Category: Challenges

Introduction

The last two decades have been characterized by increased research that is directly targeted at young people and children. Despite various scholars incapacity to view and understand the world from childrens perspectives, Dalli and Te One (2012) offer evidence from contemporary studies showing that kids possess competencies such as moral, technical, and cognitive skills that adults can fully read.

For instance, newborns can communicate through bodily expressions and movements. This ability supports the use of children in research, thus eroding the perception that they are immature and incompetent participants who cannot understand their world (Bucknall 2013). However, using children and young people in any study poses some issues and challenges. This paper focuses on the deployment of kids as respondents in a study, the disorderliness of studies that involve children, and the consideration of moral practices when involving children in research as some of the issues and challenges manifested in five articles.

Issues and Challenges

Children as Serious Research Participants

Fraser (2013) regards children as important study participants who should not be viewed as objects, but reputable citizens. Dalli and Te One (2012) quote various studies that demonstrate challenges that emanate from viewing children as serious study elements. For example, they argue that one should not only learn to pay attention but also listen to gain knowledge. These two approaches need to be accomplished in a complementary manner, thereby raising the issue of considering children as small adults (Fraser 2013). This issue is important since all subjects need to assent to engage in the study. As a result, treating them as small adults implies the need for informed consent, thus eliminating the requirement for approval from parents.

While investigating children, their voice alone is not adequate. According to Kellett (2014), scholars also need to provide space in which kids express themselves. Indeed, an attempt to examine childrens issues may result in a situation where they want to respond in the context of their world, hence challenging the attainment of the intended objectives. Kellett (2014) holds that childrens voices have four paradigms, namely, liberty, tone, control, and listeners.

Studies that are undertaken using children as participants provide a good example of the challenge. For example, in an interview steered by Stephenson on 0 to 5-year-old children, significant views and insights on how childhood curriculum took place were acquired when an opportunity was provided to create the space for free interaction instead of completing a study exercise as priory planned (Dalli & Te One 2012). In the study, instead of selecting a set of pictures available at a childhood center, a two-year-old child chose to use his artifact (horse toy) in demonstrating what he liked doing at the center. Thus, the scholar could not modify the participant to adapt to use the instruments provided by the interviewer.

The above challenge can be approached by modifying the research instruments. It is crucial to question whether an interview approach reflects on childrens thoughts, including how their ideas can be incorporated at every stage. Most importantly, a researcher may ensure that the study topic interests children, evaluate power dynamics, and/or focuses on getting non-influenced views from children (Dalli & Te One 2012).

To address Fraser (2013) and Kelletts (2014) issue, it might have been crucial for scholars to regard children as serious participants whose views should be listened to carefully. As evidenced by Stephensons approach to solving the challenge, it was wise to develop instruments that fitted childrens interests and needs as opposed to those that made data collection easy and straightforward. This way, the study becomes beneficial to children in terms of understanding what they prefer doing in a learning center. Appropriate improvements can be made to guarantee better learning outcomes.

Disorderliness of Research using Children

The challenge manifests itself in the form of difficulties in developing research methods, particularly procedures that are necessary to gain access to children and the required consent. According to Alderson (2012), teachers can give accessibility, but not consent. In all studies done to determine the issues and challenges associated with using children and young people participants, Dalli and Te One (2012) reckon that some degree of complexity or disorderliness was reported.

A good example of this challenge entails the study carried out by Fletcher in Dalli and Te Ones (2012) study. Fletcher needed to develop a study protocol that was culturally appropriate to have access to Pasifika children. The scholar needed to build trust ecology by negotiating with researchers in the community and the social leaders. For example, one of the community members, Faafoi, believed he was the gatekeeper to the accessibility of Pasifika people (Dalli & Te One 2012).

Consequently, he was in charge of creating awareness of the attitudes and values among various social intuitions, including churches, schools, and families. Faafoi observed that students in the Pasifika expressed themselves freely in the absence of their parents or teachers. Therefore, an attempt to perform a study in such a setting introduces disorderliness or complexities concerning the need for methods that can suit children.

In Evans experimental study done in 2007, accessibility to the project environment was complicated. The scholar wanted to gain access to various primary school children participants with the objective of understanding fairness and forgiveness in families (Dalli & Te One 2012, p. 231). However, Evans project committee of ethics raised concerns about using young children participants terming the study as one that deploys kids as captive audiences.

Nevertheless, Evan overcame this challenge by arguing that childrens perceptions of unfairness and/or forgiveness were an important area of interest to schools. In my perspective, this argument supported the project by indicating that it was beneficial to children and hence the need for parents assessment of the value of the study before they can approve the participation of their children.

Although it was necessary to resolve the challenges encountered by Fetcher while investigating Pasifika children by incorporating community inputs, parental consent is critical. The researcher could have considered parental consent while balancing it with childrens willingness to participate. Nevertheless, in Fetchers study, children participants were given consent forms for their parents to append their signatures. Indeed, in my opinion, this move was necessary considering that without parents approval, childrens agreement to participate may not be interpreted as informed consent.

Necessary Time and Resources Investments

In a study process, researchers quantify the necessary time and the required resources to complete the study. Dalli and Te One (2012, p. 231) suggest, Building relationships with staff, parents, and children in research settings is the best way to understand childrens lived experiences. This strategy underlines the importance of utilizing time to build long-term relationships with families and children participants.

The strategy introduces the challenge of having adequate time in a project. The longer a study takes, the larger its budget. For example, the study presented by Evan as discussed by Dalli and Te One (2012) required two months of data collection, contrary to his expectations since the funding came from grants that only supported short-term projects. Evan overcame the problem by spending extra time in the data collection process.

He spent less time to assemble the final report. An analysis of the problem of the necessary time and resource investments encountered by Evan reveals that scholars who deploy children participants have high chances of under-approximating the time required to complete the study. Considering that every project involving children is unique depending on the data to be collected, Evan should have considered seeking funding from grants that support long-term projects.

Respectful Practices

The studies described by Dalli and Te One (2012) document the ethical challenges encountered by scholars in the process of trying to retain the rights of children, especially in the last phase of the research, namely, the dissemination of the findings stage. Studies that deploy children participants have evolved to the level of adopting the adventurous psychological perspective that identifies them as social beings that are competent enough to participate actively in a project (Cooper 2013).

The perspective regards kids as fit to take part or be involved in all stages of a study. Therefore, it sounds insignificant to use them in research but end up disseminating the findings in contexts that only bring together communities or teachers. One of the respectful practices entails appreciating that children and young people can construct meanings about family life and provide opportunities for them to share their views on issues such as parental separation (Cooper 2013, p. 60). In my view, an analysis of this practice reveals that where a project uses children as participants, disseminating the findings to them can help in the process of interpreting the findings.

Despite the need for considering the above respectful practices, the actual study that deploys children participants is characterized by another challenge. For example, in the research performed by Fletcher, findings were disseminated in two meetings that brought together the scholars and the community (Dalli & Te One 2012). The first meeting was emotionally charged. Successful children attended, although they remained quiet throughout.

In the second meeting, unsuccessful children never attended. Rather, they chose to play outside while many of the other people decided to boycott the conference (Cooper 2013). The respectful practice of incorporating children in the findings dissemination stage failed to achieve the intended outcomes. Underachieving children could have taken part in the findings dissemination stage for them to benefit from various recommended strategies.

In the wake of the challenges, Fletcher utilized church ministers to act as advisors. However, worries remained on how to negotiate with various schools concerning the solutions that would guarantee the implementation of the strategies recommended for increasing the achievement of all unsuccessful children. To overcome this challenge, Fletcher should have sought access from schools while at the same time incorporating them into the study process. In my observation, teachers are challenged when it comes to implementing recommendations that can help them to improve childrens learning outcomes. Consequently, they should be incorporated into the study to enhance their understanding of the value and need for implementing the proposed recommendations in their schools.

Conclusion

Young people and children are competent enough to take part in a study as participants. However, such studies give rise to various issues and challenges. The need for observing ethics, allocating the appropriate time and resources, the issue of disorderliness of research using children, and the treatment of children and young people as serious participants are some of the difficulties encountered in studies that deploy kids and young people of up to the age of 17 years as participants.

Reference List

Alderson, P 2012, Ethics, in A Clark, R Flewitt, M Hammersley & M Robb (eds), Understanding research with children and young people, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 85-102.

Bucknall, S 2013, Doing qualitative research with children and young people, in A Clark, R Flewitt, M Hammersley & M Robb (eds), Understanding research with children and young people, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 69-84.

Cooper, V 2013, Designing research for different purposes, in A Clark, R Flewitt, M Hammersley & M Robb (eds), Understanding research with children and young people, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 51-68.

Dalli, C & Te One, S 2012, Involving children in educational research: researcher reflections on challenge, International Journal of Early Years Education, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 224-233.

Fraser, S 2013, What is research with children and young people? in A Clark, R Flewitt, M Hammersley & M Robb (eds), Understanding research with children and young people, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 34-50.

Kellett, M 2014, Images of childhood and their influence on research, in A Clark, R Flewitt, M Hammersley & M Robb (eds), Understanding research with children and young people, SAGE Publications, London, pp. 15-33.

Some critical scholars date Daniel to the Second or Third Century BC because they believe that some prophecies attributed to him were characteristic of the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the assumption is that the book must have been written before his time (175-164 BC). Some arguments that are against the traditional dating of Daniel are found in linguistic studies. They are based on loan words that were thought not to be in existence in vernacular at the time Daniel was being written. The assumption of a later date is the presence of a diversity of languages that is evident in Daniel. Evidence from eight copies of manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls indicated that the oldest one dated about 125 BC. All these assumptions inform why some critical scholars to date Daniel to the Second or Third Century BC.

The late dating of the book of Daniel can affect our understanding on the accuracy of the book since all its prophecies would seem to have occurred after the fact. In a sense it makes it difficult to trust the authorship of the book since its contents seems inconsistent with the happenings at the time. A late dating makes the books predictions to be too accurate to be authentic.

However, arguments for an early dating are derived from the Bible indicating that the book was dated at around the Sixth Century BC. It is supposed to be the original dating which is one of tradition based on the internal dating of the book (Daniel 1:1). The book is considered as being part of the Jewish Canon. The authors of the book seem to be fluent in the Aramaic and Hebrew languages which were not present in by the Second Century.

Work Cited

Book of Daniel. The Holy Bible.

Recently, many women in the world received an opportunity to become pregnant even if they have several genetic problems that were a huge barrier in this process. The technique is called In-Vitro Fertilization, and it is related to laboratory procedures. According to Crawford and Ledger, I. V. F. includes the fertilization where an egg is mixed with donor sperm in the artificial environment outside the human body (238). Professionals monitor the development of the embryo at the early stages. When positive dynamics are recorded, doctors instill the egg in the womans body to provide a natural environment. The process helps to ensure parents that their child will not have any genetic differences that appear with the fertilization of the egg. The process takes a lot of time and effort, and the costs are high for this procedure. Consequently, some social organization may express their discontent regarding this new technique. Using the example of church relationship to I. V. F., the paper will show different opinions, challenges, and opportunities in relation to women who are ready for this procedure.

The Church is the social place that presents many contradictions regarding the modern progress of the world, and the development of in-vitro fertilization is not an exception. This essay will present the vision of the Roman Catholic Church and will focus mostly on Polish experience. The Church teaches its followers that embryos should be respected from conception, and some leaders propose their visions for and against the concept. Polish church representatives express their views against the destruction of embryos as they are potential human beings. Even though they cannot make individual decisions, this type of killing should not be allowed (Radkowska-Walkowicz 983). Some laboratories freeze embryos for later use, but a couple can give their permission to destroy them in fourteen days.

The proposals of the Church and peoples desires are controversial in this case. The government elected by citizens of the Polish Republic tightens laws regarding the topic of children. Consequently, it is not always possible to get support from state and church leaders due to different views and beliefs. The general attitude to the in-vitro fertilization of the Catholic Church is positive, and massive arguments do not arise between religious representatives and citizens.

I agree with the idea presented by Catholic Church in Poland, and I support the idea that embryos are living creations that should be treated as already born people. Freezing, in this case, can be one of the most suitable and safe ways to protect a new life. Abandonment of an unborn child should not entail moral or legal consequences. Other parents who are struggling to have a baby should have an opportunity to refer to savings provided by different laboratories. Every decision should not be judged by the Church even though they carry different visions, and crucial support must be provided to allow people to feel freer in their societies.

In conclusion, Catholic Church has created a stable relationship with in-vitro fertilization, and they try to teach their followers to value the lives of others and those who are not born yet. Nevertheless, the propaganda is not strong, and every person has a right to make individual decisions. In the example of the Polish Church, it was explained how religious leaders think about the procedure and how specific regulations influence people.

Works Cited

Crawford, Giselle and Ledger, W. L. In vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection beyond 2020. An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 237-243. Web.

Radkowska-Walkowicz, Magdalena. How the political becomes private: In vitro fertilization and the Catholic Church in Poland. Journal of Religion and Health, vol. 57, 2018, pp. 979-993.

Turkey has been considered an important economic and political partner of the European Union (EU) since the inception of integration after the Second World War. The process of integrating Turkey into the EU commenced in 1963 following the Ankara agreement where Turkey was recognized as an associate member. In 1987, Turkey applied for EU membership, however, it was officially recognized as a candidate for integration in 1999 and accession negotiations kicked off in 2005. Turkey signed a custom union agreement with EU in 1995 (Canefe & Ugur, 2004). This paper examines the Turkeys economic integration to the EU giving a special emphasis to the reasons that have prevented Turkey from being given full membership status. The paper also looks at the steps that have been taken by Turkey to address the integration challenges.

The EU integration process has exposed exceptional challenges and opportunities for both Turkey and the union in general. Some of the striking features that differentiate Turkey from other states are mainly in the context of size, population, geographical location and the huge economic potential (Cavanaugh, 2011). Other factors include the massive military potential, cultural, and religious constructs. Cavanaugh (2011) identified that these factors play a key role in defining Turkeys capacity to the regional economic progress and stability. In fact, these factors constitute some of the key issues that have been the cause of disagreement in the accession talks. The main objective of integration has been to strengthen the political as well as economic reformes of the member countries.

One of the hindrances of Turkeys integration in the EU emanate from its historical background as well as its geographical location. Turkey is predominantly an Islamic nation. Muslims have generally been considered as outsiders as far as Europe is concerned. Turkey, having been at the centre of the Ottoman Empire has been perceived as a military threat by Europe. This notion is anchored on the historical conquest of Constantinople by Muslim authorities in 1453, which ended the Christian oriented Byzantine Empire (Cavanaugh, 2011). The subsequent rivalry between the nations of the Christendom and the Islamic Empire contributed to the creation of an idea that Turkey has not been part for the European Identity (Cavanaugh, 2011).

More specifically, Turkeys journey of integration has been faced with numerous challenges that prevented it from receiving EU membership status. Majorly, concerns have been raised about Turkeys political and economic standards, which have been considered as wanting as compared to the EU standards. The political issue has been one of the major hindrances for Turkey to join EU membership. One of the requirements is adherence to the Copenhagen Criteria which established obligations that candidate nations must satisfy before joining the European Union (European Commission, 2014). One of the criteria that candidate nations must have achieved before being integrated according to European Commission (2014) is Stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities (Para 1).

Based on this requirement, Turkey has had challenges especially with stability, where the political structure is being viewed as unstable following the several military coups that have been experienced (Cavanaugh, 2011). Another criticism of Turkeys eligibility to join EU has been concerning the influence of the military on the political structure of the nation, which have subsequently undermined the right of freedom of expression. The Turkish Political structure is highly aligned to the Ataturk ideologies. In this respect, Turkish authorities have been regarded as having little concern for ensuring freedom of speech. According to Rouleau (2000), the Turkish constitution forbids criticism of the Ataturk. It is observed that, with such ideological constructs, Turkey is highly likely to bend some of the fundamental ideologies that make the Europes identity.

Turkeys economy has also been a source of controversy in its orientation in relation to the EU. The second Copenhagen Criteria established that Candidate nations must have stable market economies to warrant EU membership (European Commission, 2012). Due to the instability of Turkish economy, Europe perceive that, if turkey is integrated, there might arise problems of mass emigrations. This observation is based on the earlier experiences with the Turkish Guest Worker programs, which allowed Turkish nationals to acquire passports to travel outside the nation for work purposes (Icduygu, 2011).

Germany, for instance, hosted thousands of immigrants from turkey following the bilateral agreements that allowed turkey to work in Germany under the guest workers program. To date Germany is overly cautious about Turkeys integration due to the fear of mass emigrations as witnessed with the guest worker program (Icduygu, 2011). According to Ant (2015), Turkey has not implemented enough policies to caution the economy against volatility where its policies are rated as weaker than that of other EU nations. From a fiscal perspective, if Turkey is integrated into the European Union, it would be ranked among the poorest EU member states based on the GDP. For example, compared to EU average GDP of $ 21,000 Turkeys GDP was only $2,100 in 2001 (Teitelbaum & Martin, 2003).

In addition, with a high population of unskilled workers, it was viewed that a large number of workers would migrate to other EU member states. It was also viewed that, if Turkey was fully integrated as a full member, the overall welfare of the economy of other member states could be affected negatively (Teitelbaum & Martin, 2003).

Turkey has however been addressing the many challenges that have prevented it from gaining full EU membership. It has implemented reforms aimed at improving its eligibility to be fully integrated in the EU. Turkey has initiated programs, for instance, the implementation of the democratization package of 2013 under Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan (Erdogan v Gulen, 2013). The democratization package is aimed at settling the Kurdish Issue. Erdogans step was a big step towards meeting the requirements of the Copenhagen Criteria for eligibility of candidates to EU integration. However, there still exist issues such as inadequate independence of the judiciary and human rights concerns that Turkey must address to meet the Copenhagen requirements (Erdogan v Gulen, 2013).

Concerning economic stability, Turkey has taken tremendous steps in terms of economic growth where by 2013, economic growth rate was 4 percent. The economic performance of Turkey is seemingly appealing and has high potential for growth. As of today, the EU remains Turkeys most important trading partner (Canefe & Ugur, 2004). With enhanced economic reforms, almost 70 percent of the foreign direct investments in Turkey come from EU member states (European Commission, 2014).

Turkey has also focused on implementation of reforms in the different sectors of the economy. These reforms are carried out in the manufacturing, services and agricultural sectors including implementation of policies that address environmental, labor market and investment issues. Other economic reforms have focused on reduction of inflation as a measure to improve macroeconomic stability. Such reforms are implemented in collaboration with international financial institutions such as the IMF and World Bank (Jarosiewicz, 2013).

References

Ant, O. (2015). Fitch Warns Turkey on Policy Credibility as Outlook Kept Stable. Bloomberg Business Week. Web.

Canefe, N. & Ugur, M. (2004). Turkey and European Integration: Accession Prospects and Issues. N.Y.: Routlidge. Web.

Cavanaugh, C. (2011). Turkeys difficulty Entry into the European Union. The Washington Review. Web.

Erdogan v Gulen (2013). The Economist. Web.

European Commission (2012). European neighborhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations. Web.

European Commission. (2014). Completing the Foundations for Credibility. Web.

Icduygu, A. (2011). Europe, Turkey and international migration; an uneasy negotiation. European University Institute. Web.

Jarosiewicz, A. (2013). Turkeys economy: a story of success with an uncertain future. OSW Commentary. Web.

Teitelbaum, M. & Martin, P. (2003) Is Turkey Ready for Europe? Foreign Affairs 82(3), 97-111. Web.

It is indisputable that the United States is the only superpower in the current international system, even though it faces several challenges as far as its national interests are concerned. The main interest of any state in the global system is the maintenance of security. The US is confronted with several national security challenges, but terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, and promotion of democracy abroad are some of the top priorities of foreign policymakers. These are the three challenges that this article will talk about in detail. Starting with terrorism, the United States is struggling to overturn the influence of terrorists, both domestically and abroad.

One of the strategies utilized is disarming terrorist operations and seizing the initiative from them through the promotion of freedom and democracy. After the 9/11 attack, the United States invaded Afghanistan and Iraq with the main aim of flushing out members of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda, which is a known terrorist group that has always targeted the United States, even in other countries. Therefore, the United States is faced with the enormous challenge of identifying, disrupting and destroying the activities of extremist organizations. It does this through assaulting the leadership, command the communications lines of these extremist organizations. It is noted that terrorist organizations receive funding from some governments, meaning that the United States should always identify these governments and attack them.

The second challenge facing the United States as far as national security is concerned is the spread of mass destruction weapons. In the current international system, even weak states such as India and Pakistan are in a position to produce nuclear energy. The main problem is not the production of nuclear energy but its utilization. It is feared that nuclear energy would be a real threat to the interests of all states in the international system in case it gets into the hands of extremist organizations and terrorists. Therefore, the US has formulated some policies to prevent rogue states such as Iran and North Korea from acquiring weapons of mass destruction (Sciolino 56). In 2005, a decision was reached globally that the intelligence community should utilize all possible means to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction because its consequences are stern. The United States employs a proactive counter-proliferation strategy as one way of preventing the spread of WMD. The main aim of the intelligence agency is to collect adequate information that would help in the mitigation of the problem. In this regard, the inclusion of other actors such as the supranational and other state actors is very important. The United States has been forced to engage other states such as India to help in the collection of intelligence reports in Asia.

Lastly, the issue of maintenance and promotion of democracy is another challenge to the United States. As a superpower, the United States has investments in almost all countries in the world. These investments and business interests would only flourish in case of peace prevails. It is confirmed beyond a reasonable doubt that democracy is favorable to trade and commerce. Therefore, the United States engages in programs that promote democracy because of its interests in trade globally. In states that do not appreciate democracy, such as Libya, Tunisia, Ivory Coast, Egypt, and Syria, the United States has always supported all efforts to bring about democracy and open up the economy.

Works Cited

Sciolino, Elaine. Persian Mirrors: The Elusive Face of Iran. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.

Introduction

Public personnel administration comprises the acquisition, development, utilization, and compensation of the workforce in the public organizations. Problems that arise from globalization, shifting technology, and customer demands, among other factors, characterize the modern business environment. This set of circumstances requires well-informed public personnel. This essay provides an insight into challenges such as legal oversight and judicial doctrines, strategic civil service reforms, affirmative action and diversity, representative bureaucracy, and democracy that are encountered in public personnel administration.

Legal Oversight and Judicial Doctrines

Issues that pertain to legal oversights and judicial doctrines have been challenging the public personnel administration due to tremendous changes that occur in information technology, globalization, and market economies. Most people in the public domain are reluctant to accept various public administrations as they are fond of adopting active and aggressive roles in organizations that assume radical reforms regarding government accountabilities (Farazmand, 2007).

A credit is given to the public in the current society that has raised the bar for policymakers to perform a high level of productivity and quick actions in the public administration (Farazmand, 2007).The legal oversight authorities have ensured that the public personnel administration acts according to the stipulated laws since everybody, including the private sectors, only act genuinely if the public upholds transparency (Farazmand, 2007).

According to Kellough and Selden (2003), many organizational unions have no relationship with the state of reforms that exist in the public personnel administration. Such reforms include the decentralization of activities, management of labor and partnerships, and strategic management, various job classes, and payment levels (Kellough & Selden, 2003).Most personnel in the public sector strive to respond to the pressure of high productivity and efficiency besides becoming the role models in labor-management relations (Farazmand, 2007).

Market models under the regulations that exist have resulted in high costs of operations amongst businesses. Most of the businesses that operate under capitalism and the free market economies boost their private enterprises by easing the burden of the stipulated regulations (Farazmand, 2007). On the other hand, the public sector has to bear with the consequences of many regulations; hence, the management becomes cumbersome to compete with the private sectors (Donald, John, & Jared, 2010). Public personnel administration challenges organizational leaders in cases that involve strict adherence to the institutional laws that govern productivity (Kellough & Selden, 2003).

Strategic Civil Service Reforms

Most bureaucracies focus on civil service reforms by addressing failures at the various administrative levels. In the current global scenario, most civil service reforms are driven by inverse diffusions in policies where the reforms themselves instigate changes (Naff & Newman, 2004).Public personnel administrations are embracing the reformation of the structures of the civil service systems. Civil service reforms are put in place to counteract the older methods such as the long-standing model of specialized, hierarchical, and closed bureaucracies that are based on strict rules, longer procedures, and paperwork (Maranto & Condrey, 2001; Kellough & Selden, 2003).

Public personnel administrations are currently using radical reforms models to implement developments in civil service systems. They include the traditional, reform, strategic, and privatization models (Maranto & Condrey, 2001).The administrative orientated models are used due to their positive effects that result from the avoidance of political capitals. Such reforms have been successful in regions such as Louisiana, New York, and Chapel Hill where strategic models are implemented. The reforms focus on a decentralized way of implementing the policies (Maranto & Condrey, 2001).

Public sectors that currently follow the politically motivated reform models are under pressure; hence, they face more resistance, fear, and skepticism. Places such as Georgia and Florida have been noted to have experienced such resistance. Due to radical reforms being implemented in the civil service systems, many employees are currently leaving the public service to join the private sectors (Bowman et al., 2003; Kellough & Nigro, 2002).Some public sectors are consistently monitoring various reform systems in the civil service sectors due to the constant increase in human capital crisis.

Affirmative Action and Diversity

Approaches that are used in the enforcement of employment laws depend on factors such as the composition of staff, the cultural aspects of the organization, and managerial functions among others. This strategy is achieved through well stipulated laws and programs that prohibit unfairness and discrimination (Farazmand, 2007; Kellough & Selden, 2003).

According to Farazmand (2007), many employees in the public service have been experiencing discrimination due to hidden cultures that have led to various assumptions about their organizations. Discrimination is faced in a way that favors the advantaged. Such practices imply inequality in the work settings; hence, they should be challenged (Farazmand, 2007). Due to the current trends in globalization and change in technology together with emerging market models and privatization, a shift is seen where most employees in the public sectors opt to join the private sector owing to the improved job specifications and criteria used in the Personnel Administration Standards (PASs) (Farazmand, 2007).

The PAS norms are deemed unequal in cases where the employees experience discriminating job characteristics. It does not give clear information about the suitability of a candidate or a particular job (Farazmand, 2007). Due to globalization and improved technology the public personnel administration faces a problem of discriminative advertisement techniques such as magazines as they fail to reach some groups in the society.

The Bureaucracy and Democracy

Bureaucracy in the public administration is seen in many forms. The public administration deemed slower in structural adjustment and stabilization. Indeed, its services have been deteriorating due to its capacities in service delivery (Donald, John, & Jared, 2010).The bureaucratic systems have resulted in morally unacceptable practices that have further led to inadequate generation and distribution of government resources to the public. For instance, corruption in the public domain has been a major drawback in public personnel administration (Donald, John, & Jared, 2010).

The practice of democracy in the public sector is minimal where everyones voice should be heard. Democracy deemed beneficial where leadership exhibits transparency and efforts towards the achievement of reforms in the public service. This situation leads to the creation of external conditions that service markets effectively due to the promotion of rationality characterized by unfettered markets (Farazmand, 2010).

A challenge in the promotion of democracy is noted where law pursuits and proper implementation of programs cannot be easily achieved. This state of affairs occurs due to dwindling reforms in the civil service. Due to poor democracy, matters concerning merits, impartiality, professionalism, and accountability are inadequately addressed. As a result, employees are deprived of their rights to pay reforms, capacity building, and decentralization among others.

Representative Bureaucracy

The public administration is currently facing the challenge of representation of the minorities. Most of the administrators have a notion that an active representation can emanate if a passive representation is allowed to continue for a long time. This situation can lead to the formation of policies and programs that are geared towards the benefits of the minority (Farazmand, 2010).Governments are currently considering the implementation of policies that capture the needs of the minorities. The bureaucratic systems in most government are striving to consider gender equity by including women among other minority groups in their systems. Although such achievements have been accomplished, there are challenges that exist concerning the representative bureaucracy in the public administration (Farazmand, 2010).

Due to shifting populations, the greater numbers of the minority groups are assumed to form a greater ethnic representation that can result in stiff market competition or effective governance (Farazmand, 2010).

Conclusion

The essay has elaborated various challenges that face the public personnel administration and the effects of privatization, globalization, and emerging market models. It is realized that the bureaucratic systems can result in the hectic management of such entities due to the vested interests and assumed competitions that can exist in the market scenario if the minority groups are deprived of their rights and democracy. The structures of public organizations must accord the necessary assistance to the public personnel professionals based on both political and civil service to ensure that most of the challenges are alleviated.

Reference List

Bowman, J., Gertz, M., Gertz, S., & Williams, R. (2003). Civil service reform in Florida state government employee attitudes 1 year later. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 23(4), 286-304.

Condrey, S., & Maranto, R. (2001). Radical reform of the civil service. New York, NY: Lexington Books.

Donald, K., John, N., & Jared L. (2010). Public Personnel Management: Context and Strategies. London: Routledge.

Farazmand, A. (2010). Bureaucracy and democracy: a theoretical analysis. Public Organization Review, 10(3), 245-258.

Farazmand, A. (2007). Strategic public personnel administration: building and managing human capital for the 21st century. Bloomberg, LP: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Kellough, J., & Nigro, L. (2002). Pay for Performance in Georgia State Government Employee Perspectives on GeorgiaGain after 5 Years. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 22(2), 146-166.

Kellough, J., & Selden, S. (2003). The reinvention of public personnel administration: An analysis of the diffusion of personnel management reforms in the states. Public administration review, 63(2), 165-176.

Naff, K., & Newman, M. (2004). Symposium Federal Civil Service Reform: Another Legacy of 9/11? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 24(3), 191-201.

In an ideal world, community development is predicated on principles of social justice and environmental justice (Ledwith, 2005, p.197). In other words, the end goal of a successful community development program should lead to sustainability and the creation of an ecosystem wherein everything flourishes (Ledwith, 2005). It is a force that could lead to positive change.

In fact, many people would agree that community development has a lot to offer the public and private sectors. Nevertheless, resistance towards community development is also a reality. It is imperative to acknowledge resistance to change and yet at the same time community leaders must strive hard in order to deliver change within their sphere of influence.

Challenges of Community Development

A mild form of resistance to change is seen in the way people choose not to get involved in the transformation process. However, those men and women who did not participate in the community development program are considered as untapped resources. With the right leader, they are able to bring new human capital, ideas, and diversity to the community development process (Robinson and Green, 2011, p.95).

Any potential solution in dealing with apathy or the refusal to get involved must start with information dissemination and education. These people must be taught and they must understand the importance of community development. Leaders on the other hand must not assume that the members of the community are already familiar with the benefits of community development.

Members of the community must be persuaded that community development is a positive force. If one takes the practical approach, the members of the community will realise that there are two basic aspects of community development that they can focus on, and these are related to infrastructure and crime prevention (Bel, 2010, p.47).

If the people are aware of the benefits, it is not only the residents in a given area who will realise the importance of community development but also private companies serving in that particular area (Brown and Trevino, 2006, p.595). As a result, there would be a direct community engagement of private service suppliers.

The collaboration of the private and public sector would result in improving services such as garbage collection. At the same time, more people would be involved in the monitoring of the delivery of services financed by public funds.

The participation of talented people in the community could lead to a chain-reaction of events (Nohria, 2004, p.20). Many of them would come to realise that the sustainable development of a community is not always dependent on the delivery of basic services but also on crime prevention.

Members of the community would realise that an area riddled with crime could never develop a sustainable engine of growth (Crane and Matten, 2007, p.10).

Many residents are indifferent to the idea of community development because they rely on the local government for many of the things that they need. For example, they rely on the local government to develop an effective law enforcement and litigation program. They believed that the combined elements of law enforcement and the public prosecutors would create an effective deterrent against crime.

They also believed that their local officials would be able to apply certain strategies in order to significantly reduce the crime rate. They believed that the existence of a law enforcement group and the availability of public prosecutors are enough to strike fear into the hearts of criminals. In the present time, criminals are brazen enough to conduct their illegal trade on broad daylight.

It is not enough to point the obvious that conventional means of crime prevention are no longer enough to defeat the rising criminality in towns and cities.

The community needs the participation of residents in order to develop viable solutions in dealing with crime. They have to be educated about certain concepts such as Crime Prevention through Environmental Design or CPTED (Norbutus and University, 2007, p.14).

As a result, ideas could be forwarded to the planning committee such as the installation of lighting facilities in public places and improving crime deterrent strategies such as installing closed-circuit cameras in certain areas.

Aside from securing the services of volunteers who are talented enough to contribute in the creation of strategies, community development is also made possible by empowering community members. For example, livelihood programs may help provide a steady source of income for some of the members of the community and it could be a major catalyst that would lead to change.

Conflicts in Community Development

The end goal is collaboration. According to one commentary, the active participation and engagement of diverse local citizens is essential to the development of community and collective capacity building (Robinson and Green, 2011, p.95). However, the opposite is true in communities around the world. In reality, comprehensive involvement as outlined earlier is unlikely in many areas all over the globe.

In fact, the behaviour of the members of the community is often, marked by apathy, disaffection, and a lack of understanding of their potential role in social change, many citizens remain complacent and uninvolved in the actions shaping social life (Robinson and Green, 2011, p.95). The first thing that has to be done is to acknowledge this problem. The second step is to figure out why people are complacent and uninvolved.

The root cause of the problem could be traced back to how people perceived change and according to a commentary, Change is nothing new and a simple fact of life. Some people actively thrive on new challenges and constant change, while others prefer the comfort of the status quo and strongly resist any change.

It is all down to the personality of the individual and there is little management can do about resistance to change (Mullins, 2010, p.753). Change is important for the positive transformation or renewal of a community ravaged by crime and poverty. However, residents are oftentimes unwilling to embrace change. One of the primary reasons identified in related literature is the inability to absorb the impact of change.

Even if the members of the community are not open to change, community leaders must persuade them. Needless to say, leadership is the key to an effective and efficient community development process. Leaders must help them understand that the community could be compared to a business entity that requires change and innovation.

Without a doubt, political and civic leaders believe in the concept of community development. However, their belief and enthusiasm are limited to the conceptual level only because they are committed to the ideals of community development but not the process. In reality, even leaders oppose change and they are not willing to embrace change because there are so many things to consider.

The unpredictable nature of change may affect their political careers. At the same time, real transformation requires hard work. Many people are unwilling to provide such level of commitment. According to the study made on the transformation process, change can be seen as the cause of unanticipated delays, costs, and instabilities (Chew, Cheng, and Petrovic-Lazarevic, 2006, p.59).

In other words, leaders must change the perspective regarding the benefits of change. Leaders oftentimes resist the implementation of certain because it is not to their advantage. In other occasions, a leader failed to deliver because of the inability to overcome problems placed before him (Gallos, 2006, p.50).

Community leaders must come to realise that, in order to reap the benefits caused by change, they must be ready to make sacrifices. They have to make the necessary adjustments in order to satisfy the requirements of a particular strategy (Bradford and Burke, 2005, p.35).

It is important to point out that the change process begins at the top. Leaders must be persuaded first, before the followers are expected to embrace their programs. In the case of the leaders, the change process begins in studying the intricacies of the change process.

Without a high-level commitment coming from community leaders, change is merely wishful thinking. Leaders demonstrate their commitment by learning how to develop a cost-efficient operation. It is not enough to simply talk about the desire to do something. It is imperative to develop short-term and long-term projects that residents of a community could feel, hear, and see.

After residents of the community are involved and funding has been released, the next step is to look for ways on how to improve the change processes. It is a prerequisite to efficiency and waste reduction (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2004, p.23).

Hiring Consultants

Strong leaders may not relish the thought of asking help from outsiders. However, an effective leader knows the value of asking assistance from experts. Strong and effective leaders are not only knowledgeable about the probable conflicts and resistance that may arise due to the implementation of a new program. At the same time, they are also proactive in mitigating the effect of resistance and conflicts (Cummings and Worley, 2009, p.5).

Hiring consultants make leaders aware of the problems areas that they need to focus on. In addition, consultants help leaders understand the various stakeholders that would be affected by a proposed change in the community.

Consultants could also help leaders when there is a need to communicate community development strategy to all stakeholders. Consultants can help them develop a more appropriate message that would in turn help them reach out to a greater number of people.

It has become clear that leadership plays a major role in reducing conflict but at the same time it must be pointed out that incompetent leaders increase the probability of conflict. Incompetent leaders increase the degree of resistance towards a particular project.

Therefore, planning must become a major part of the change process. It is quite obvious when leaders are not serious in their desire to implement change. The first thing that one would notice is the absence of focus.

The second glaring flaw is the lack of commitment towards sustainable development. If an evaluator wants to find out the presence of sustainable strategies, the first thing that he must examine is the presence of a system geared towards knowledge transfer and knowledge sharing. It is impossible to have continuous growth if the change process is dependent on one person.

The strategy would likely fail if there is no one in the community who understands how to maintain or sustain the development plan. Finally, an effective leader is someone who has the desire to improve the efficiency of the system (Cummings and Worley, 2009, p.15).

There must be continuous improvement. At the same time, leaders must be on the lookout for talented people and build a team that would handle critical projects for the community (Bradford and Burke, 2005, p.8). Needless to say, leaders must always think a few steps further down the road and invest in training the staff and other team members.

A significant part of the change process is data gathering. Conflicts arise because leaders make decisions based on faulty data. For instance, it is imperative to find out the socio-economic background of the members of the community. It is also critical to determine the cultural background of the members of the team.

Understanding Culture and Diversity

Another important source of conflict and resistance to change is the lack of understanding with regards to cultural diversity. According to one commentary, a community is a complex system of interrelationships woven across social differences, diverse histories, and cultures, and determined in the present by political and social trends (Ledwith, 2005, p.34).

It is an example of ineffective leadership a leader designs a plan without consulting other members of the community. There is a great chance for success if the leader consults all stakeholders, especially in a community that is a melting pot of cultures.

The lack of understanding with regards to different social backgrounds could give rise to inappropriate strategies. It could also create a lot of hurt feelings because of a poorly handled issue. A leader must seek to learn more about the different aspects of conflict resolution.

Another major reason why leaders should study cultural diversity is based on the realisation that diversity is an asset rather than a liability. In fact, diversity should be considered as an important component of collaborative leadership.

According to one commentary, Research has consistently shown that diverse teams produce better results, provided they are well led (Ibarra and Hansen, 2011, p.71). In a globalised world, wherein immigrants are free to live and work abroad, it is easy to find communities filled with families that came from different parts of the planet.

At first glance, diversity seems to be a liability considering for instance the language barriers and other problems caused by different beliefs and values. However, if the leader could help team members set aside their differences, then, the leader could harness a pool of talent comprised of different skills set and different worldviews.

Imagine for instance the effect, if a team of engineers trying to construct a bridge in Mexico and not a single one of them knows how to speak Spanish. There is no need to employ a Mexican, but they need someone who speaks fluent Spanish.

Diversity does not only mean racial difference but it could be about the social and economic background of the members of the team. A person who works in Wall Street may have little experience when it comes to carpentry and landscaping.

In a global context, it is important to have different team members that compliment each other in terms of different experiences, education, and even cultural values. If community leaders are considering hiring professionals and consultants, then, they must also consider the cultural diversity issue.

They would be courting disaster if they hire people who do not know how to deal with cultural diversity. However, assembling a team composed of people with different socio-economic and even cultural background is not an easy thing to do.

In the previous discussion, conflicts were identified with regards to cultural diversity within a community. However, conflicts can occur within a workgroup or teams.

It is therefore important for leaders to study how to diffuse the tension and conflicts within culturally diversified teams. It is inevitable for conflicts to occur because of their different worldviews; nevertheless, leaders must have an insight into the dynamics of internal relationships within a team.

Leaders must be prepared during critical moments of the projects life cycle. During moments of significant stress, team members may not be able to cope with the pressure. At the same time, deadlines and other pressures could push them to the brink. As a result, words are spoken that could lead to conflict.

Community leaders will benefit from studying the various theoretical frameworks with regards to dealing with cultural diversity in the community and within project management groups. One of the pioneers in this field is Holfstede. He was able to articulate the significance of cultural diversity. He said that leaders must be sensitive to cultural diversity so that their respective organisations will survive and thrive in a globalised economy.

In one of his discourses, Holfstede said that Asians and Westerners have different worldviews and they have different interpretations when it comes to power (Rhee, Uleman, Lee, and Roman, 1995, p.142). Holfstede said that it is imperative to learn about these things because leaders must be able to work in harmony with their subordinates and vice versa.

For example, in the United Kingdom, a subordinate could approach the team leader or the CEO of the company and talk to him as if they were equals. The same thing cannot be said of Asian bosses and Asian workers. Social conventions do not allow workers to talk directly to the owner of the company.

In Asian societies, there is a need to observe social ranking. In other words, the age difference of the team members and their respective social status play an important role in the way they interact. Knowledge of Holfstedes cultural framework enables a leader to steer clear of cultural landmines that may weaken the team due to internal conflicts.

Possible Solutions

As mentioned earlier, community leaders must hire consultants that could help them manage the change process. The consultants help leaders develop an effective plan related to community development. Nonetheless, a plan is just one of the components of a community development process.

One of the major goals is to create a collaborative culture within the community. The development plan is merely the guide. It is the members of the community that must contribute their time and talent in order for the plan to work.

One way to reduce conflict is to focus on one project at a time. It is not practical to work on several projects at the same time. However, it is much worse if the leader and his team continue to talk about vague ideas and abstract concepts with regards to community development and yet unwilling to work hard to accomplish the goal.

Project selection must start with a need. If one takes time to examine the headlines, the most important thing that communities should focus on is disaster awareness and how to develop an Emergency Plan to deal with man-made and natural disasters.

If community leaders focus on this type of project, then, it is easier for the members of the community to trust them and follow their lead. It has to be made clear that people are inspired by hard work and tangible results (Tidd and Bessant, 2009, 30).

Conclusion

An overview of community development leads to the conclusion that leadership is the primary key to success. Everything is dependent on effective leadership. Leaders must anticipate conflicts and resistance to change.

At the same time, they need to figure out how to deal with conflicts within their team. One of the things that they need to focus on is cultural diversity. They also need to study how to inspire people and encourage them to get involved in the change process.

References

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Bradford, D & Burke, W 2005, Reinventing organization development: new approaches to change in organizations, John Wiley & Sons, California.

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Chew, S, Cheng, S & Petrovic-Lazarevic, S 2006, Managers role in implementing organizational change: case of the restaurant industry in Melbourne, Journal of Global Business and Technology, vol. 2 no.1, pp. 58-67.

Crane, A, & Matten, D 2007, Business ethics, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

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Rhee, E, Uleman, J, Lee, H & Roman, R 1995, Spontaneous self-descriptions and ethnic identities in individualistic and collectivistic cultures, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 69 no. 1, pp.142-152.

Robinson, J & Green, P 2011, Introduction to Community Development: Theory, Practice, and Service Learning, Sage Publications, London.

Tidd, J & Bessant, J 2009, Managing innovation, integrating technological, market & organizational, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey.

Introduction

The present paper looks at the issue of challenges in international management from a number of perspectives. From theories to practical implications, the paper argues as to how these challenges can be rightfully addressed without causing any harm to any party (a country or organization). The paper also brings forward evidence from the empirical domain to extend and support the argument.

An Overview of International Trade and Management

It is not only today in the waves of globalization that we know there is something like cross-border, international trade. In an actual sense, Baker (2003) notes that many centuries ago, nations of the world had realized that they needed to trade with other nations of the world. There are a number of reasons as to why international trade has continued for a very long time in the world and with the passage of time growing both in volume and procedures of conduct.

However, there are four major reasons for which international trade is conducted. The first one is that there are differences in natural skills among people; it is more appropriate than those two individuals produce goods of their specialized area rather than producing the same resulting in low productivity. Reason two is that if two individuals have identical skills, it is better that they specialize in their skills because in this way overall productivity will increase from repetition. The third reason springs from specialization resulting in the simplification of jobs and tasks due to the fact that it can lead to the advent of machinery which can produce on a large scale.

Specialization also, as a fourth reason, saves time for each person because one does not have to waste time by switching over from one skill to another. Other reasons are the synergistic approach in acquiring the whole which is much greater than the individual parts of the trade, and different tastes and preferences of different people which are addressed by various items in the market from different parts of the world. Viewed from this angle, it seems appropriate to suggest that international trade is a natural phenomenon and that is why it has been present in the world for away a long time and is still growing (pp.1-2).

The world as of today has realized that international trade is an integral part of the well-being of the world because of the flow of goods and finances. Statistics from the United Nations show manifest this observation. They suggest that since 1970 the ratio of world exports to total gross domestic product has consistently increased. Investment and trade liberalization is one factor prominently causative to this growth (Baker, pp. 1-3, 2003).

International Trade and Investment Theory

To better maintain the standard of living to take comparative advantage in trade activities, trading has been put on the weighing scale of theories. As such, comparative advantage has existed in the trade activities of the world even in early civilizations, for example, Phoenicians traded goods with African citizens under the same concept of comparative advantage. Other theories and concepts than comparative advantage have also been carved out by economists side by side. For instance, during the past two decades, a new trade theory has been worked out by economists which are referred to as the theory of increasing returns or economies of scale.

According to this theory, trade happens in order to take advantage of economies of scale. Two countries can achieve lower costs of the unit by producing goods in larger volume and then spreading high expenses of start-up face over the entire span of time goods were produced. This is only possible if the countries depend on each other to achieve such a goal which is actually to result in international trade. As such we today see countries their goods in a different country because there they have a larger market at their disposal for instance Japanese automobile factories in the United States of American or in Germany (Baker, pp. 1-10, 2003).

Challenges to International Trade and Their Management

With the scenario present in the above sections, it is also important to note that international trade has had to face a number of challenges on a bigger scale of the globe. These challenges have always created waves of dissatisfaction among a number of countries. It has always been the topmost priority of nations to overcome these challenges to grow economically by indulging in the activities of international trade.

The transportation and disposal of transboundary wastes of toxic nature have been one of the major problems present to the world up to the very day. Today it has become a major issue hampering the environmental well-being of the entire world and all the countries, ironically, do accept this to be true. Dumping of these wastes on a number of occasions in third-world countries has given the largest share of awareness in this regard.

Legal instruments of international trade have been formed to fight this challenge. One such instrument is the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. However, it is important to note that the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes has increased dramatically since the late 1980s which needs ultra-conscious efforts by the entire world. Although international management of this area has now been active, it is still a big challenge for the world (Kummer, pp. 1-5, 1995).

Another challenge present to the international management and trade activities is that of an entirely different kind: management of human resource capital on the global spectrum hinged on the axis of specific national, cultural, and social outlooks. This issue is present in the multinational corporations of the world which are a major contributor to the growth of international trade. According to Bonache (1999), the management of the human capital of a firm depends on how well this capital is in harmony with the national value system.

The management of the human resource on the international business horizon now reveals that there must be a different HR policy in a different country to adapt to the specific social and cultural needs of that people. If a company fails to address the social and cultural needs of its employees in a particular situation, there is likely to take place a failure to carry of healthy HR procedures. However, this area alone is enigmatic because of a number of complexities carried with diverse cultures and social settings of different people across the planet.

A very critical challenge to international management is the emerging trend of the development and appreciation of global citizens who know how to act in the complex air of globalization in the context of business, management, and other areas.

However, as the membership in this new global club is rising, critics are voicing their concern regarding the distinct threat to a local and national culture that might one day meet complete obsolescence. This simply gives high rise to arguments and is in turn affecting the business strategies which center on the global membership of people from across the world (Bird, & Stevens, p. 395, 2003). Besides these, there are a number of challenges scattered over the entire canvas of international management that needs much more space here even for a scanty reference.

Management Styles, Methods, and Techniques

As there are challenges present on the spectrum of international management, there are different approaches to address these challenges; these approaches are both abstract and practical and are functional in a number of areas. One such example is the association of technology with multinational corporations. This very area has developed into a bigger picture where now cross-border innovation because of accumulated knowledge world-over.

There are two types of corporations with relation to the association of technology. The one more modern are those which are now duplicating technological activity on a global scale. These corporations have successfully brought their status to the stage of global-for-global innovation projects within individual fields of technology. Technology transfer with the network of multinationals is one single factor for this successful transition because it has given birth to polycentric structures of organizations. Government policies have also played a significant role in this area; as such supportive governmental policies are very important.

Another type in this area is the multinational that has developed within its own network a number of specialized centers of distinction. More often the origin of this type is found in the local embeddedness of subsidiaries that are foreign-based. This way the multinational can take the edge over locally rising business trends and opportunities. The introduction of new and unrelated products through international mergers and acquisitions has also contributed to the formation of multicenter structures in the multinational network. What is noteworthy in this example is the fact that this multinational involves entry to those technological capabilities that are specific to the country it is operating in.

It not only caters to the growing needs of business management in that very country but also makes it convenient for that country where the technology transfer is being made. As such, the creation of complex production systems becomes possible and higher quality with bulkier productivity is that result. This is where cross-border innovation is seen to be the greater likelihood of addressing the present and forth-coming challenges to international management.

It is said to be more effective in the sense that a multinational corporation can join hands together with the local government and business organization to set up a framework, a code of conduct through which basic issues can be resolved and settled to later result in a harmonic business managing which wont have such impending dangers as dumping problems and sense of deprivation among the third world countries. The basic idea then is the active exchange of knowledge between the two parties. However, it must be noted that up to today, cross-border innovation remains a largely unexplored area world-over in multinational corporations.

Only limited case studies are available that are also fragmentary and leave much of the area unexplored. Moreover, large sample research is scarce in this area which is indicative of its being too unexplored. Cross-border innovation has the advantage of being the effective source of a competitive advantage which holds ripe fruits for the forthcoming international management of the business and the role of multinational corporations in this area. As the global culture of management and business is developing further and further, the need for cross-border innovation is also making its role to be noticed. Henceforth, it is essential that this area be explored adequately to rightly address the challenges to management (Zander, & Solvell, p. 44, 2000).

International Management and Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring is considered to be one effective tool in the context of international management. It is due to the fact that expatriate managers working in a different environment can make greater use of this tool to boost up managerial effectiveness as well as to play a vital role in the cohesive whole of addressing the challenges present to the international management today. Based on social learning theory, the critics argue that those expatriate managers who show greater openness (that is ready to learn and adapt to new situations and work environments) are those who have a greater interest in new cultures.

They also extend more efforts to learn about the new cultures they are now in. This is where astute competencies of interpersonal skills are existent. These skills are required to support the organizational goals and work plan in that very country. There are a number of areas in which the expatriate, however, needs to work to achieve interpersonal competencies. They are integral to the fabric of adaptation and higher productivity not only of an individual but based on them the organization the individual is working for. First of all, the most important thing for the expatriate is to be fluent in the local working language so that a number of procedures can be personally screened by the expatriate.

The best option in this area is to hire those managers who are already fluent in a local working language of a setting; this is to surely save much time. This is not enough to depend on the local employees who can speak the expatriates language. The second important point is to train the expatriate in the context of international management and its operation. This is critically important for an organizations attempts to reduce the factor of risk and failure in a particular area of work. Another important factor that follows closely the above-noted points is how expatriate managers go about controlling themselves in situations of psychological stress.

Literature suggests that a better way to handle psychological stress is to adjust as much as possible and as quickly as possible to the new work environment in the local country. Adjustment in a hot environment leads to flexibility of expatriate norms and beliefs and ultimately to reduced psychological stress. The result is the person focuses more on work that results in higher productivity. On the other hand, non-adjustment or slow move toward it will lead to high psychological stress which might result in a number of difficult situations not only for the individual but also for the organization.

Adjustment here means interaction adjustment with a number of stakeholders such as in the marketing area, sales, and others. With these points in view, a company can produce not only a better work environment for local people at any level of managerial hierarchy but can also bring a number of benefits back home addressing a number of international management challenges. Thus it is important to equip expatriates with these essential tools for successful management (Kim, & Slocum, 2007).

Conclusion

For successful management of the international business in the context of the twenty-first century, it is important for multinational corporations and the countries where these corporations are operating, to indulge in a number of initiatives to address the challenges present to international management. Working in a close association is the only solution. Although it is highly motivating to find international legal instruments, there is a dire need for more effort from both sides.

Problems such as adjustment to technological change and advances, its aftermaths (such as toxic dumping in the third world countries and its threats to the environment) are all central issues to international management which must be addressed properly. Exchange of knowledge is seen to be the solution to a number of such problems. Moreover, training of expatriates for host environment is another very important area by which challenges can be properly addressed and taken to sound settlement.

Threats to national and local culture are another area that needs to be handled adequately for higher gains. There is no doubt that growing awareness of the present and emerging challenges is one reason that the entire world must join hands to curb such evils as environmental, social, and cultural so that the entire world can live in harmony and work together for a better world.

References

Baker, J. C. (2003). Financing international trade. Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 1-10.

Bird, & Stevens (2003). Toward an emergent global culture and the effects of globalization on obsolescing national cultures. Journal of International Management, Vol. 9, 4.

Bonache, J. (1999). The international transfer of an idea suggestion system. International Studies of Management & Organization. Vol. 29, 4.

Kim, K., & Slocum, W. (2007). Individucal differences and expatriate assignment effectiveness: the case of U.S.-based Korean expatriates. Journal of World Business, Vol. 43, 1, pp. 109-126.

Kummer, K. (1995). International management of hazardous wastes: The Basel Convention and related legal rules. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 1-10.

Zander, I., & Solvell, O. (2000). Cross-border innovation in the multinational corporation. International Studies of Management & Organization. Vol: 30. 2. p. 44.

Introduction

With the globalization of the world, many countries are prone to insecurity problems including threats from populism, rivalry from other states over economic resources, food shortages in third world countries, political instability, and a threat from global redistribution of power. Amicable measures have to be taken to solve these problems.

Joint Military Force

For the U.S. government to succeed, it requires a Joint Military Force that will help it overcome many forthcoming challenges. The Joint Military Force will be made up of, many nations with which it will share some aspects concerning the challenges ahead. With the Joint Military Force, the U.S. will be able to bring all its military forces together and have a common goal. This force will enable the U.S. to monitor and identify the challenges of internal and international security. In addition to the Joint Military Force enabling the U.S. to grab enough resources, it will assure it of a ready work Force against its enemies.

Resourcing of Joint Military Force

The joint military force will require support in terms of principle, training material, personnel, education opportunities, and other facilities. It will therefore be the responsibility of the U.S to ensure the built force gets enough support for its effective running. The Joint Military Force will also get some funds from the international trading activities.

Composition of Joint Military Force

JMF members included members from each U.S military, civil servants, consultants, and members from all countries. The members from each military in the U.S will aid in monitoring areas of the profession such as internal security and attacks from enemies. The civil servants on the other hand will aid in monitoring the movements of populists within the country.

Purpose of JMF

Global terrorism is one of the challenges that the U.S. faces currently, and threatens to expand in the future if amicable solutions are not made, JMF will aid in eradicating terrorists, an act that cannot be achieved by the U.S as a state alone. Many countries suffer from political instability, and it is, therefore, the role of JMF to ensure peace exists within nations. In the future also there are signs of using the biological weapon against the enemies, however, with the presence of JMF, the U.S. will be able to curtail the flow of pandemic diseases across borders.

JMF is also supposed to take part in protecting nations from fighting for resources. However, the U.S. will utilize this force in expounding itself. Through this force, the U.S. will have many nations hence remaining as a superpower.

Populist movements have been found to have hidden agendas concerning governance. If left unturned, they may lead to the political turmoil of a nation, however, the U.S state with the formation of a Joint Force, has the potential of eradicating these illegal groups.

In conclusion, besides being the role of the U.S. to ensure the rate of terrorism is at zero tolerance, it has the responsibility of inputting much effort into guarding its position as a superpower nation. In addition, the U.S. has also many challenges on national, international, and pandemic security. To solve this, the U.S. has to join with other nations and come up with a Joint Force.

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Children from immigrant families make up the largest and the most rapidly growing group of children in the entire United States, with approximately 20% of all children speaking a language other than English when they are at home. Therefore, there is an inconsistent exposure of children to either English or their first language, which means that there could be potential challenges when it comes to teaching and communicating with bilingual children.

Bilingualism is defined as the ability of an individual to speak fluently in one language while also being successful in understanding another. To a great extent, bilingualism (especially among children) presents an opportunity to preserve the national culture and language, allows being more advanced in language learning, opens better career opportunities, and promotes cross-cultural communication.

When speaking about bilingualism, parents play a dominant role in choosing how to educate their children. However, because different families approach the matter differently, educators are challenged by an increasing need for developing a unified framework of efforts to teach bilingual children both at school and at home settings. The problem is significant due to the lack of parents knowledge about the importance of language development and the absence of efforts on the part of educators with regards to teaching bilingual children. To develop a unified approach towards teaching bilingual children, it is first important to answer the following research question: What challenges do parents face when raising bilingual children?

Hypothesis

Bilingual children face many challenges both at home and in the classroom. Similarly, their parents also struggle with determining which strategies will allow their children to learn two languages instead of focusing on one. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the lack of unity in the efforts of parents and teachers regarding language development is the most problematic challenge that hinders childrens learning. In the modern learning environment where children are presented with innovative tools and methods of learning, overcoming the challenges of bilingualism is more than possible. Therefore, the main issue lies in developing a cohesive strategy that would combine the efforts of parents and educators regarding the language development of bilingual students.

Literature Review

The benefits of parents and school involvement

Research on the topic of raising bilingual children is not narrow; on the other hand, scholars working in the sphere of education have paid a lot of attention to the topic. First, it is noteworthy to mention the study conducted by Lee, Shetgiri, Barina, Tillitski, and Flores (2015) who focused on examining parental preferences with regards to raising Spanish/English bilingual children. By involving thirteen Spanish-primary-language parents into participation in focus groups, the researchers were able to determine that parents wanted their children to be fluent in both languages since they understood the benefits of bilingualism such as preservation of the native language and culture as well as better future career opportunities for their children.

The qualitative research showed that most of the parents decisions associated with raising their bilingual children depended on their prior parental experiences, the contribution of schools and family members. In general, parents selected for English-only schools and teaching children Spanish at home. Among the identified strategies, parents preferred making children read bilingual books and speak Spanish at home, with schools and pediatricians being used as resources for language learning.

The viewed by Lee et al. (2015) were supported by Quiroz, Snow, and Zhao (2010) conducted a prospective study related to interactive features that support improved vocabulary outcomes in children from Latino families. Particularly, researchers focused on the interactions between children and their mothers and whether they facilitated vocabulary acquisition.

For predicting childrens vocabulary outcomes, Quiroz et al. (2010) used home factors (e.g. literacy resources, immigration history, etc.) and the interactive language of fifty mother-child dyads. It was found that reading to a child and answering maternal questions during book sharing were significant predictors of childrens vocabulary acquisition in both English and Spanish. Moreover, the study found a negative correlation between language activities supporting English acquisition and Spanish outcomes, and vice versa.

Also, Mancilla-Martinez, Gamez, BanuVagh, and Lesaux (2016) supported the views of Lee et al. (2015) and Quiroz et al. (2010) which conducted a 2-phase study that had a goal of extending the existing research on parents reports measures of childrens productive vocabulary. Researchers drew participants from Head Start programs held in the US; in these programs, English was the primary teaching language.

All participants reported Spanish (or English-Spanish) as the language(s) they usually use at home-related settings. For measuring the productive vocabularies children had in both English and Spanish, the researchers used the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories. Findings showed concurrent and discriminant validity, based on standardized measures of vocabulary, as measures of productive vocabulary for the growing population of bilingual children (Mancilla-Martinez et al., 2016, p. 1). This suggests that parent reports can be valid and cost-effective tools for vocabulary enhancement purposes of English-Spanish bilingual children.

Cultural preservation

Kim, Lee, and Lee (2015) examined Korean American parent-child relationships through bilingual child use. By applying the positioning theory, researchers aimed to analyze home interactions of three Korean American families with children aged 6-12 to investigate the dynamics of bilingual usage and the roles of parents and their children. It was found that interactions between children and their parents were characterized by complicated negotiations regarding the boundaries of parental authority through language changes between English and Korean as well as changes in speech levels between informal and formal in the Korean language.

Linguistic strategies were shown to either move away from the traditional hierarchical relationships or to remain true to the norms associated with the roles of traditional Korean households, which points to the changing patterns of language expectations.

Also, Kang (2012) focused on the Korean American context and explored the language ideologies and practices of Korean-immigrant parents with regards to the language development of their American-born children which is supported the view of Kim, Lee, and Lee (2015). By interviewing seven ethnic Korean families and their children aged 5-7, Kang (2012) found that Korean-immigrant parents wanted to pass their native language to their American-born children, which was largely associated with their language barrier as well as the perception that language plays the role of an individuals identity marker.

Language strategies such as language mixing and parental feedback served as catalysts for the integration of specific family language policies related to functions, forms, and Korean language teaching for American-born children from immigrant families.

Moreover, the results of Kang (2012) and Kim, Lee, and Lee (2015) were enhanced by Dixon, Zhao, Quiroz, and Shin (2012), which was investigated home, and community factors that influenced bilingual childrens ethnic language acquisition and development. Researchers focused on a sample of 282 Singaporean children whose mother tongues were Chinese, Malay, and Tamil, and who were also English language learners. Researchers achieved some interesting results.

First, the found a positive effect of parents speaking their ethnic languages and childrens ethnic vocabulary while speaking only English limited their vocabulary. Second, the language community strongly influenced childrens ethnic vocabulary acquisition. Third, the family income had different effects on vocabulary development depending on the language community. Fourth, watching TV programs in English predominantly hindered childrens ethnic language vocabulary. The mentioned findings point to the need for a sustained home and community support when it comes to teaching children their ethnic language.

Adjusting to childrens needs

Caesar and Wolf Nelson (2014) conducted a pilot study that focused on examining the effectiveness of home-school partnerships in the process of enhancing literacy skills of Spanish-speaking preschool children of migrant farmworkers. Nineteen children participated in the study (11 experimental and 8 control). Their parents were asked to provide labeled drawings of different family activities for assisting bilingual literacy instruction in the classroom.

The Early Literacy Skills Assessment scale was used for conducting pretest and posttest measures in English and Spanish. The results of the pilot study showed a significant improvement in pre- and posttest Spanish and English scores for the experimental group of children; however, the control group did not show an improvement in print and alphabetic knowledge. Such findings show that parental involvement in the form of parent-generated content for classroom learning may be a feasible approach; however, more research is needed regarding this topic.

Also, the view of Caesar and Wolf Nelson (2014) found similar results supported by Rodriguez (2015), which are explored strategies employed by Latino families with regards to raising their children bilingually in Spanish and English. Also, the researcher explored families rationale for bilingualism and the challenges they did not expect to meet during the implementation of their language teaching strategies.

Data for the research was acquired from comparative case studies over three years. To teach children how to maintain their native language, families were mostly planning to speak and support Spanish at home and other family settings while English was taught mostly at school. Among the three families involved in the research, two expressed concern with their children not being skilled enough in English by the time they started school, and only one family expected to meet the challenges that their child would face when learning and maintaining her native language. The findings of the research suggest that productive bilingualism attainment presented more difficulties compared to learning and being proficient in only English.

Bilingualism is positive

It is also important to mention the study conducted by De Houwer (2015) who examined the concept of harmonious bilingual development in young families. Harmonious bilingual development is defined as the experience of an individual to feel well and confident in situations associated with language contact regarding children and their families. The research is noteworthy for its contribution to systematic ethnographic studies into harmonious bilingual development. De Houwer (2015) proposed the following constituting elements of harmonious bilingual development:

1. using parent-child interactions in a single language;
2. childrens active use of two languages instead of one;
3. childrens relative equal proficiency in both languages.

It was asserted that positive attitudes towards early bilingualism in children contribute to the enhancement of the mentioned elements.

Overall, parents perceive their childrens bilingualism as a positive aspect that can provide them with more opportunities in the future, especially when it comes to careers. However, the most common explanation for developing bilingualism among children is associated with the preservation of the cultural and ethnic heritage. In the majority of cases, the involvement of parents in the development of bilingualism offers more benefit than harm, especially in instances when there is active and effective communication between children and their parents. The literature review showed that the notion of bilingualism could be approached from different perspectives; however, the key principle relates to adjusting to the childrens needs.

The implication for the Future and Discussion

Implementing change for improving the language outcomes of bilingual children requires the involvement of two types of stakeholders: families and educators. Because children face significant challenges when being taught in one language at school and encouraged to speak another at home, it is essential to develop a combined framework that will combine the efforts of parents and educators. At home, parents should understand the benefits of speaking both languages instead of one; similarly, educators should try integrating two languages in their teaching. The following strategies are proposed to be implemented at home:

1. Reading to the child for increasing his or her vocabulary in both languages.
2. Adding more exposure to the less preferred language in the household.
3. Joining playgroups and meetings in the local area.
4. Making learning fun: allowing the child to choose new books and games.
5. If necessary, hiring a tutor for reinforcing the childs grammar.
6. Make a need for the child to speak both languages.

The following strategies are recommended to be implemented at school:

1. Using group work to encourage children to communicate and collaborate with students from different cultures and backgrounds.
2. Adopting a content-based approach for language instruction to incorporate both languages for incorporating languages into every lesson.
3. Maintaining a positive relationship with all students to maintain better academic performance.
4. Setting clear expectations about the usage of both languages.
5. Allowing students to trans-language so that students can express themselves when needed (Wong, 2015).
6. Avoiding low grades for students that struggle differentiating between two languages.

The mentioned framework will allow students to exercise their language development both at home and in classrooms, without one language prevailing over another. The strategy can be implemented through educating parents and teachers on the tools of bilingualism development. Then, parents and teachers will be asked to integrate the strategies into their everyday interactions with bilingual students to see whether they will bring any benefit. It is important to measure pre- and post-implementation outcomes to determine whether the strategy brings any benefit.

Suggestion

When raising bilingual children, parents often face the challenge of not knowing what strategy will garb their needs the best. While there is no combined approach as to how bilingual children should be taught two languages, it is essential that parents participated in language development. It was found that the majority of families spoke one language at home and allows teaching another to schools. On the contrary, schools can often ignore the need for students to learn their native language and only focus on second language acquisition. For this reason, it was proposed to develop a two-sided approach to address the needs of bilingual children: while parents should encourage their children to speak a language other than the native, teachers must not ignore the linguistic heritage of their students and make changes in classroom instructions accordingly.

Conclusion

To conclude, there is a range of differences between bilingual children from the United States and those who speak only their native language. Having reviewed the most recent works on bilingualism in connection with children, one can confirm that the development of this ability presents a positive tendency which helps children to preserve their unique culture, promote equality, encourage the dialogue of cultures that is expected to bring positive results for the entire nation, and become specialists in demand.

As the given research indicates, the evidence that speaks in favor of the development of the specific learning strategy for children from immigrant families can be found in the works by many researchers working in the United States and other countries. Summarizing the data retrieved from credible academic sources, it is possible to confirm the hypothesis which regards the fragmentation of approaches used by educators and parents for language development to be one of the most urgent problems hurting academic performance and cognitive development of bilingual children. On that premise, a comprehensive strategy related to encouraging language development in bilinguals has been developed.

Among the steps that are proposed to be implemented at school and home, there is the use of gamification, putting emphasis on equalizing the use of two languages, and allowing children to trans-language if they need it. Therefore, the combination of practices used at school and home is supposed to help a child to strike the right balance between neglecting his or her native culture and the failure to adapt to new language situation. If implemented, this two-sided approach containing recommendations for educators and parents is expected to bring positive results.

References

Caesar, L., & Wolf Nelson, N. (2014). Parental involvement in language and literacy acquisition: A bilingual journaling approach. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 30(3), 317-336.

De Houwer, A. (2015). Harmonious bilingual development: Young families well-being in language contact situation.International Journal of Bilingualism, 19(2), 169-184.

Dixon, L., Zhao, J., Quiroz, B., & Shin, J-Y. (2012). Home and community factors influencing bilingual childrens ethnic language vocabulary development. International Journal of Bilingualism, 16(4), 541-565.

Kang, H-S. (2012). Korean-immigrant parents support of their American-born childrens development and maintenance of the home language. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41, 431-438.

Kim, A., Lee, J-S.,& Lee, W. (2015). Examining Korean American parent-child relationships through bilingual language use. Journal of Family Communication, 15, 269-287.

Lee, M., Shetgiri, R., Barina, A., Tillitski, J., & Flores, G. (2015). Raising bilingual children: A qualitative study of parental attitudes, beliefs, and intended behaviors. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 37(4), 503-521.

Mancilla-Martinez, J., Gamez, P., BanuVagh, S., &Lesaux, N. (2016). Parent reports of young Spanish-English bilingual childrens productive vocabulary: A development and validation study. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 47, 1-15.

Quiroz, B., Snow, C., & Zhao, J. (2010). Vocabulary skills of Spanish-English bilinguals: Impact of mother-child language interactions and home language and literacy support. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(4), 379-399.

Rodriguez, V. (2015).Families and educators supporting bilingualism in early childhood. School Community Journal, 25(2), 177-194.

Wong, K. (2015). Five fundamental strategies for bilingual learners. Web.