67).

Blood alcohol concentration became intriguing to forensic scientists in the mid-1930s with the Eighteenth Amendment. The amendment prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol in the United States. The revoking of this amendment created many problems in the United States and led to an increase in abuse of alcohol. The first testing for alcohol came to be testing a person’s breath. This came with the “Drunkometer”, which was a test created by a biochemist by the name of Rolla Harger. Through this test, a person breathed into a balloon. The air that is held within this balloon is then released into a chemical solution. This chemical solution would change color according to the amount of alcohol present within the air released. This reaction that takes place is ethanol reacting with potassium permanganate.

In this reaction, the red-orange dichromate ion converts to green chromium ion. With the increased amount of ethanol, the more complete the reaction between the two. This reaction provides the blood alcohol concentration level and is easily shown. This system is used all over the world today, including within many schools, police departments, companies, and businesses.

Along with testing for alcohol, a toxicologist is also responsible for testing for the presence of poison and drugs within a person’s body. Over the last couple decades, use of illegal drugs has increased significantly, even among children as young as 12 years old. “According to the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health produced by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration, 19.7 million Americans over the age of 12 had reported using an illicit drug during the previous month” (Newton 81).” This information is important to toxicologists and forensic scientists because these drugs are illegal, are often related to crime and criminals, and often are a frequent cause of death. The presence of drugs is also important because many companies use drug testing to determine who they want as their employees. Many schools around the world also put drug testing to use by testing students and athletes.

In order to determine whether a drug is involved, two tests must take place. The first is known as a screening test, which limits the number of drugs or poisons that may be present, but does not determine the exact drug or poison that is present. This is where the confirmatory test plays its part. This test is used to find the exact chemistry of a substance and determine whether a substance is actually in a sample.

Poisons can be much more difficult to identify compared to drugs because there are over 10,000 that are known to man. Out of these 10,000 different poisons, there are only two categories that they are identified in. Poisons are referred to as either organic, or inorganic. There are hundreds of different testing methods, many of which are specific to a certain poison. One of these methods includes the Forrest test, which is a screening, rather than a confirmatory, test. This test is made exclusively for the poison imipramine. However, similar techniques to this one are used in other poison methods. Imipramine is a tricyclic organic compound, and is often used to battle depression. Forrest may sound complicated to create, but is another test that is simply meant to change color through a chemical reaction to prove and highlight the presence of another substance. “Forrest reagent is made by mixing 25 milliliters of a 2 percent aqueous solution of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) with equal volumes of concentrated sulfuric acid, concentrated perchloric acid (HClO4), and concentrated nitric acid” (Newton 89). This test is performed by stirring this substance along with sample urine. If the results are positive, it will change from a yellow-green color, to a deeper dark green-blue. Tests very similar to this one are used to reveal the appearance of poisons such as desipramine, trimipramine, and clomipramine. Once this screening test is carried out, it is follow by a more powerful confirmatory test. This will assure that the results are accurate and no mistakes have been made. Toxicology has had one of the greatest impacts in forensic science and has made a great amount of contributions. There are now hundreds of chemical tests to find traces of alcohol, drugs, and poisons that early scientists never even imagined they would ever have.

In conclusion, chemistry in forensic techniques has had a huge impact in our world, and continues to today. Without these processes, scientists would not be able to discover the advanced information they now have. Also, our justice system would not be nearly as strong and many criminals may have gotten away with terrible things they have done, while many innocent people may have been accused because of the lack of evidence to prove people innocent or guilty. Serology, Fingerprinting, and Toxicology are only three of the many types of forensic techniques, and all of them are important and beneficial. Scientists everyday continue to search for new ways to apply chemistry in forensic techniques, and surely they will continue to shock the world with their advancements and amazing techniques.

Works Cited

1. Hulla, J. E., Kinter, L. B., & Kelman, B. (2015). A standard of knowledge for the professional practice of toxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 123(8), 743. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A425460944/SCIC?u=albu16399&sid=SCIC&xid=80172fd2
2. Hunter, W. (2014). DNA Analysis. Broomall, PA: Mason Crest.
3. Jeffreys, A. J. (2005). Genetic fingerprinting. Nature Medicine, 11(10), 1035+. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A192625766/SCIC?u=albu16399&sid=SCIC&xid=a9abc5e0
4. Jobling, M. A., & Gill, P. (2004). Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis. Nature Reviews
5. Genetics, 5(10), 739+. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A188855324/SCIC?u=albu16399&sid=SCIC&xid=aa88767c
6. Kurowski, S., & Reiss, R. (2007). Mendel meets CSI: forensic genotyping as a method to teach genetics & DNA science. The American Biology Teacher, 69(5), 280+. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A180555915/SCIC?u=albu16399&sid=SCIC&xid=1f6554bc
7. Newton, D. E. (2007). Forensic chemistry. New York, NY: Facts on File.
8. Walker, M. (2014). Entomology & palynology. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest.

Forensic sciences and criminalistics have existed since ancient times, but until recently it was unknown. Throughout history, crimes have occurred in which there has always been an attempt to find the person responsible for applying justice. Many have been the crimes that have gone unpunished due to the absence of a science that was dedicated to solving them. It is when the need arises to create forensic sciences, which helps to find the culprits and provides them with the corresponding punishment. The purpose of this work is to make known the existing relationship between chemistry and forensic sciences.

‘The forensic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that is responsible for classifying and dosing all signs related to an alleged criminal act. Forensic chemistry is based on the premise that when two objects come into contact, there will be an exchange between the two, in other words, ‘each contact leaves a trace’ (Danylla, 2011). The forensic chemistry is in charge of applying the chemical principles to solve cases of judicial interest. It currently mainly focuses on chemical analysis as a fundamental tool for track processing. There are several areas where forensic chemistry plays an important role. Toxicology is the one that covers the most popular applications. The most abundant cases are related to the consumption of alcohol and narcotics by drivers.

The legislation of several countries establishes a limit for the content of alcohol in the blood of a driver in order to reduce the probability of traffic accidents, so when an accident of this nature exists, it is necessary to verify the conditions in which they found the driver (s) to determine the existence of the infraction and execute the corresponding sanctions. In addition, the consumption of alcohol is an aggravating circumstance when there are deaths in between. Other cases of toxicological interest are those related to poisonings and intoxications. There are several substances that are considered in a toxicological analysis: drugs of abuse, analgesics, beta-blockers, antidepressants, among others, whose presence and level of concentration can give indications of illicit use of controlled substances, overdose or poisoning. Additionally, within this area, there is a type of toxicological analysis applied to the field of sports, called anti-doping control. On the other hand, forensic chemistry also intervenes in the analysis of non-biological matrices. In investigations involving firearms, waste is usually analyzed on the skin or clothing after a shot is fired for the purpose of relating them to the device from which it originated.

This type of analysis is especially helpful in cases of homicides. The residue of a shot is mainly composed of certain metals (lead, arsenic, and antimony) commonly used in bales. Thanks to the instruments currently available, an analysis can be carried out that meets these requirements; however, the results are subject to the skill and experience of the forensic chemist since the mere presence of these substances does not necessarily indicate that a firearm has been fired, but that supplementary information and a critical analysis of the results are required to arrive at a conclusive observation. Sometimes fires are caused in homes or warehouses through the use of flammable substances that accelerate the combustion process. By means of an adequate chemical-forensic analysis, the accidental or provoked nature of the fire could be determined. When an event of this nature has been provoked, a portion of the flammable substances used, usually gasoline and petroleum derivatives, is absorbed in certain materials present in the scene and remains unburned, thus allowing its detection. Petroleum derivatives have appreciable differences at the time of analysis and even, under certain conditions, it is possible to distinguish between gasoline of different qualities and provenances. Finding an accelerant or flammable substance in the place of the accident helps to establish the place of origin of the event and, therefore, to the reconstruction of the facts.