Category: Cell

INTRODUCTION

Cellular respiration – is the process where by the energy gained from food is converted to energy that can be used by body’s cells , then the energy is converted to ATPs in the cell by breaking down of glucose . The energy gained from glucose can be used to work , heat our bodies and transportation of electrical impulses. There are three stages of cellular respiration in which glucose is being broken down to form this ATPs used by cells as energy namely: Glycolysis , Kreb’s cycle and Electron transport.

BODY

STAGE 1: GLYCOLYSIS

Glycolysis simply mean division of glucose and it is regarded as the starting point of cellular respiration .The process of glucolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.Enzyme divide molecules of sugar into two pyruvate molecules.It occurs in many steps of the process.Glucose is a hexose sugar containing 6 carbon atoms ,at this process of glycolysis the hexose sugar is changed through a several steps into the pyruvic acid that contain 3 carbon atoms .The hexose sugar need to be phosphorylated before the glycolysis get underway.This process occur in many steps .It is catalysed by the enzyme known as phosphokinase .Two group of phosphate are put together to sugar molecule.The reaction are endergonic and the needed energy is supplied by the hydrolysis of two molecules of ATP.The activation of sugar and maintaining a higher concentration gradient that favours diffusion of many glucose inside cell.All is now ready for glycolysis breakdown of the glucose to occur.

Phosphorylated 6 ccarbon sugar divides into two molecules of phosphorylated 3 carbon .(Triose is 3 carbon sugar).All of the two triose enter the way leading to leading to pyruvate .The dehydrogenation as the first stage of pathway .Two of hydrogen atoms are taken out from triose by enzyme called dehydrogenase.Hydrogen carrier claims those hydrogen atoms which leads to synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.Triose now contain two hydrogen atoms that there are still phosphorylated with many 3 carbon compounds to pyruvate.Substrates supply their phosphate group for ATP molecules .The pyruvate get inside mitochondria where it is changed inside a 2 carbon compound known as acetyl coenzyme A.In this reaction of carbon dioxide is released and pyruvate lost hydrogen pair of atoms which end up in production of ATP.

Many scientists conclude that stage 1 of cellular respiration called glycolysis existed long time ago before second and last stage.It is because other stages need oxygen ,whereas glycolysis existed long time ago before before second and last stage.It is because other stages need oxygen ,whereas glycolysis do not require it.Years back there was no availability of oxygen Anaerobic respiration it is a cellular respiration that occur without presence of oxygen.When the oxygen existed in the earth living organism use this oxygen in the breaking down to glucose then produce ATP.Aerobic respiration is cellular respiration that need presence of oxygen to occurs

STAGE 2 : KREBS CYCLE

Krebs cycle is simply a stage of respiration that takes place within the mitochondria with the presence of oxygen, unlike the absence of oxygen. The final products of glycolysis are the two particles of pyruvate that will enter the Krebs cycle within the matrix in the mitochondria and can be converted into two particles of ATP, 8 NADH and a couple of FADH2.

In the process of Krebs cycle,However the pyruvate from glycolysis goes on stimulating journey. Before the pyruvate enters the cycle it’ll be converted with an enzyme into acetyl CoA, a two-carbon particle attached to a coenzyme. The first reaction leads to the removal of an electron and a carbon group and therefore the production of 1 NADH particle. The Acetyl-CoA will then create a bond with oxaloacetate, creating a six-carbon molecules (citric acid) and releases the coenzyme.

As the cycle proceeds, an additional carbon dioxide atoms are expelled from the citric acid, making an additional extra molecule of NADH each time. Around the midpoint of the cycle, 2 additional atoms of ATP are made and after then the regenerative phase of the cycle starts. In these reactions, the four-carbon atom oxaloacetate must be reframed to proceed with the restart the cycle and that regenerative process creates two molecules of FADH2. The NADH and FADHs molecules will proceed onward to the final phase of cellular respiration while the ATP will be accessible for use by the cell.

STAGE 3: OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

The third stage in cellular respiration in which energy is released during the transportation 0f electrons from higher energy Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH) or Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FADH2) to lower energy Oxygen (O2). The energy is used to phosphorylate Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP). Oxidative phosphorylation is responsible for 90% of total Adenosine Triphosphate synthesis in the cell and it occurs across the inner mitochondria. Therefore Oxidative Phosphorylation is the coupling of the Adenosine Triphosphate synthesis to Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide or Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide oxidation. Kerr, Edward et al (2015) Oxidative Phosphorylation occurs in two stages which are Electron transport and the Chemiosmosis. In Electron transport, the electron carriers are arranged in the way that the flow of electrons is spontaneous, The electron donor has lesser electron than the electron accepter. The chemiosmosis is basically the flow of the substance (H+) from high to lower concentration, in chemiosmosis energy that is derived from the flow of the H+ is used to synthesise Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP).

CONCLUSION

Cellular respiration shows that the three stages take places where by energy was gained and totally converted so that our bodies can fuction well , it also result the trnsportation of electrical impulses. Another thing it harvest enerrgy from glucose and other energy rich carbon based molecules and use it make ATP , which is the universal energy molecule. After all these product (ATP,WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE) are made they are converted back by photosynthesis and the cycle goes on and on.

REFERENCES

1. Crawford,Christina,(1983)principles of biology.110
2. Michael Roberts,Michael Reiss,Grace Monger (1993) Biology principles and process.228-229

Introduction

Articular cartilage is the highly specialized connective tissue of diartrodial joints. It’s principal function is to provide a smooth, lubricated surface for articulation and to facilitate the transmission of loads with a low frictional coefficient. Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage and is 2- 4 mm thick. Unlike most tissues articular cartilage doesn’t have blood vessels, nerve or lymphatics. It is composed of a dense extracellular matrix ( ECM) with a sparse distribution of highly specialized cells called chondrocytes The ECM is principally composed of water, collagen and proteoglycans with other noncollageneous proteins present in lesser amount.

Although the cartilage contains only a single type of cell (chondrocytes) the cells in different layers have distinct morphologies and functionalities . This tissue is usually divided into 4 zones- i) the superficial zone in contact with synovial fluid, containing chondro- progenitors , ii) the middle or transitional zone beneath the superficial zone, containing round chondrocytes, iii) the deep or radial zone and iv) the calcified layer in direct contact with underlying subchondral zone.

Degenerative lessons of Articular cartilage as a consequence of destructive joint disease, such as osteoarthritis (OA) , can lead to disability, pain during movement of joints, and gradual deformation of the bone articulation. OA is the most common musculoskeletal disorder, affecting 10 – 12% of the global population. Clinically available cartilage repair can be divided into two sub – categories: surgical approaches and those based on regenerative medicine ( e.g.: implantation of expanded autologous chondrocytes) . The wide variety of approaches to restoration under development involve cell expansion and differentiation into mature chondrocytes with different combinations of scaffolding, stem cells, and native cartilage environment.

Pathophysiology of OA

Osteoarthritis is an adiopathic disease characterized by degeneration of articular cartilage. A breakdown of the cartilage matrix leads to the development of fibrillation of fissures, the appearance of gross ulceration, and the disappearance of the full thickness surface of the joint. This is accompanied by bone changes with osteophyte formation and thickening of the subchondral plate. Moreover, at the clinical stage of the disease, changes caused by OA involve not only the cartilage but also the synovial membrane, where an inflammatory reaction is often observed.

Current treatment modalities

Microfracture and similar techniques ( i.e., abrasion and drilling) involve disrupting the subchondral bone integrity to create channels between the defects in the cartilage and underlying bone marrow. It is generally accepted that the recruitment of multi- potent marrow stromal cells to the defects through these channels leads to subsequent formation of tissue resembling articular cartilage. However, this approach is only effective for small defects. Mosaicplasty/ osteochondral Grafting involves the replacement of the lost cartilage with tissue grafts, i.e., an osteochondral allograft or autologous transplant harvested from the patient’s own cartilage. In the later case, small cylindrical plugs taken from non- weight- bearing areas are fitted into the defects.

Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) is a cell- based technique to treat the full – thickness chondral defects in the knee. It was developed by Brittberg and colleagues in 1994. Here the cartilage tissue is first harvested from the patient by artroscopy from a non-weight bearing area .Then the chondrocytes are isolated and culture in the laboratory to form a monolayer culture to get the desired population of chondrocytes. Thereafter, they are transplanted into the cartilage defect and held in place by sewing a periosteum patch over it so as to localise the chondrocytes within the defect site. Matrix- induced autologous chondrocyte implimentation (MACI) involves transplantation of a special three- dimensional scaffold comprised of autologous chondrocytes into cartilage defects.

Mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from different sources, such as the bone marrow, adipose tissue, synovial membrane, cord blood, periosteum, and muscle , are employed to treat defects in articular cartilage. The ability to differentiate into chondrocytes varies between MSCs obtained from different sources, with synovial MSCs demonstrating the greatest potential to differentiate into articular chondrocytes. However, the transplantation of MSCs often gives rise to a mixture of hypertonic, cartilaginous, and fibrous tissues, which is not particularly sustainable, and ,in the long run, leads to a loss of repair tissue. Thus , a further development of culture/ differentiation protocols is required before MSCs can be utilized successfully for joint repair.

Embryonic stem cells

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) posses unlimited potential for proliferation and differentiation into virtually any type of somatic cell. The various procedures for the conversion of ESCs into chondrocytes include co -culture with primary articular chondrocytes and the production of cells resembling mesenchymal stem cells from ESCs, followed by their differentiation into chondrocytes employing a variety of growth factors.

The most successful differentiation of ESCs into chondrocytes involves differentiation- mimicking embryonic development, i.e, the induction of primitive streak cells with BMP4 and bFGF, followed by the generation of paraxial mesoderm via the inhibition of BMP signaling in the presence of bFGF, the generation of chondrocyte progenitors in high- density culture in the presence of TGF-beta3, and the production of articular chondrocytes with time. The drawbacks associated with the utilization of ESCs for cartilage regeneration include ethical concerns about the destruction of a human embryo, immune rejection by the host, poor survival of human ESCs following disintegration of the cell mass, and the risk for teratoma formation.

Induced pluripotent stem cells

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) represent a relatively new source of stem cells with the capacity for self- renewal and pluripotent similar to that of ESCs, but without the same ethical and immunogenic concerns. The iPSCs are obtained by reprogramming somatic cells in vitro to enter an embryonic- like pluripotent state through the introduction and forced expression of the four transcription factors (TFs) – Oct4, Sox2, cMyc, Klf4, referred to collectively as Yamanaka factors. Although these cells can be generated from many different types of somatic cells, skin fibroblasts are the major source because of the ease with which they can be obtained. Among the various approaches for inducing the chondrogenic differentiation of human iPSCs, the most promising mimic natural development, with monolayer cultures of iPSCs first differentiating into the mesoendoderm, followed by further differentiation into chondrogenic cultures. The steps in the process vary slightly between laboratories; however, in general, they include the modulation of BMP, FGF, and Wingless- type MMTV integration site signaling pathways, as well as alteration in culture condition, such as the monolayer cell density, 2D versus 3D culture, etc.

Chondrogenic Stem/progenitor cells from the superficial zone

A promising cell source, cartilage stem/progenitor cells (CSPCs), has attracted recent attention. Because their origin and identity are still unclear, the application potential of CSPCs is under active investigation. Here we have captured the emergence of a group of stem/progenitor cells derived from adult human chondrocytes, highlighted by dynamic changes in expression of the mature chondrocyte marker, COL2, and mesenchymal stromal/stem cell (MSC) marker, CD146. These cells are termed chondrocyte-derived progenitor cells (CDPCs). The stem cell-like potency and differentiation status of CDPCs were determined by physical and biochemical cues during culture. A low-density, low- glucose 2-dimensional culture condition (2DLL) was critical for the emergence and proliferation enhancement of CDPCs. CDPCs showed similar phenotype as bone marrow mesenchymal stromal/stem cells but exhibited greater chondrogenic potential.

Conclusion

Until recently, the use of cultured mesenchymal stem cells to regenerate cartilage has been primarily in research with animal models. There are now, however, two published case reports of the above technique being used to successfully regenerate articular and meniscus cartilage in human knees. This technique has yet to be shown effective in a study involving a larger group of patients, however the same team of researchers have published a large safety study (n=227) showing fewer complications than would normally be associated with surgical procedures. Another team used a similar technique for cell extraction and ex vivo expansion but cells were embedded within a collagen gel before being surgically re-implanted. They reported a case study in which a full-thickness defect in the articular cartilage of a human knee was successfully repaired.

While the use of cultured mesenchymal stem cells has shown promising results, a more recent study using uncultured MSC’s has resulted in full thickness, histologically confirmed hyaline cartilage regrowth. Researchers evaluated the quality of the repair knee cartilage after arthroscopic microdrilling (also microfracture) surgery followed by post-operative injections of autologous peripheral blood progenitor cells (PBPC) in combination with hyaluronic acid(HA).

References

1. Ekaterina V.Medvedeva, Ekaterina A. Grebenik, Svetlana N. Gornosteva. Repair of damaged articular cartilage: current approaches and future directions.
2. Alice J. Sophia Fox, Asheesh Bedi, and Scott.A.Rodeo. The basic science of articular cartilage.
3. Shari M. Ling, Joan M. Bathon. Osteoarthritis : pathophysiology
4. Yoojun Nam, Yeri Alice Rim, Jennifer Lee and Ji Hyeon Jn. Current therapeutic strategies for stem cell based cartilage regeneration.
5. Mobasheri A. et Al. Mesenchymal stem cells in connective tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: applications in cartilage repair and osteoarthritis therapy.
6. Anthony R. Martin, Jay M. Patel, Hannah M. Zlotnick, James L. Carey and Robert L. Mauck. Emerging therapies for cartilage regeneration in currently excluded ‘red knee’ populations.

The development in the field of stem cell technology is quickly accelerating. It’s a field that incorporates the work of geneticists, cell biologists, and clinicians and provides the possible promise of treatment that actually works for a variety of infectious and non-infectious diseases. Stem cell technologies can benefit many patients and expand scientific knowledge on “untreatable” conditions. The power of stem cells may have the ability to prevent birth defects and cancers thought to occur in the differentiation process for cells. While there are many reasons to continue expanding the scientific knowledge of stem cells, disadvantages are noted.

Regardless of this, stem cells may provide the needed solutions to help patients struggling with debilitating diseases. Stem cells are known to be the body’s raw materials. They are cells where specialized functions are developed. With proper circumstances in the body or an efficient laboratory, stem cells divide to create new cells titled ‘daughter cells’. The daughter cells that came from the stem cells either mature into new stem cells in the process of self-renewal or develop into specialized cells (differentiation) and take on a more specific function, examples include brain cells, blood cells, heart muscle cells or bone cells. There are no other cells within the body holding the organic ability to make new cell types. Since diseases and issues like brain damage or bodily deficiencies or conditions such as birth defects are thought to occur due to problems in their cell’s differentiation process, being able to have a full understanding of the development that occurs in regular cells will aid scientists in treating the developmental mistakes that can happen. The practice of stem cells in treating birth defects is fairly brand-new.

These past few years, a few research teams have been cultivating stem-cell therapies to be tested on rodents bearing authentic or imitated birth defects within their brains. The director of the Ross Laboratory for Studies in Neural Birth Defects at the Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School in Jerusalem, Joseph Yanai, speaks of how stem-cell therapies are optimal for treating birth defects where the system of injury is varied and inadequately interpreted. “If you use neural stem cells, they are your little doctors. They’re looking for the defect, they’re diagnosing it, and they’re differentiating into what’s needed to repair the defect. They are doing my job, in a way.” (Rice, 2009) Yanai and members of his team started with mice that had been “exposed to heroin in the womb.” (Rice, 2009) The exposed mice ended up dealing with learning deficiencies. When the mice were “placed in a tank of murky water, for instance, they take longer than normal mice to find their way back to a submerged platform.” (Rice, 2009) In these mice’s hippocampus- which is the area of the brain correlating with memory and sense of direction– “critical biochemical pathways are disrupted, and fewer new cells are produced.” according to the article.

But, all the problems with the mice were quickly repaired when the researchers inserted neural stem cells (stem cells from the brain) acquired from healthy embryonic mice into the brains of the mice that were exposed to heroin. “When swimming, the treated mice caught up with their normal counterparts, and their cellular and biochemical deficits disappeared.” (Rice, 2009) The striking results surprised the researchers, especially acknowledging the fact that only a fraction of a percent of the stem cells that had been transplanted actually remained within the brains of the mice. Not only did they generate replacements for injured cells, but the stem cells also appeared to develop signals that propel other cells to execute typical organ care and institute control of damage. Additional evidence of the benefits of stem cells relates to clinical trials done at Pacific Neuroscience Institute. A neurosurgeon, Achal Singh Achrol, and neuro-oncologist/scientist Santosh Kesari launched an innovative stem cell therapy clinical trial, “which delivers stem cells for brain recovery after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in people who have had chronic motor deficits for over a year following TBI.” (Jethani, 2018) PNI is currently recruiting patients to assess the safety and efficacy of this stem cell therapy. While this experiment is new, Dr. Achrol had used stem cell therapy to reverse the effects on patients after a stroke. Implementing stem cells to repair the damaged part of the brain actually helped disabled patients begin to move the parts they were unable to move after experiencing a stroke. There have been no other known therapies to be as effective as stem cell therapy on stroke victims, which is why the doctors are so hopeful on the success of their clinical trial. A final piece of evidence to solidify the positive outcomes of stem cell technologies revolves around Anna Kuehl who recovered from a dry macular degeneration, which is the most common form of the disease and extremely hard to care for. Around 30 years ago is when it started taking away the central vision in her left eye.

This condition forms a black area in the center of a person’s field of vision as the macula withers (the macula is a part of the retina located behind the eye). Anna was unable to drive a car or differentiate faces or see what the time on her watch was anymore. Her vision was diminishing, and she was going blind. Anna was, “… so surprised and scared that she called the USC [Gayle and Edward Roski] Eye Institute right away,” (KSM, 2019) Mark Humayun who is not only the co-director of the Roski Eye Institute but a professor of cell and neurobiology and biomedical engineering at USC, along with a team of surgeons, scientists, and engineers, utilized the power of stem cells to treat Kuehl’s eye condition. Amir Kashani, both the surgeon and the assistant professor of clinical ophthalmology, equipped a super small, “stem cell-laden patch inside Kuehl’s eye, which began to repair the damage.” (KSM, 2019) Soon enough, Anna Kuehl’s ability to see was restored. Today, Keuhl can read billboards, discern the letters on the computer keys and use a phone. She can now see the beautiful world that she had missed for so many years. A brighter future for Anna is now in her hands based on the stem cell therapies being developed. With the promises of stem cell research comes possible disadvantages. Stem cell research demonstrates issues like several compositions of research would, but nearly all resistance to stem cell research is, “…philosophical and theological, focusing on questions of whether we should be taking science this far.” (Phillips, 2019). For one, it is actually quite laborious to retrieve stem cells. To collect embryonic stem cells, “…the embryo must be grown in a culture.” (Regolie, n.d) When the stem cells have been collected, it takes them several months to grow before they are ready for usage. Furthermore, collecting adult stem cells from areas like bone marrow can be a painful process. As auspicious as stem cell treatments are, they still are hypothetical and mostly unproven, and they typically have high rejection rates in one’s body. If the stem cells from the donor are not a favorable match, and in some cases, if they are, “The body’s immune system can attack the donor stem cells. This is called rejection.” (Anzilotti, 2008).

The cells that had been transplanted can start to attack the patient’s body’s cells. With these to think about, some may doubt how promising the field of stem cell technology is- but this shouldn’t be the case. Stem cell technologies, once more knowledge about it is obtained, can really change the lives of so many who live with issues or may come into this world born with them. The thrill behind stem cell research is mostly due to the many possible and discovered medical benefits, “in areas of regenerative medicine and therapeutic cloning.”(Phillips, 2019). Stem cells supply mass amounts of potential for the search for treatments and cures for countless medical problems: including Alzheimer’s, cancer, Parkinson’s, etc.—can all be cared for with stem cells by taking the place of diseased or damaged tissue within the body. There is vast potential for scientists within the field to uncover information about human growth and cell development through the study of stem cells. By examining the nature in which stem cells develop into specific types of cells, scientists may be able to uncover ways to treat or prevent correlating conditions.

Some scientists may find the practice of using stem cells ethically immoral, especially if they are religious or side with the Pro-Life movements, a debate that is still controversial today. Part of studying stem cells involves using embryonic stem cells, which some may find troublesome. The present methods of acquiring embryonic stem cells involve the death of an embryo. If you are Pro-Life, with the belief that life starts at conception, the death of an embryo is wrong and unethical. Not only this, but the religious scientists may feel uncomfortable with playing the role of God, creating “make-shift” tissues to replaced damaged ones gets in the way of “God’s plan”. Though these may be up for debate, the benefits and promise of stem cell technologies show huge potential in regenerative medicine and therapeutic cloning, which can save thousands of lives, and save thousands of families so many tears and so much grief.

Introduction

Cellular energetics are types of ways in which cells, whether eukaryotes or prokaryotes, obtain energy to drive functions in a cell. Cellular respiration is one type, for eukaryotes, that uses reactants like sugar, such as glucose, and oxygen to create products of carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP (Urry et al 2020). The purpose of this process is to create energy for the cell’s functions, water for the body, and carbon dioxide that is useful in the role of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is an autotroph’s way of creating oxygen and energy by using the reactants, carbon dioxide, light energy, and water (Urry et al 2020) Autotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms while heterotrophs use organic food molecules. This circle of reactants and products between cellular respiration and photosynthesis is a necessity for energy creation.

Cellular respiration does not only have to use glucose but can use a means of many sugars. Glucose is found in common foods, therefore is used as the example. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all monosaccharides, while lactose and sucrose are disaccharides, and honey is a polysaccharide (Urry et al 2020). Some sugars are used more readily by yeast than others. This illustrates enzyme regulation call induction. This process occurs when the cells of yeast, usually grown in the presence of one type of sugar, experience the absence of the food it usually encounters. If it is fed an alternative energy source for which the cells maintain no enzymes, it takes some time for the yeast to induce expression of genes for the new enzymes it needs. You can tell this is happening if you observe a lag time in respiration while the yeast is involved in producing sufficient enzyme for there to be an increase in respiration time.

Since photosynthesis does not use sugars as an energy source, another mean has to be used. Plants are often found in the outdoors as is light. This light energy can be, and often is, produced by the sun. Photosynthesis can be divided into two sets of reactions: light dependent and light independent. Light dependent reactions are nearly instantaneous and captures the light to use for an autotroph’s own chemical energy. Light independent is slower but uses electron and protons from NADPH to reduce carbon dioxide and uses that ATP energy to form new bonds (Urry et al 2020). A visible spectrum is the primary part of electromagnetic spectrum because it’s the only part seen by the human eye. It includes electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is between 400 nanometers and 700 nanometers. Visible light from the sun appears white, however, it is made up of wavelengths of light, known as colors. The various wavelengths in sunlight are not all used the same in photosynthesis. Photosynthetic organisms contain light-absorbing molecules called pigments, found in chlorophyll. It absorbs certain wavelengths of visible light, while reflecting others. The set of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment is its absorption (Urry et al 2020). Chlorophyll-b best absorbs blue light and chlorophyll-a best absorbs red light.

Cellular respiration is split into three steps. Glycolysis is the process of breaking down sugars to two three-carbon pyruvates. Sugar is broken using two ATP. Some sugars accept phosphates more readily than others. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). is most often the source of the phosphate group. It has a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH (Urry et al 2020). Glycolysis is regulated by phosphofructokinase. This is a kinase enzyme that phosphorylates fructose 6-phosphate in glycolysis (Urry et al 2020). If oxygen was present the Krebs cycle could be carried out. This second step is where 2 acetyl CoA, a 4 carbon acceptor molecule that powers the cycle, 8 NAD+ and 2 FAD that will become electron carrier molecules, and 2 ADP + P that will become 2 ATP, and 6 O2 that provide necessary oxygen, making the Krebs cycle aerobic. The Krebs cycle is regulated by the concentration of ATP and NADH. The electron transport chain is the following step if oxygen is present. The ETC uses 10 NADH electron carrier molecules 2 from Glycolysis, 8 from the Krebs Cycle, 2 FADH (from the Krebs Cycle), plus the 6 oxygen atoms from the original glucose molecule, and, most importantly, 34 ADP to P that are waiting to be combined by the ATP synthase (an enzyme that makes ATP) (Urry et al 2020). The electrons from the electron carrier molecules go down the electron transport chain and the H+ ions from the electron carrier molecules to go across the inner membrane through active transport, then they charge back out through facilitated diffusion through the ATP synthase (Urry et al 2020). The ETC is regulated by levels of ADP and ATP, and many other enzymes are subject to regulation.

There are two types of cellular respiration aerobic, with oxygen, and anaerobic, without oxygen. Fermentation is a way to create ATP without oxygen. It is completed as the second phase in cellular respiration if no oxygen is present. The pyruvate, products of glycolysis, decides where to go after glycolysis, the first step, dependent upon if oxygen is present. In yeast, the extra reactions make alcohol, while in your muscles, they make lactic acid. In fermentation, the pyruvate made in glycolysis does not continue through oxidation and the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain does not run. Because the electron transport chain isn’t functional, the NADH made in glycolysis cannot drop its electrons off there to turn back into NAD+. The purpose of the extra reactions in fermentation, then, is to regenerate the electron carrier NAD+ from the NADH produced in glycolysis. The extra reactions accomplish this by letting NADH drop its electrons off with an organic molecule (such as pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis). This drop-off allows glycolysis to keep running by ensuring a steady supply of NAD+.

The first step of photosynthesis, also known as the light dependent take place in the thylakoid membrane and requires light energy. Chlorophylls absorb this light energy in photosystem I and photosystem II, which is converted into chemical energy through the formation of two compounds, ATP and NADH, which is created in the ETC. In this process, water molecules are also converted to oxygen gas. The Calvin Cycle, also called the light independent reaction, takes place in the stroma and does not directly require light. Instead, the Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADH from the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon sugars that combine to form glucose.

Sugars are simple carbohydrates. They are occasionally referred to as saccharides, which come in two forms: monosaccharides and disaccharides. Monosaccharides have the chemical formula C6H12O6 while Disaccharides have the chemical formula C12H22O11 (Urry et al 2020. These are not the only two configurations that exist. The multiple configurations of atoms are called isomers. Isomers of saccharides are necessary due to organisms have evolved enzymes to create the energy in each form. Some organisms, including yeast, are better at getting at some forms of sugar than other forms because of the enzymes that they can use (Urry et al 2020). The monosaccharides will have a high cellular respiration rate because the monosaccharides can break down faster due to its mass being smaller. On the other side of energy creation methods, photosynthesis will be processed faster with red and blue filters due to these mirroring the wavelengths.

Purpose and Methods

Two experiments were completed with similar procedures. Experiment one used 7 large test tubes, 7 rubber stoppers, 7 graduated pipettes, sugar solutions (glucose, fructose, lactose, galactose, sucrose, honey, and water), and 70 mL active yeast (University et al 2018). The primary experiment began by collecting and stirring the stock yeast culture. This released any air bubbles present. Next, 10 mL of the yeast was pipetted into each of the seven large-diameter test tubes and then capped the tubes with their own rubber stopper and pipette, making sure to mark the initial point on a table. Following this, a set volume of the sugar solutions was added to the 6 separate test tubes. The seventh test tube was filled with distilled water, rather than a sugar solution to act as a control. Each tube was filled approximately ¼ below the rim of the tube. Once the solutions were presented in the pipettes, a record was taken for the starting volume. After 5, ten-minute intervals, an observation was taken, to track the rate at which O2 was created. In this experiment the controls were the yeast used. The independent variable in the initial experiment was the sugar solution used. The dependent variable was the amount of carbon dioxide produce or another way of phrasing it is, the rate of fermentation.

Experiment two used four large colored test tubes (red, blue, green, and yellow), an uncolored test tube, 10 mM sodium bicarbonate (pH 7), a strong light source (powered lamp), rubber stoppers with graduated pipettes, and Elodea stalks (University et al 2018). Five large diameter test tubes were filled nearly to the top with sodium bicarbonate, approximately ¼ inch below the rims of the test tubes. A stalk of Elodea was added to each test tube. A pipetted rubber stopper was placed on top of each to cap the liquid. A small amount of solution was transfer up the pipette once the stopper was properly placed. Next, a mark was made to recall the initial place of the sodium bicarbonate in the pipette. The solution over spilled, therefore, a transfer of excess had to be completed until the pipette read at or below 1/3 of the pipette’s entire length. The test tubes were set equal distance from a light source. Every ten minutes, a record was done of the volume the pipette read. The control in this experiment includes the sodium bicarbonate, the stalks of elodea, and the light source. The independent variable is the filters. The dependent variable in experiment two is the oxygen gas or the rate of photosynthesis.

Discussion

The cellular energetics are complex when seen up close, however, when allowing it to be seen through experiments breaks it apart and shows the basics. The hypothesis is the monosaccharides will have a high cellular respiration rate because the monosaccharides can break down faster due to its mass being smaller as seen by the chemical formula, C6H12O6. Yeast is best at digesting glucose and fructose because it is a monosaccharide, both sharing the chemical formula, C6H12O6. Photosynthesis proceeded faster with red and blue filters due to these mirroring the wavelengths. The wavelengths depict exactly what the hypothesis and the experiment did. The red and blue filters created the fast rate of photosynthesis due to the wavelengths. Results may not depict hypothesis due to human error, however, this one followed. Such human error for the second experiment can include the test tubes were hand painted and the light behind was created synthetically.

Dieting is important and has a substantial impact on cellular metabolic processes that sustain life. Chemical energy is stored in the foods we eat through sugars known as carbohydrates, protein, and fats (Foster 2019). Many autotrophs that undergo photosynthesis create glucose that can be consumed by heterotrophs for energy. A diet full of fruits and vegetables is beneficial to one’s health. Without these types of food an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, digestive disorders and types of cancer (Tremblay). Those carbohydrates are broken down through cellular respiration to make energy in the form of ATP (Foster 2019). Glucose is split into two pyruvate using two ATP, however when NAD+ is oxidized to NADH two ATP are formed. Those two ATP and NADH are delivered to the final step. However, the two pyruvates are oxidized creating two acetyl CoA. During the pyruvate oxidation, two additional NADH are created and shipped to the final step, as well as two CO2. The acetyl CoA is used as an enzyme to catalyze the Krebs cycle. Eight NADH and two FADH2 are sent to the final step, the electron transport chain, and four CO2 and two ATP are created for cell use. The twelve NADH and two FADH2 help shuffle protons down the ETC to the top of the ATP synthase (Tremblay). ADP and the protons are combined and sent through to create approximately 32 ATP. Certain products are marketed as dietary supplements however are causing more harm to the body (Tremblay). Dinitrophenol, DNP, is one of these products and can cause substantial weight loss (DeSimone, et al. 2011). This is due to the drug increasing production of cellular respiration and the rate of CO2 produced. DNP disrupts the electron transport chain by altering the proton gradient causing ATP to be low. The human body pulls energy from the bodies previously made fats as an energy source. Glycolysis continues however, creating an abundance of pyruvate which makes acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA is responsible for breaking the fats for energy (DeSimone, et al. 2011). Just because something is marketed as a diet does not mean it is healthy for the body.

Bibliography

1. DeSimone, S. M., & Prud’homme-Généreux, A. (n.d.). 2011. Wrestling with Weight Loss: The Dangers of a Weight-Loss Drug. Retrieved from http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/files/dnp.pdf.
2. Foster CR, Lee KW. 2017. The role of protein structure in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the Brain 208(17): 82-92
3. Tremblay, S. (n.d.). Food Sources of ATP. Retrieved from https://www.livestrong.com/article/359257-food-sources-of-atp/.
4. University, E. T., Miller, H., Foster, C., Jones, T., Wagner, A., & Yampolsky, L., (2018). Biology 1111: biology for science majors laboratory i.: Kendall Hunt
5. Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Campbell, N. A. (2020). Campbell biology in focus (third). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson.

Since the discovery of cell culture in 1907 it has rapidly become one of the most frequent and important techniques used by cell biologists and as more modern technology has became available, a greater understanding of the method was gained to further enhance the results of cell culture. With the developments of two-dimensional cell culture to three-dimensional cell culture a plethora of breakthrough discoveries have occurred within disease, stem cells and drug activity.

Introduction

Cell culture refers to the transfer of cells from a specimen to a favourable, nutrient rich environment to optimise growth in which they can be grown in two-dimensions (2-D) or three-dimensions (3-D) (1). Traditionally, cells were grown in 2-D on a plastic plate resulting in a monolayer that caused the cells to become flat in shape, modifying gene and protein expression (2). In recent years the cell biology world has received a breakthrough in the form of 3-D cell culture which allows the cells of a specimen to interact with the environment to a greater degree than 2-D cell culture (1). This allows cells to precisely replicate cells in vivo state.

The breakthrough of 3-D cell culture has created opportunities for new discoveries to be made in regards to cancer, drug testing and neurodegenerative diseases.

Cell Culture- Why is it important?

3-D culture systems have enabled the replication of in vivo growth environment of cancer in vitro. Interestingly, cancer cells now being grown within the extracellular matrix of a culture, accurately represent the 3-D cell environment and can allow researchers to observe the disorganised structure of cancer cells (3). Cultures are often begun by dissociation of the cancer tissue of the specimen and placed on the culture surrounded by non-cancerous components to accurately represent the tumour microenvironment so as the cultured cells retain the essential features of the primary cancer (4).This is particularly useful in studying the characteristics of tumours and tumour spheroids which have clinical importance in their chemotherapy resistance that may be associated with malignancy in some cancers (5). The ability to observe the nature of cancerous cells and how they react to environmental stimuli will allow for the development of more effective pharmaceuticals to combat this prevalent disease (6).

Anticancer therapies are in huge medical demand due to the high level of diagnosis of cancers occurring worldwide. However, the amount of drugs available that have shown positive results are very few in number with chemotherapy and radiotherapy still being the greatest chance a patient has at surviving. Cell culture can be used to detect the effectiveness of anticancer therapies. The effectiveness of anticancer drugs was previously determined by 2-D cell culture which has now been recognised to have given false positive results in drug activity as the tumour microenvironment was not accurately stimulated (7). This has lead to 3-D cell culture to be used. In the study of the effect of anticancer drugs on breast cancer evaluating 2-D and 3-D cultures, it demonstrated that those grown in 3-D formed dense multicellular spheroids which was found to be associated with resistance to chemotherapy drugs. Those grown in 2-D over-estimated the drugs efficiency and were then disregarded during clinical development when the drug began to give negative results (7).

The huge developments in cell culture over the recent decades have enabled technologies to produce microphysiological systems or simply tissue chips that imitate the function of human organs and that react to physiological inputs and outputs to maintain homeostasis. Tissues are grown on chips of clear plastic under 3-D culture to allow observation of cell processes and reaction to variable stimuli through a microscope (9). This technique will prove to be useful in drug development and drug screening processes as it will eliminate the ethical issue for animal testing as it may no longer be required due to the effects of the drug being observable under a microscope (10). Furthermore, when human clinical trials begin the drug will have had effective screening and modification to inhibit disastrous consequence (9).

Stem cells are constantly under the spotlight in the scientific world due to their ability to differentiate into any cell type and their self-renewal properties. These cells once hard to retrieve without invasive techniques such as through the bone marrow, have now become increasingly easy to access through the discovery that adult somatic cells can be used to obtain induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) after reprogramming, through skin biopsies (11). Following on from tissue chips, brain organoids can be developed through iPSCs to study neurodegenerative diseases. Due to the nature of neurodegenerative diseases often occurring on an aged brain, the cell culture of the organoid needs to represent this state. However, studies have shown that creating an aged brain in culture does not capture every aspect of its characteristics, it can however demonstrate late progression in the disease with earlier progression not being accurately modelled (12). The visualisation of neurodegenerative diseases have provided researchers with information to develop personalised medicine and accurate drug screening for patients with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s disease and many more (13).

Brain organoids created from iPSCs from donors have already led to breakthrough discoveries in learning disabilities and newly discovered target genes in autism spectrum disorders (14) so it is hoped with continual study of iPSCs it will give rise to regenerative medicine that could revert a diseased brain back into its healthy state.

Conclusion

Cell culture is an essential technique for researchers to utilise to make new discoveries within cell biology, biochemistry and biomedical science. Continual research within cell culture has the potential to change the future of clinical medicine by providing a greater understanding of terminal diseases and the development of new drug therapies, more effective at targeting the issue. Regenerative medicine is no longer an idea; through cell culture it is becoming a reality in regards to neurodegenerative diseases and spinal cord injuries by the modelling of organs in microphysiological systems in vitro. Without cell culture we would not be able to entirely understand the physiology and biochemistry of cells creating a barrier in knowledge essential in understanding organisms from tiny bacterial cells to the more complex human body.

Introduction

Stem cells are formatively crude, undifferentiated cells that have the ability to make new duplicates of themselves (self-reestablish) and to practice (separate) into different other cell types, for example, blood, muscle, and nerve cells. Customarily foundational microorganisms have been classified into two primary gatherings: embryonic immature microorganisms and grown-up undifferentiated cells.

HESCs (Human embryonic stem cell) are separated from three-to five-day-old ripeness center incipient organisms amid the blastocyst phase of early advancement, before implantation in the belly. These crude cells later offer ascent to all the different cells and organ frameworks of the hatchling. Embryonic immature microorganisms are pluripotent, in light of the fact that they are equipped for separating along every one of the three germ layers—the ectoderm (e.g., skin, nerves, cerebrum), the mesoderm (e.g., bone, muscle), and the endoderm (e.g., lungs, stomach related framework)— notwithstanding delivering the germ line (sperm and eggs).

Current Uses

It is currently being used to treat a variety of blood disorders and sicknesses like leukemia, multiple myeloma, sickle cell anemia etc.

Potential Uses

There are many ways in which human stem cells can be used in research and the clinic. Studies of human stem cells will give way to information about multiple events that happen during human development, human stem cells are now being used to test new drugs. New medicines are tested for safety on cells created from human pluripotent cell lines. Other kinds of cell lines have a long history of being used in this way. Cancer cell lines, for example, are used to screen potential anti-tumor drugs.

The most important potential use of human stem cells will be the generation of cells and tissues that could be used for cell-based therapies. Today, donated organs and tissues are often used to replace damaging or destroyed tissue, but the need for transplant tissues or organs is greater than the available supply.

Pros

There are numerous progressing clinical preliminaries including medications with undeveloped cells. Much advancement has been made with mesenchymal undifferentiated organisms, which can be made into numerous valuable cell types, for example, muscle, with in excess of 40 preliminaries going on around there alone in 2011. There are medications accessible as of now for specific types of visual impairment, knee issues, and coronary illness, methods for which a couple of patients have been dealt with effectively in clinical preliminaries

Cons

However, there are numerous obstructions to defeat before immature microorganism treatments join standard drug. It is far harder to make a treatment comprising of a large number of immature microorganisms than it is a bunch of a little particle medication, for example, the counter disease tranquilize Taxol or the painkiller acetaminophen. It is more troublesome additionally than assembling a bio-pharmaceutical medication, for example, the calming drug etanercept (Enbrel). Individuals with uncommon cell culture abilities are required to develop the undeveloped cells and after that to scale them up a million crease without hindering their quality

Government Regulation

Prohibition on Government funding

President George W. Bush administration declared his choice to enable government assets to be utilized for research on existing human embryonic foundational microorganism lines as long as the determination procedure (which starts with the evacuation of the internal cell mass from the blastocyst) had just been started and the incipient organism from which the undifferentiated organism line was inferred never again had the likelihood of forming into an individual. The president set up criteria that constrained research to just 21 cell lines that had been made before August 9, 2001, and prohibited government financing for several embryonic foundational microorganism lines, including some that conveyed hereditary transformations for explicit conditions and sicknesses that researchers needed to ponder in the desire for discovering fixes. Numerous individuals contended that in light of the fact that embryonic foundational microorganisms are not, truth be told, developing lives, inquire about on such cells ought to be permitted. Others, for example, President Bush, trusted that any examination that makes or obliterates human developing lives at any stage, for example, making new fetuses through cloning or crushing an incipient organism to make an undifferentiated cell line, ought not to be permitted. Regardless of the prohibition on government financing, such research stayed lawful.

Government funding endorsement

On March 9, 2009, not long after entering office in January, President Barack Obama issued an official request that lifted the restriction on government subsidizing for embryonic undeveloped cell look into. The NIH at that point built up strategies and systems that empowered governmentally supported analysts to work with chosen groups of human embryonic undeveloped cells (to a great extent foundational microorganism lines that had been made with private, instead of administrative, reserves).

In June 2010 James Sherley of Boston Biomedical Research Institute and Theresa Deisher of AVM Biotechnology recorded a suit looking to stop government subsidizing of human embryonic undifferentiated cell inquire about in light of the fact that they asserted such research demolishes human incipient organisms and redirects assets from specialists working with grown-up undeveloped cells. On August 23, 2010, Judge Royce C. Lamberth of the U.S. Area Court for the District of Columbia issued a fundamental order that ended government financing of embryonic foundational microorganism inquire about. The order likewise restricted research on the foundational microorganism lines that had been endorsed for research by President Bush in 2001.

Socioeconomic Impact

In most recent years, plans of action in the undeveloped cells zone have extended, changing not the same as organizations that offer tissue stockpiling places, gear for the improvement of stem cell, units of cell cytotoxicity tests, and advancement of new medications for the medication based industry. In the meantime, there are (more than two, however not a ton of) organizations leading logical truth discovering investigates items that will most likely be accessible to the general population in the following two years. A portion of these organizations are following a similar plan of action utilized for the advertising of (identified with the body capacity of living things) items – growing (more than two, yet not a great deal of) items with a similar generally speaking reason. Different organizations are concentrating on the creation of altered therapeutic items in a (from a similar body) or allogeneic setting.

In Portugal there are two kinds of organizations in the foundational microorganism region: those providing primarily benefits like cryopreservation of immature microorganisms (Crioestaminal, Criovida, Bioteak, Cytothera.); and those growing new (identified with PCs and science) items (EcBio and Stem matters). For instance, EcBio has a licensed way(s) of getting things done for (isolating a long way from others) and growing mesenchymal undifferentiated cells in the (associating string between an unborn child and mother) framework, and Stem matters is an organization centered around the advancement of new items and administrations for tissue fix and recovery, particularly on bone and (extreme, bendable body tissue).

Science and Health

Science

There are numerous logical inquiries regarding hESC treatment. It is yet to be completely comprehended where the cells go when infused into the body; in spite of the fact that advances for following them are being created. Nor is it in every case clear how a cell treatment is acting. Progressively, it gives the idea that undifferentiated cells emit factors that invigorate the body’s own fix forms, however it isn’t comprehended what sway these variables have past the focused on district. The incredible concern is that undeveloped cells, with their capacity to partition quickly, may frame a tumor once inside the body. Patients accepting immature microorganism medications presumably would be observed consistently for indications of malignant growth until this viewpoint is better understood.

Health

Numerous opponets of hESC investigate contend that similar restorative advantages might be gotten by utilizing grown-up undifferentiated cells. Along these lines they might want to see re-look assets occupied far from hESCs and towards grown-up undeveloped cells. Be that as it may, as per the present condition of learning, grown-up cells don’t have indistinguishable potential for fixes from hESCs. There has been much enthusiasm for incited pluripotent cells (iPSCs), which are grown-up undifferentiated organisms with numerous ESC properties. Regardless of whether iPSCs may end up being as successful as hESCs yet without the moral issues can’t be anticipated right now.

Global impact

The United States is just a single of many nations assuming vital jobs in foundational microorganism investigate. Over the most recent ten years, (more than two, yet not a great deal of identified with Europe) and Asian nations have turned out to be driving habitats for the investigation of immature microorganisms and their conceivable medicinally accommodating employments. These nations, alongside nations from different zones of the world, have significantly extended the degree of and the scope of undifferentiated cell inquiries about, making a sorted out line of logical advances and medicinal employments. The following is a summary on the laws and approaches on undifferentiated cell inquire about in various nations, just as their noteworthy research endeavors.

Numerous nations, including Australia, Belgium, China, Finland, India, Israel, Japan, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, and some U.S. states grant the making of developing lives for research. All farthest point the way of life time of the made fetus to about the fourteenth day of incipient organism advancement. In a few nations analysts must legitimize their need to make incipient organisms for research. In nations that permit the formation of incipient organisms for research, remedial cloning utilizing SCNT (Somatic cell nuclear transfer) is for the most part allowed.

Cultural/Religious believe

The moral and religious issues encompassing undeveloped cell investigate concern less the helpful finishes of the exploration (remedies for Parkinson’s ailment, adolescent diabetes, Alzheimer’s ailment, coronary illness, and a large group of other degenerative diseases); rather, the debate encompasses the status of the human developing life and focuses to bigger issues about being human and when life starts.

The Roman Catholic Church and traditionalist Protestant places of worship have made the most grounded resistance to embryonic immature microorganism research of every single religious custom in the United States. The Catholic position is that life starts at origination; therefore the human developing life is agreed the full rights and respect of a human individual from the exact instant that the sperm infiltrates the egg. Subsequently, it is a grave sin to pulverize any human incipient organism since the demonstration establishes demolition of life itself, a duty having a place just with God. In addition, the Catholic Church has restricted the formation of human fetuses for research purposes (restorative cloning, for instance) for two reasons: To do as such is treat human life as a minor unfortunate chore, which is an infringement of human poise and the sacredness of life; and incipient organisms should just to be made related to the matrimonial demonstration of adoration inside the setting of marriage (normal law). It is essential to note, be that as it may, that there is an assortment of disagreeing Catholic positions on this issue.

Islam is diverse religious tradition as well. Be that as it may, when all is said in done, Islam would be supportive of all types of undifferentiated organism inquire about since there give off an impression of being no ‘ongoing decisions in Islamic bioethics in regards to the ethical status of the blastocyst from which the undeveloped cells are disconnected’ (Sachedina). Islamic researchers have discovered that the Qur’han’s emphasis is basically on the creating embryo in the belly. Islam imparts to Judaism a worry with human recuperating; in this manner, if ESCs hold genuine (not simply theoretical) potential for remedial mending, there would be no protest to continuing with such research.

Future uses

The incumbent administration of Donald Trump may endanger the fate of stem cell research. In spite of the fact that Trump did not express his position on embryonic stem cell research during his campaign, Mike Pence the VP, has reliably restricted embryonic stem cell research, affirming that iPSCs (Induced pluripotent undeveloped cells) are a reasonable substitute for embryonic foundational microorganisms.

Funding of stem cell research is bolstered by numerous individual states notwithstanding when government reserves are not accessible. As one of the states that help immature microorganism inquire about, California has been at the front line of this exploration. In 2002 the California state governing body passed a law empowering remedial cloning.

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a stem cell is, “an unspecialized cell that gives rise to differentiated cells” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Stem cells are one of the leading points in discussion in science regarding the body’s recovery ability and speed. For example, it was said by the authors of the article Stem Cell Research and Health Education David J. Eve, Philip J. Marty, Robert J. McDermott, Stephen K. Klasko, and Paul R. Sanberg even go as far as to say that stem cells are, “one of the greatest untapped resources currently available for the prevention and treatment of many diseases” (David J. Eve et al, 2008). This then begs the question, why don’t stem cells get used regularly if they can do these things. Some countries have tried to limit, and in some places even stopped stem cell research. This is due to many different reasons. One of these, as put by the International Stem Cell Forum Ethics Working Party who wrote the article Ethics Issues in Stem Cell Research, is that some countries have put strict laws in place limiting the research of these cells due to ethical issues (International Stem Cell Forum Ethics Working Party, 2006). These ethical issues include where the stem cells come from if the donor is compatible with the receiver, and how effective they will be once they are put into the person. The most prominent point of debate is where those stem cells come from.

There are six locations from which stem cells can be obtained. The first is the Embryonic Stem Cell. The embryonic stem cell is taken from the inner lining cells of an embryo (at this point it is not technically an embryo due to the time frame not being long enough) (David J. Eve et al, 2008). The second is the Fetal Stem Cell, which is typically taken from aborted fetuses or miscarriages. They are obtained by removing the stem cells from the brain of the fetus (David J. Eve et al, 2008). The third is the Adult Stem Cell, which is found within an adult’s bone marrow and is removed from there. The fourth is the Embryonic Germ Cells. Germ cells are pre-mature sperm and egg cells (David J. Eve et al, 2008). The last two are taken from very similar places, the amniotic fluid and the umbilical cord (both of which can be taken after the child is born from the mother. Due to religious opposition to the first two methods, many countries severely limiting the usage and production of these stem cells causing research to come at a slower pace.

For some people, the idea of acquiring stem cells from aborted fetuses and embryos rings a bad noise in their ears. These people, some of which are of the religion Christianity, dispute that the usage of stem cells is using a murder person’s body to save someone else. In essence, killing one person to save another. In addition to this, opponents of stem cell research include those who think that receiving stem cells from clones will cause negative repercussions including shortening lifespan (David J. Eve et al, 2008). This causes them to think that the usage of a clone’s stem cells (a clone, according to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is, “the aggregate of genetically identical cells or organisms asexually produced by or from a single progenitor cell or organism” (Merriam-Webster, 2020)) will cause those who acquire them to have mal interests placed into them and also further shorten the lifespan of the said person.

Stem cells were and are still a heated topic of debate for opposing views. On one end some are avid for it, using the diseases that can be cured as their rally cry and showing all of the good that can come from these stem cells. On the other side, there are the people who are showing the process and thereby the ethical issues by which these stem cells are obtained and used. Both sides of this argument have legitimate points but also have downfalls, thus the nations of today have tried to meet in the middle by allowing for research under a certain set of rules and regulations causing them to be put under supervision. As of now, this is the best that can occur for stem cell research.

References

1. Eve, D. J., Marty, P. J., McDermott, R. J., Klasko, S. K., & Sanberg, P. R. (2013, January 23). Stem Cell Research and Health Education. Retrieved December 07, 2020, from https://www-tandfonline-com.chaffey.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1080/19325037.2008.10599033
2. International Stem Cell Forum Ethics Working Party. (2006). Ethics Issues in Stem Cell Research. Science, 312(5772), 366-367. Retrieved December 8, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org.chaffey.idm.oclc.org/stable/3845862
3. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Clone. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved December 10, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/clone
4. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Stem cell. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved December 8, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stem%20cell
5. Research Guides: A-Z Resource List: A-Z Database List. (2020). Retrieved December 08, 2020, from https://libguides.chaffey.edu/databases?controllerLanguages=GROOVY

INTRODUCTION

Cell respiration is a metabolic procedure that happens in a life form’s cell to change over huge particles into tiny atoms. It is the most significant and intriguing metabolic pathways likewise one of the most confounded procedure. Cellular respiration could be a set of metabolic reactions and forms that take put within the cells of organisms to convert biochemical vitality from supplements into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and after that discharge squander products. The reactions involved in breath are catabolic responses, which break expansive particles into littler ones, releasing vitality within the handle, as frail so-called ‘high-energy’ bonds are supplanted by more grounded bonds within the items.

Respiration is one of the key ways a cell discharges chemical vitality to fuel cellular movement. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox response which discharges heat. The generally response happens in an arrangement of biochemical steps, most of which are redox responses themselves. In spite of the fact that cellular respiration is in fact a combustion response, it clearly does not take after one when it happens in a living cell since of the moderate discharge of vitality from the arrangement of reactions. Nutrients that are commonly utilized by creature and plant cells Cellular respiration may be a handle that incorporate moving of oxygen and making of carbon dioxide and water as last item. It could be a chain of responses, happening below high-impact conditions all through which gigantic sums of ATP are made. One of the most primes of energy is glucose. When cellular respiration occurs carbon dioxide is discharged, and it is in this manner utilized by plants within the handle of photosynthesis to create modern carbohydrates.

MAJOR STEPS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration can be broken into 4 stages; Sugar basically burned or oxidized down to carbon dioxide and ATP within the handle. All exercises of life require vitality either from ATP or from related particles. A parcel of energy is required for this prepare. The sugar and the oxygen are conveyed to your cells by means of your bloodstream.

The process happens partially within the cytoplasm, and mostly within the mitochondria. The mitochondria are another organelle in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria have two lipid layers around it `and its claim genome. Like chloroplast, the mitochondria have two fundamental locales enemy the responses; the lattice which could be a fluid portion of mitochondria and the cristae which are collapsed film in mitochondria.

There are a few stages of cell respiration which aerobic respiration are, glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and anaerobic respiration.

The few stages of cell respiration

Aerobic respiration

Is a procedure that requires oxygen (O2) request to deliver ATP despite the fact that starches, fats and proteins are devoured simultaneously ,it is a favoured procedure of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and again to enter the mitochondria pyruvate is required so as to be completely oxidized by Krebs cycle and as the results of the procedure are carbon dioxide and water yet the vitality which is moved is utilized to break the securities in ADP as the third phosphate is included from ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) , by the substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2.

Glycolysis

Is a metabolic procedure that happens in cell’s cytosol in every single distinctive life form? Glycolysis can likewise be interpreted as ‘sugar splitting “those capacities in people vigorous conditions produce pyruvate so as to changes over one atom of glucose in to two pyruvate particles which are pyruvic acid, the vitality is created as two net particles of ATP. Two particles of ATP are expended as a component of the preliminary stage when four atoms of ATP are being shaped. During the result period of glycolysis there is an exchange of four gatherings of phosphate into ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP and two NADH when the pyruvate is oxidized.

Glucose experiences chemical response and gets changed over into two particles of pyruvate, three-carbon natural atoms. In these responses ATP is delivered and NAD+ is changed over to NADH.

Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)

This cycle is additionally called the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle. Acetyl-coA is delivered from the pyruvate atoms made from glycolysis when oxygen is available. High-impact or anaerobic respiration can happen once acetyl-coA is framed. Mitochondria experiences aerobic respiration which prompts Krebs cycle when oxygen is available .Acetyl-coA is delivered within the sight of oxygen then the atom enters the citrus extract cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondria lattice and is oxidized to CO₂ simultaneously NAD is decreased to NADH .Electron transport chain would then be able to utilize NADH to make further ATP as a major aspect of oxidative phosphorylation.

The acetyl coA made within the past step combines with a four-carbon particle and goes through a cycle of responses, recovering the four-carbon beginning atom. ATP, NADH and FADH are devoured and carbon dioxide is discharged

Oxidative phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport-linked phosphorylation is the metabolic pathway in which cells utilize proteins to oxidize supplements, subsequently discharging vitality which is utilized to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In most eukaryotes, this takes put interior mitochondria. Nearly all oxygen consuming life forms carry out oxidative phosphorylation. This pathway is so inescapable since it could be an exceedingly proficient way of discharging vitality, compared to elective maturation forms such as anaerobic glycolysis. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are exchanged from electron benefactors to electron acceptors such as oxygen in redox responses. These redox reactions discharge vitality, which is utilized to make ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox responses are carried out by an arrangement of protein complexes inside the internal membrane of the cell’s mitochondria, though, in prokaryotes, these proteins are found within the cell’s intermembrane

NADH and FADH2 made within the past step are oxidized over boundary within the inward membrane. Glycolysis is the as it were step within the cellular respiration that can take put without oxygen, which as it were happen within the handle called aging. The other three steps which are pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is the method by which cells that doesn’t breathe oxygen free vitality from fuel to power their life functions. Molecular oxygen is the foremost productive electron acceptor for respiration, due to its nucleus’ tall fondness for electrons. In any case, a few living beings have advanced to utilize other oxidizers, and as such, these perform breath without oxygen. These life forms moreover utilize an electron transport chain to create as much ATP as conceivable from their fuel, but their electron transport chains extricate less vitality than those of high-impact respiration since their electron acceptors are weaker. Many microbes and Achaea can as it were performed anaerobic respiration. Numerous other living beings can perform either high-impact or anaerobic breath, depending on whether oxygen is present. Humans and other creatures depend on high-impact breath to stay lively but can amplify their cells lives or execution within the nonattendance of oxygen by utilizing shapes of anaerobic respiration.

CONCLUSION

Cellular respiration, the procedure by which creatures join oxygen with staple particles, occupying the concoction vitality in these substances into life-continuing exercises and disposing of, as waste items, carbon dioxide and water. ATP and CARBON DIOXIDE are the vital items within the cellular respiration. Living begins that do not rely upon oxygen corrupt staples in a procedure called maturation. The in general component of cellular respiration includes four subdivisions: glycolysis, in which glucose particles are separated to frame pyruvic corrosive atoms. The Krebs cycle , in which pyruvic corrosive is additionally separated and the vitality in its atom is utilized to shape high-vitality mixes, for example, NADH; the electron transport framework , in which electrons are moved along a progression of coenzymes and cytochromes and vitality in the electrons is discharged ;and chemiosmosis, in which vitality radiated by electrons is utilized to siphon protons over a layer and give the vitality to ATP amalgamation.

REFERENCES

1. Bailey, Regina. ‘Cellular Respiration’. Archived from the original on 2012-05-05.
2. ‘Cellular Respiration’ (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-10.
3. Reece1 Urry2 Cain3 Wasserman4 Minorsky5 Jackson6, Jane1 Lisa2 Michael3 Steven4 Peter5 Robert6 (2010). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 168
4. Rich, P. R. (2003). ‘The molecular machinery of Keilin’s respiratory chain’. Biochemical Society Transactions. 31 (Pt 6): 1095–1105.
5. Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2020). ‘Oxygen Is the High-Energy Molecule Powering Complex Multicellular Life: Fundamental Corrections to Traditional Bioenergetics” ACS Omega 5: 2221-2233.
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Every single living thing on Earth that absorbs oxygen in any way is capable of being rapidly exposed to weak magnetic fields that are made by multiple things such as man-made machines and Earth itself. There are a plethora of studies that have been made by scientists, seeking how magnetic fields would possibly affect biological aspects of living things on the planet Earth. However, there were little evidence or results that were pursued by most scientists who were just making hypotheses. Within this article about magnetic fields and cell behavior, there is a study that is explored to collect evidence to prove that magnetic fields can affect “reactive oxygen species(ROS)” (Ruth, 2019) such as a flatworm.

The major hypothesis that is made about the “biological effect of weak magnetic fields is that they might induce a process called radical pair recombination.”(Ruth, 2019) Radical pair recombination is described as when the electrons within atoms are manipulated by the magnetic field, which causes the radical formation of atoms in new pairs. Based on the alteration of atoms hypothesis, it is claimed that the number of reactive oxygen species will increase. However, “there is increasing evidence that ROS signaling contributes to disease. For example, ROS have been shown to promote tumor metastasis through gene activation.”(Paul, 2012) Making such manual alterations in the cells of ROS can cause a more rapid increase in contributing to diseases attacking certain body functions such as the ability to grow. Even though the alterations could slow down the process of ROS developing in organisms’ bodies, it’s important to understand that stabilizing atoms that are radically paired is risky and should be practiced with caution and more information on ROS effects on things. Also, the process of regenerating reactive oxygen species will need many more clinical trials if the main goal is to help people overcome or push back some diseases that are associated with ROS. Some relevant science that would assist this research is the age of flatworms being broken apart in the experiment because ROS should show a difference in affecting the energy system if it was in a more aged body rather than a younger body.

Within the experiment of the regeneration in the flatworm study, “the team first amputated the worms above and below their feeding tubes (in the middle of their bodies) and placed the body fragments in culture dishes inside an electromagnetic coil within a magnetically shielded chamber.”(Ruth, 2019) This portrays how Beane and other colleagues of his sought the idea of having the flatworm body fragments to be exposed to weak magnetic fields that have different ranges of magnetism for three days. In their results, it showed how magnetic fields between 100 and 400 uT compared a 500 uT magnetic field and to the magnetic field exhibited by the Earth, which is approximately 45 uT. Based on the collected data, it was seen that the flatworms exposed to the 200 uT force of the magnetic field had minimum stem cell growth and, ultimately, lower levels of ROS. This is a significant way of pointing out how the changes in the magnetism of the magnetic field can affect the number of stem cells produced and the amount of ROS in attendance within the flatworm!

After going over the results, it was concluded that there is still more research that can ultimately be done to uncover the real truth about using weak magnetic fields to Greenebaum said: “What the heck is going on here, and how can we use it?”(Ruth, 2019) To answer this question, there are multiple aspects to worry about how the knowledge of magnetic fields altering molecules and atoms in living things. For example, it is important to consider how would the changes in molecules and atoms based on the weak magnetic fields could affect the energy systems within the human body, such as the ATP-PC System, Lactic Acid System, Aerobic System, etc. These three energy systems are used within the human body to create and provide energy for the host to obtain and live on. “…ATP is essential for every energy need in the body — including all the automatic body processes of growth, development and maintaining vital body functions.”(Thelma, 2019) This illustrates how significant the ATP-PC System is to the human body to function correctly, and if there are a plethora of changes made to the body because of something similar to changing the atoms being paired up in awkward ways, then the body would ultimately shut down in a worst-case scenario. So, when using magnetic fields to alter molecules in the energy systems, it is key to identify the functions that the human body, for example, exhibits rather than continue the process of making more and more reactive oxygen species that can cause a lot of ordeals.

Magnetic fields can only do so much for the world and technological advancements that human beings have made on Earth and sooner or later on other planets, too. With this study about the regeneration of reactive oxygen species, it is now known that the weak magnetic fields can help by slowing down the process of regenerating the species or make matters worse by speeding up the process of regenerating the species. It is a great objective to strive for not promoting diseases that could be brought up by these species through concepts such as gene activation. Over time, the process of using magnetic fields to create and manipulate cells/atoms will become deeper insignificance in the face of creating multiple ways to improve energy systems that are mainly inside of living organisms.