It goes without saying that ceramics originates from China. For several centuries, Chinese emperors were the exclusive distributors in the medieval world. In this regard, this paper aims at the investigation of a piece of Chinese artwork resulting in historical analysis of the civilization.
A historical path of Chinese ceramics development goes back several millennia. In particular, visiting the online British Museum, it seemed appropriate to choose one piece of art for the further analysis. The following is an ewer related to the Song Dynasty and created between 11thC and 12thC in Hebei province (Figure 1):
Figure 1. Ewer of Song Dynasty period.
That period of China was very intense and devoted to improving the quality of the vessel and the glaze and to the search for new forms and artistic techniques. Therefore, the selection of this piece of art is adequate and justified. In the world of tableware made of clay, its surface was bumpy and rough. Around 900, during the Song Dynasty, Chinese artisans learned to make dishes from kaolin – white clay.
Artisans painted and coated their graceful works with a special glaze making each product a work of art. First, emperors built factories that produced porcelain only for their palaces. After that, porcelain production became one of the main industries in the country.
Forms of Song Dynasty have an amazing simplicity, tranquility, and steadiness. The greatest achievement in ceramics of that period is perfection embodied in the decoration of exclusively ceramic opportunities offered by the material. In this connection, the vessel reveals the most simplicity in its form. To make the dough plasticity of porcelain, Chinese handymen left it to mature and intensively stirred. Sometimes, they kept the dough for several decades.
As a rule, artisans manufactured vessels on a potter’s wheel but primarily compression-molded or sculpted by hand. According to information provided by the British Museum, “the well-organized production of Ding ware, its lightness of body, the flair of its ornament, and its long-lasting status make it probably the single most important Chinese ceramic type.” Structure, colors, and forms of ceramic products related to that time reflect the interaction of Chinese culture with other countries such as India and plenty of others expressed in elements of foreign culture.
The represented vessel resembles the outlines of the Greek amphora or the other exotic specimen. Moreover, several spare glazes requiring firing at high temperatures including white, brown, gray, purple, black, and green colors appeared. They distinguished by high brightness and often imposed spots next to each other giving a colorful effect. The vessel illustrates the pattern of the engraving of reach coating glaze with the help of the thin tool.
The significant point is that the Song Dynasty ceramics improved spar glazes purchasing muted color and the richness of the most delicate shades of red, purple as well as the infinite gradation of blue. The equally essential elements of ceramics of that period that enlivens the shades of glaze are cracks covering the majority of products. It is noteworthy that local handyman manufactured surface finishing of the vessels as well as their ornamentation with a particular diligence.
They smoothed and polished walls to a high gloss using stone or bone polishers. Chinese handymen diversified cracks that probably appeared by accident as a defect during firing into production and used them for decorative purposes as one of the methods of the product design. It is essential to note that during the time of Song Dynasty, in contrast to subsequent periods, a great number of ceramics workshops existed in almost all the provinces. Song China continued its economic development.
The number of cities increased, and they grew bigger becoming richer and more crowded. Chinese craftsmen learned how to make such beautiful things as porcelain, thin silk, lacquer ware, and ivory that still are a national pride of the country and exhibited in museums. During this period, the Song Dynasty has made great progress in science and technology. It was during the Song era when scientists invented gunpowder and a compass.
Speaking more broadly, Chinese ceramic art deeply reflects the mores and customs of people and society showing human attitude, aesthetic appreciation, and desire for beauty. Chinese people of that period like at all times and under all circumstances wanted to achieve happiness and harmony. The central theme of ceramic art is an image of festive events and episodes of a happy daily life. Traditional notions of happiness, high social status, health, joy, and friendship underlie porcelain products. For example, the images of the dragon, lion, and elephant symbolize power, strength, and happiness.
In the case of ewer, white color symbolizes nobility and longevity. Chinese porcelain and tea culture have a close relationship. Many poets in their poems glorified the wonderful tea tools, pitchers, and other vessels.
From the above observations, it becomes clear that artistic representation of China helps to understand its culture and beliefs of civilization. It is evident that Chinese strive to happiness and continuous development. Through products of art, Chinese express their desires and concerns.
Bibliography
“Collection online.” The British Museum. Web.
Fang, Lili. Chinese Ceramics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011.
Hetherington, Alfred. Chinese Ceramic Glazes. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2015.
Ceramics are a combination of clay, earthy materials, powders, and water burned at high temperatures and molded into various shapes and designs. Glazes are ornamental paint-like compounds used to decorate ceramics to exude a bright color. Traditional Korean ceramics provide insight into Korean society by bringing Korean aesthetics and ideas to life. There are four categories by which they look, and the qualities of historical or traditional ceramics from Korea, China, and Japan are determined. These include the clay type and composition, glaze type, kiln type, atmosphere, and historical aesthetics. These differences can be viewed through the lens of various pottery from each country in different dynasties.
Techniques Used in Korea, China, and Japan
Korean ceramics are distinguished from those made in China and Japan as they embody the Korean ethos of simplicity. Korean ceramics expressed their culture’s ideology and were created using a unique inlay method that set them apart from other pottery. The inlay technique, Sangam, was produced by incising and filling the designs with heterogeneous clay (Kleiner, 2016). The design generated a delicate contrast of black and white with a gray clay undertone, giving the impression of excellent brush painting. Korean pottery typically entails simplistic designs and Buddhist motifs, as it was the state religion of the time. Decorations such as lotus flowers, cranes, clouds, and golden fish were representations of the spiritual beliefs of the Korean people fostered by Buddhism (Fosse, 2007). In contrast, Chinese ceramics reflected a luxurious living and thus were large and had a lot of glitters. Japanese ceramics reflected the samurai life and simplistic culture as they were greatly influenced by Korean pottery.
Korean ceramics can also be distinguished from Chinese pottery by their forms and decorative patterns. Korean ceramics are lobed and are pear-shaped distinct from the Chinese jar-shaped pottery. The large jars are asymmetric and do not use twisted rope handles. Korean ware was thicker and more organic with a natural earth color, while Chinese ware was thinner, lighter, and more geometrical precise with brighter colors. Chinese clay could be formed into fragile and delicate shapes by firing the clay above 1250 to 1300 degrees Celsius without breakage (Kleiner, 2016). The Chinese used this high fire kiln technique and glazes due to the hard clay texture in the area. Korean and Chinese potters used similar techniques to achieve bright colors and a shiny transparent glaze. The blue, green, or red color was achieved by heating the clay at high temperatures and reducing the kiln atmosphere, including oxygen. The difference in ceramics can be viewed through different examples of ceramics in various dynasties. The Korean ceramics, the Celadon, and Buncheong wares entailed different techniques compared to Japanese Shiko-Imari and Chinese blue and white porcelain.
The Celadon Ceramics
The Celadon ceramics were developed during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 CE). The ceramics incorporate a distinctive green glaze and are regarded as the most elegant Korean pieces worldwide. Celadon technology premiered in China, and Korean potters refined the process to suit their aesthetics and culture. The primary reason for the technology exchange was the close contact between the Goryeo Dynasty and Song Dynasty in China. Korean potters created the pots using iron-rich clay and a color glaze composed of quartz components. Creating the celadons entailed two steps, bisque firing and firing glazed vessels (Kleiner, 2016). Bisque firing entails drying and hardening unglazed vessels to stabilize them for easier handling. The second step entails firing glazed ceramics in a low oxygen atmosphere to develop the desired color and glossy texture. The difference between Korean and Chinese potters’ technology is the firing steps. Chinese potters utilized stone ovens to heat their ceramics, while Korean potters used conventional mud ovens with limited oxygen flow to get a celadon color tone.
The difference in furnaces used created distinct colors as Chinese pottery had an olive-green glaze compared to the blue-green color of Korean celadons. Celadons were coupled with intricate inlaid ornamentation based on the Sangam technique unique to Korea. The inlays were mainly black, red, brown, white clay, and gold. Vases, bowls, and jugs painted with lotus blossom flowery patterns were among the most popular shapes for celadons. Before applying a translucent slip, the designs were cut into the ceramic surface, and inlays added. A metal underglaze was employed to give the ceramic surface a dark red color during the later period of Korean celadons. The Goryeo celadon depicts characteristics of Koreans such as value, belief, and purpose. They symbolized Buddhism, the Korean kingdom’s belief system, and deities.
The Buncheong Ceramics
During the Joseon dynasty, Buncheong potteries were produced (1312-1910 CE). They’re comparable to celadons in that they’re made of blue-green ceramic glazed white. Vases with long stems, cylinder flasks, and thinned jars were among the earthenware that had a practical use in the home. Buncheong earthenware had a larger surface area because the artistic designs were etched onto white slip or cut into white clay with a sharp instrument, then covered with white slip before being heated.
This technique, referred to as sgraffito, involves the application of slip in a method that leaves traces of brushstrokes that reveal a light grey-blue glaze beneath the decorations. Stamps were used for engraving geometrical decorations, flowers, fish, birds, and dots. The next process entailed using the Celadon Sangam technique, which involved inlaying white or red clay into the carved artwork. The use of white slip created a porcelain appearance and was thus used in the court as the official ceramic style. The Bucheong ceramics represented the Neo-Confucian belief of the Joseon Dynasty.
The Shoko-Imari Ceramics
The Shoko- Imari pottery production began in the early 17th century, fueled by Korean technology due to the invasion of Korea by Japan. The Shoko-Imari ceramics technology was more advanced than other traditional methods as the clay was fired at very high temperatures to develop strong and vitrified earthenware. The Shoko-Imari ware was different from Korean ceramics as it was porous and easily breakable. Japan did not have large deposits of natural white clay high in Kaolin; thus, it used stoneware which could be made from different types of clay. Japanese potters developed a new type of kiln, the Noborigama, which increased precision during firing.
The Shoko-Imari wares were decorated in underglaze blue but did not entail many bright fillings. There are three types of Shoko-Imari ceramics developed in different years. The Ko-Kotani is characterized by bold designs and vibrant colors and emerged in the 1640s to cater to the domestic market. The Kakiemon style, with more translucent colors and a proclivity for asymmetrical motifs, emerged in the 1660s. In contrast, the Imari style, with a darker palette and a propensity for gilding, emerged in the 1670s. Most Shoko-Imari wares had a grainy texture, and the designs were developed freehand.
The Blue and White Porcelain
Blue and white porcelain was the most significant invention during the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). The Chinese potters could fire wares at extreme temperatures to achieve a clear, brighter color and more rigid body. The porcelain production process entailed the addition of kaolin clay which was locally available to the pottery stoneware (Kleiner, 2016). This increased the aluminum element, raising the firing temperature and reducing the breakage rate. The Chinese potters used cobalt blue for underglaze decorations using translucent glazing techniques. The blue and white porcelain is created using the color blue from cobalt oxide. The cobalt oxide was applied to create decorations using a brush on the white clay. The porcelain was then coated with a clear glaze and fired at high temperatures.
Conclusion
Korean, Japanese, and Chinese ceramics borrowed techniques and motifs from each other. The roughness asymmetry in the Buncheong ware exerted influence on Japanese ceramics. The Chinese used the celadon glaze perfected by the Korean potters in rudimentary form. The Chinese brought the techniques of celadon glazing and white porcelain during the Three Kingdom period. The ceramics technology underwent technical advancement as the workshops and kilns were under the control of the royal court. Gradually, Korean ceramics acquired individuality as they began introducing shapes and ornamentation to the transparent glaze. Novice decorative techniques were adopted, including moldings, metal inlays, and decorations over fine clay. The Japanese invasion of Korea led to the transfer of pottery knowledge that influenced its ceramics industry. The most distinct Korean ceramics style was the Sangam and Sgraffito design which entailed inlaid decorations using stamps instead of free hand like Chinese pottery.
Ceramic art has a very long history in almost all civilizations and cultures. Ceramic products were used not only as products of the daily usage, but were considered to be the products of a fine and decorative art. As a form of art, the ceramic products express intentions and thoughts of the authors, as well as reflect social and cultural changes.
Thus, each work of ceramics has particular context. These days, many designers, artists, craftsmen, or other practitioner in ceramics use ceramics to express their ideas and view. Ceramic design and creative practices are numerous and individual for each artist. Ceramic design can be analyzed through different critical perspectives and provide critical understanding of different values and approaches used by artists to embody their ides in different articles made from clay.
In this paper, we are going to provide the analysis of ceramic design within a range of contexts. In order to understand different points of view and values, we will analyze works and practices of three “subjects” (contemporary ceramists) that have put different contexts in their works.
The fists “subject” under consideration is a contemporary American ceramist Justin Novak. He could be located under tree headings in the Matrix: History (reference), Society (politics) and Belief (morality).
Three relevant sources justify the location of the artist in the sections of the Matrix. The first source is the article by Justin Novak “The Disfigurine” in which he provides the descriptions of his works, explains why he uses particular techniques and methods to convey the meanings of his works, as well as his point of view on the meaning of the contemporary art and its function.
The second source is the article in the magazine Ceramics Today in which we can find the information on the achievements of the artist, analysis of his works and statements by the artist in which he comments on the values of his creations.
The third source is the interview with Justin Novak about his first works the 21st Century Bunny in which he told about his political views, and commented the themes of his works.
Thus, the works by the author refer to history. His firs work the 21st Century Bunny has a unique form and context. It is a series of ceramic bunnies with one eye and with guns in their paws.
The bunnies are trying to kill each other. Novak wrote about this work that it is about “the pathological and cyclical nature of violent behavior” (Valentina, 2009, n. p.). The main idea of the work is to express the “paranoid spirit” of contemporary world. Novak says that ““21c Bunny” is so terrified of being preyed upon that he has armed himself and turned himself into a predator.
In this sense, his story is a perfect allegory for America, post-9/11” (Valentina 2009, n. p.). From this passage we can see that the author makes allusions to the recent historic events, and images of the bunnies provide the interpretation of the moral destruction under the influence of the unjustified violence. This is how people felt themselves and behaved after the terrorist attack.
The author provides that people’s minds have changed after that event. He compares them with bunnies and explains people’s behavior through the interpretation, ““Bunny” is born as a fluffy warm-blooded innocent that means no harm to anyone, it is only the state of fear that causes his destructive behavior” (Valentina, 2009, n. p.).
The artist’s works are “at the intersection of art and design” (Valentina, 2009, n. p.). He tells that this approach helps him appeal to different dimensions of the modern society. His methodology is a mixture of both disciplines which allows him express the “mass appeal of design practice and the poetic inquiry of contemporary art culture” (Valentina, 2009, n. p.).
The reason why the artist choose working with clay is that he considers it “a natural medium for the transformation” (Valentina, 2009, n. p.) of his ideas and intentions in all three dimensions.
The style and design of the author were shaped under the influence of the baroque style, he comments that he was “utterly captivated by the golden era of European porcelain, in late baroque and rococo times” (Novak 2007, p. 109). The traditions of European porcelain became the inspiration for the author and he used simple techniques to express complex ideas in his works.
The magazine Ceramics Today provides a very in-depth interpretation of the works by Justin Novak:
His raku-fired expressive figurative sculpture navigates a fine line the between the tasteful and the grotesque, while subverting the historical genre of the figurine, e.g. with his ‘disfigurine’ series, in which physical wounds such as bruises and lacerations serve as metaphors for injury to self-esteem and other psychological harm. (“Ceramics Today”, n. d.).
Thus, the author explores sociological and psychological dimensions of the societies of the past and present. The works present the insight into the cultural values, codes of behavior and self-identity.
The second “subject” under consideration is an American ceramist Allan Rosenbaum. Using the Matrix, we can locate the artist under the headings that follow: Language (metaphor), Environment (urban and domestic), and Personal (personal memories and identity). Three relevant sources provide the insight into the artist’s creative techniques, themes and ideas. They explain why he prefers clay to any other materials and what influenced his art.
The fist source is the book by Judith S. Schwartz in which the author explores the differing values of research materials, and discusses artistic and social contexts of works of different ceramists.
In this book, we encounter the comment by Allan Rosenbaum on one of his works of the year 2002 named Flow which provides the interpretation of the artist’s attitude towards art and its function. The second source is the article in the magazine Ceramics Today in which the artist’s works and his point of view are provided. Finally, the third work is the study by Howard Risatti. The study explores the theory of craft, its function and aesthetic expression.
The author debates the assumption that craft (in which such materials as clay and fiber are used) cannot be considered sculptures and thus, cannot be the form of art. In order to support his idea, the author exemplifies the work by Allan Rosenbaum and claims that deep context and “emotional expressiveness” of his ceramics makes it a form of art.
Ceramic works by Allan Rosenbaum express the author’s interpretation of the contemporary world. They are creative, colorful and depict the objects from the daily life, such as books, bags, clothes, etc. The works are very detailed and the details used are often “incompatible”, his:
Whimsical figurative sculptures are influenced by funk, often featuring parts of the human body in conjunction with household items. Some are reminiscent of Surrealism, in particular the works of Renée Margritte. They are fired multiple times to achieve richly patinated surfaces (“Ceramics Today”, n. d.).
In his works, the author addresses the issues of history of art (in particular, hi is focusing on the Surrealistic tendencies) in order to provide the interpretation of the contemporary ceramic design and its role in art. Furthermore, his works are very intimate, as they refer to personal memories and question of self-identity. In this regard, the works by the author are very metaphoric.
They provide metaphors for the nature of human relations, social position of the individual and break the borders between reality and imagination. The author provides the following interpretation of his own works:
My works raises questions about the nature of human relationships, the need of security, our methods of communication and the search for identity. Of the system of thinking of different philosophies and mystics, I wanted to integrate thoughts and philosophical thesis into everyday life – to link them with everyday objects as “food for thought” without the barrier of awe; I invite the viewer to communicate, to reflect and to ruminate (Schwartz 2008, p. 167).
Indeed, the ceramic works by Allan Rosen provide the viewer with the “material” to think about. His art is aimed at addressing conflict emotions and thoughts. At first sight, his works are humoristic; however, if one delves into their context, they appear to be very serious, as address the feelings that are hidden deep inside the human consciousness.
The artist explores the environment. In particular, he is interested in urban environment and domestic interior. This can be observed in the work like Thinking Chair, 1998. It is a ceramic glaze depicting a chair with hands that holds a head turned upside down. The author provides a detailed explanation of his work and themes that he addresses in art in the following passage:
The sculptures I make weave together objects and images that are culled from personal memories, art history, domestic interiors and urban environments. By creating sculptures that are composed of combinations of familiar images, I hope to shed new light on the metaphorical possibilities of the figure and of the objects in our everyday world.
Through my work, I raise questions about the nature of human relationships, the need for security, our methods of communication the search for identity and the importance of community. My work negotiates a balance between the real and the imaginary – between our daily experiences and our dreams (“Ceramics Today” n. d.)
The author utilized “clay and sophisticated ceramic hand-building and glaze techniques” (Risatti 2007, p. 6) to create most of his works. As it has already been mentioned, the works are very creative and consider a “deep psychological overtone” (Risatti 2007, p. 6).
The next “subject” is a famous Tunisian studio potter Khaled Ben Slimane. His works and themes are analyzed in three sources. The first one provides a brief biography of the author and thus helps understand what issues influenced themes and ideas of his works. This source is the article retrieved from the site of The British Museum.
The second source is the overview of the author’s works provided by the Galerie el Marse in which we can find the critical interpretation of the author’s ceramics. The third source is taken from the magazine Ceramics Today, and it presents the author’s works and techniques.
In the matrix, the author can be located under the headings that follow: Society (culture), Belief (Spirituality) and Environment (Global).
Thus, Khaled Ben Slimane comes from the region of Nabeul where pottery-making was the leading craft which provided a basis for the author’s interest in ceramics. He traveled a lot around the world and his experience is reflected in his works.
As the author says, “as a ceramist, I realized that seven places have brought me to this art and have initiated me. It’s like being born seven times.” (“Khaled Ben Slimane”, n. d.). In his pottery, one can notice the motifs inspired by visiting such countries as Tunisia, Spain, Japan, and Iran.
Culture of these countries is reflected in his works through symbolic colors and paintings. In such way, the author addresses different societies and cultures, “Slimane’s works include pieces inspired by Islamic funerary architecture and also public sculptures and installations” (“Khaled Ben Slimane, ceramic plates (tabaq)” 1998, n. p.).
High spirituality can also be noticed, as the author strongly believed in power of traditions and importance to preserve national heritage, “a synthesis of East and West, his work has been inspired by the Arab-Muslim heritage and the ancestral know-how in pottery” (“Khaled Ben Slimane” n. d.).
He addressed the global environment, as he believed that the best traditions of ceramic design were lost, and he considered his responsibility to restore them and save for future generations.
The creative practice and techniques used by the author are worth an in-depth critical analysis. First of all, the colors used in his works have great symbolic meaning that “symbolizes the elements of earth, fire, air and water – with rough, bold, black brushstrokes formed into delicate spirals” (“Khaled Ben Slimane, ceramic plates (tabaq)” 1998, n. p.). Moreover, he uses repeated words to decorate his works.
These words are “Allah (God), er-Rouh (‘the soul’), Huwa (‘Him which evokes God’)” (“Khaled Ben Slimane, ceramic plates (tabaq)” 1998, n. p.). And thus, this fact supports the idea that Khaled Ben Slimane paid great attention to the spiritual development of the individual, and used his ceramics to transfer this idea to the viewer. The forms of his works (cube, cylinder, and cone) are also symbolic and they were inspired by Islamic “funerary architecture”.
Thus, ceramics is a special form of art that has its traditions and deep context. In this paper, we provided a critical analysis of the works by contemporary ceramists who addressed various dimensions of the contemporary society.
Different critical perspectives on the ceramic design provide a possibility to understand the design methodologies and techniques used by authors to express their ideas and points of view on the modern society and its development. Thus, three artist under consideration represented different values in their works. They addressed different dimensions of history, society, art and environment.
They used various techniques to express particular themes related to the problems which they considered important, such as morality, violence, spirituality, self-identification, human relations and importance to protect national and cultural traditions. We can come to a conclusion that ceramics, s a form of art, is a strong means of communication of the author with the viewer, and a “tool” to influence the individual’s vision of the better world.
List of References
Allan Rosenbaum, Ceramics Today. Web.
Justin Novak, Ceramics Today. Web.
Khaled Ben Slimane, Galerie el Marsa. Web.
Khaled Ben Slimane, Ceramic Plates (tabaq), 1998, The British Museum. Web.
Khaled Ben Slimane, Ceramics Today. Web.
Novak, J. 2007, “The disfigurine” in The Figure in Clay: Contemporary Sculpting Techniques by Master Artists, ed. Lark Books, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., New York.
Risatti, H. 2007, A Theory of Craft: Function and Aesthetic Expression. The University of North California Press, Chapel Hill.
Schwartz, J. S. 2008, Confrontational Ceramics: The Artist as Social Critic. University of Pennsylvania Press, London.