In this chapter, the authors investigate the concept of privacy and whether government employers’ warrantless searches may be considered reasonable and justified. To begin with, in the Constitution, there is no such word as privacy, but after interpreting the Constitutional Amendments, three types of privacy rights have been created by the Supreme Court (Halbert and Ingulli). First, the government is prevented from interfering with people’s private families and sexual life. Second, intimate information, such as one’s sexual or medical history, should not be publicized by the authorities (Halbert and Ingulli 1). Finally, corporations and individuals are protected by the Fourth Amendment from unreasonable or unwarranted government seizures or searches.
Specific claims related to the Fourth Amendment privacy may arise in the workplace. For example, if “a regulatory agency searches a business for evidence of noncompliance, or when a public employer checks the files in an employee’s office to investigate possible misconduct” (Halbert and Ingulli 1). Unfortunately, even if it is actually a violation of privacy, it is up to the judge to decide which is more significant, the government’s need to conduct a search or employees’ privacy interests. Two court cases are discussed by the authors to explain this point.
First, in 2010, there was a City of Ontario v. Quon, in which the search of a public employee’s text messages was involved. Jeff Quon, a member of SWAT, used his working pager for personal purposes and, after his department obtained a transcript of his texts, he challenged the search (Halbert and Ingulli 2). The Supreme Court stated that if such measures were not intrusive but justified at their inception and work-related, it was reasonable to conduct a warrantless search.
Then, in 2014, there was another case – Riley v. California. It also proved an increasingly significant role of mobile telephones in the lives of all Americans, and it became evident that an exhaustive search of a house may expose less than a phone. In that case, the arrested men’s cell phones were allowed to prove their fault and find the locations of crack cocaine, ammunition, and guns (Halbert and Ingulli 3). However, their conviction was overturned as the judge admitted the violation of the Fourth Amendment.
Work Cited
Halbert, Terry, and Elaine Ingulli. “Privacy: Technology, Surveillance, & Freedom.” Law and Ethics in the Business Environment, Cengage Learning, 2018.
Cell phones are one of the personal devices used by individuals for communication. Rising cases of cybercrime have led to misuse of these private gadgets, and many people have been using cell phones to engage in cybercrimes at high levels. Although cell phone is a private gadget, when the police officer suspects someone is a suspect or a victim of a given crime, then the investigator can custody the cell phone for an investigation. Cell phones can be helpful to investigators during investigation since cell phones are used for communication via emails and text messages, holding transactions, and taking pictures. The pictures, emails, texts, internet, social media, transactions, notes, and maps are some of the key features that can be used by investigators to attain the needed information.
Emails are some of the trusted means of communication online; it is again used in sending texts and images. Emails have got google drive and cloud as the data backup space, meaning any information that the cell phone user may like hide or store for future reference gets stored in either of the two. An investigator accessing cell phone mails, it becomes easier to track the conversations or stored images in google drive (Carter & Carter, 2016). If the case is about the missing person, then once the missing person’s image is found on the other person’s cell phone cloud or google drive, then the cell phone owner will be answerable or be held accountable to disclose more information about the missing person. Maps in the phones are also important to investigators during the investigation.
Digital cell phones today record the kilometers covered, and places visited throughout the day; in cases, an assassination has happened, and the suspected criminal denies their presence in the scene, then the investigator can access their phone to prove that fact by tracing their movement throughout the day (Cahyani et al., 2017). In case of rape cases or misunderstanding between couples, an investigator can use the phone google history to see the type of data someone has been searching and the type of videos a person may have been watching. Many people have been presumed to be sexually immoral due to researching and watching pornographic-related videos (Cahyani et al., 2017).
Social media such as Facebook has been a great platform for interaction among people. Through social media chats, an investigator can be able to determine the phone owner’s personality based on the types of chats held and the kind of friends chatted. Based on the chats displayed the most, an investigator can tell the kind of person they are handling (Cahyani et al., 2017).
The transactions now form the biggest source to prove to the investigator the fact about the things happening. Transactions normally show the kind of deals held, the amount of money paid, and who is paid. If the activity the person is paid for is an illegal activity such as conning by selling fake products, then the investigator will get the facts about the cell phone owner. Again, if the money sent or received is from or to a wanted or a criminal, then the investigator gains true information from such incidences (Carter & Carter, 2016).
In conclusion, cell phone data can give a lot of information to the investigator about the cell phone owner, who can then simplify the investigation process. Emails have got texts, google drive, and cloud save which disclose a lot concerning the case investigated or the cell phone owner. Texts flow and format can assist the investigator in knowing the cell phone owner’s personality. The types of videos watched on the internet can also reveal more about someone; for example, someone prone to watching or researching robbery information can be presumed to be a potential robber in the future or planning to be one. Through the usage of Google Maps, the investigator can know the places visited, including crime scenes. Transactions done through the cell phone can reveal the kind of activities the person deals in and to which people, which can help an investigator in finding the truth about a given case.
References
Cahyani, N. D. W., Ab Rahman, N. H., Glisson, W. B., & Choo, K. K. R. (2017). The role of mobile forensics in terrorism investigations involving the use of cloud storage service and communication apps. Mobile Networks and Applications, 22(2).
Carter, D. L., & Carter, J. G. (2016). Effective police homicide investigations: Evidence from seven cities with high clearance rates. Homicide Studies, 20(2).
Cellular phones have been introduced to the mass market for more than three decades. Since then, the debates about the negative influence of cell phones on human health, especially associated with the risk of cancer, are ongoing (Inskip, Hoover, and Devesa par. 7). Moreover, the active usage of cell phones is connected with other safety issues such growing level of stress and anxiety, teenager exposure to sexting, bullying, and harassment via electronic devices, along with safety on the road (Klauer et al. par. 3).
However, all these concerns have significant importance for understanding the outcomes of cell phones application; this paper examines the study “Effects of Cell Phone Radiofrequency Signal Exposure on Brain Glucose Metabolism” by Volkow, Tomasi, Wang, et al. Although the results of the study demonstrate particular changes in the human brain connected to the working mobile devices, the investigators cannot claim the existence of negative outcomes associated with this changes.
Before the analysis of the article, the recent research sets the context of the problem through the short overview of the Danish Study, Dr. George Carlo’s response to the Danish Study, and Devra Davis findings reflected in her book “Disconnect: The Truth About Cell Phone Radiation, What the Industry Has Done to Hide It, and How to Protect Your Family.”
The Danish Study
The research conducted by the group of scientists had been held during the seventeen years in Denmark. The study measures the risk of developing tumors of the central neural system, analyzing and comparing the group of people who had a contract with the cell phone service company from 1982 to 1995 with the adults who represent the population of the country up to 2002.
The ratio of the development of the tumor among the members of the group who use mobile devices for more than thirteen years and those who use cell phones for more than a decade is insignificant. Also, the researchers have not detected “dose-response relation either by years since the first subscription for a mobile phone or be the anatomical location of the tumor” (Frei et al. par. 6). Therefore, the authors of the study come to the conclusion that there is no connection between the risk of the development of tumors and the exploitation of cell phones.
Dr. Carlo’s response
First of all, Dr. Carlo states that the researchers who conducted the Danish Study are biased because the mobile phone industry financially supported their work. Thus, the authors of the study did not contemplate the ethical issues behind the manipulations with the process of the research and its results. Then, Dr. Carlo looks over the motives that both the investigators and the industry have. The industry’s interest is associated with safety reasons, which are the basis for worries and anxiety from the customers and regulatory institutions. Therefore the mobile phone sector is ready to finance any research that scientifically justifies the absence of danger for health from cell phones.
The researchers and experts, involved in the study, were striving for the recognition and, connected with it, fundraising for their future research (Carlo par. 2-5).
Cell Phone Radiation
Devra Davis conducted her research about cell phones and evidence of their negative impact on the human brain. She grounds her argumentation in the notion that cell phones are small microwaves radios, which can have an adverse impact on the human brain, especially on the brain of children (Gandhi et al. 48). Davis contemplates the danger of mobile devices since the long-term epidemiological studies of cell phone impacts have not been implemented for more than ten years.
Moreover, she emphasizes the importance of the research that considers the usage of mobile phones in a long-term time-spin with a sample of the population that explores the devices on a daily basis for more than two hours (Disconnect). Kesari et al. raise the question of effects that radiofrequency and electromagnetic fields impose on the human population, “increasing exposure to mobile phone and base station radiations, together with exposure to other sources of non-ionizing radiation is growing concern of possible adverse health effects” (Kesari et al. 187).
Cellular Phones and Glucose Metabolism in Brain
The objective of Volkow et al. research lies in the area of correlation between acute mobile phone exposure and the rate of brain glucose metabolism (BGM), which measures brain activity. Absolute metabolism (AM) (μmol/100 g per minute) and normalized metabolism (NM), which assessed in a particular region or whole brain, constitute BGM (Volkow et al. par 4).
The participants were exposed to the working mode of the cell phones for fifty minutes two times. The first time, only one device was activated. The second attempt involved two phones in a working model. Also, the participants received the fluorodeoxyglucose shots that helped to assess the glucose metabolism in the brain during the tomography procedure when one or two phones were activated.
The findings of the experiment demonstrate that there are no changes in the whole-brain metabolism either when the cell phones were “on” or “off.” However, the regional modifications located near the ears are higher when the mobile devices were activated (Volkow et al. par. 22). Although the findings indicate the differences in brain activity, the authors conclude that the clinical importance of the results is unknown.
Conclusion
There are more things in the surrounding environment which may cause serious problems, yet people are not concerned about them. In any case, cell phones nowadays are an important part of our everyday experience, and it does not seem possible to reject this technology in the nearest future.
Works Cited
Carlo, George. Dr. George Carlo’s Response to the Danish Study. Web.
Disconnect. Devra Devis. 2010. Web.
Frei, Patrizia, et al. “Use of Mobile Phones and Risk of Brain Tumours: Update of Danish Cohort Study.” British Medical Journal 343 (2011). Web.
Gandhi, Om P., et al. “Exposure Limits: The Underestimation of Absorbed Cell Phone Radiation, Especially in Children.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 31.1 (2012): 34-51. Print.
Kesari, Kavindra Kumar, et al. “Cell Phone Radiation Exposure on Brain and Associated Biological Systems.” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 51 (2013). Web.
Over the last two decades, cell phones have become essential in everyday life. However, mobile phone technology is inseparable from exposure to electromagnetic fields, which raised significant health concerns. In particular, active mobile phone users reported headaches, earache, warmth sensations, fatigue, and concentration difficulties (Thomée et al., 2011). Cell phone use can additionally be linked with inadequate night sleep and its negative outcomes. Adolescents and young adults who use mobile phones before bedtime or after lights out may be particularly susceptible to the harmful consequences. Therefore, the significance of this topic is that it can help enhance teenagers’ health, and the purpose of the review is to gather relevant information about the effects of the proposed intervention.
In that regard, the problem lies in listing confirmed adverse health outcomes of night cell phone use and linking them to a potentially helpful intervention of cell phone use restrictions. In this review, “night cell phone use” is defined as using a mobile phone soon before sleep or instead of night sleep. The “negative health outcomes” notion encompasses all confirmed physical and mental conditions potentially caused by night cell phone use. Furthermore, the “population group” is a cohort of individuals affected by night cell phone use. This literature review primarily focuses on the population group of adolescents from 12 to 18 years old. However, evidence from thematically similar studies is considered if effects are consistent across different population groups or if the age difference is insignificant. The following PICO question is considered:
In adolescents from 12 to 18 years old (P), do restrictions in night cell phone use (I), compared with no restrictions of night cell phone use (C), reduce the rate of insomnia (O) in 12 months (T)?
Methods
Eight academic studies have been selected for this literature review. Due to convenience considerations, full bibliographic details of sources are listed in the References section. The search and selection have been conducted via the Google Scholar database. The following inclusion criteria have been applied:
Theme — all articles are related to subjects of cell phone use outcomes and sleep quality in adolescents and young adults;
Study type — only primary studies were included in the review scope;
Date of publishing — only studies published in 2008 or later were included in the final selection;
Source quality — only peer-reviewed articles from academic journals were included in the review scope;
Academic relevance — the final selection included studies with 30 or more citations in scholarly sources.
If the studies were identified as systematic reviews and meta-analysis papers or lacked detailed discussions of results, they were excluded.
Regarding evidence strength, the Elsevier level of evidence criteria was applied to evaluate the credibility of papers included in the scope of review (Elsevier Author Services, n.d.). In total, the seven studies reached Level 2 in the evidence hierarchy, while a seminal work by Thomée et al. (2011) reached Level 1 by virtue of being a high-quality longitudinal prospective cohort study.
Keywords: night cell phone use, negative health outcomes, adolescents, sleep quality, sleep deprivation, insomnia.
Results
In summary, the major findings of the studies point to multiple negative health outcomes associated with night cell phone use. First, Thomée et al. (2011) used a questionnaire as a data collection procedure, aiming to determine “associations between psychosocial aspects of mobile phone use and mental health symptoms in a prospective cohort of young adults” (p. 66). Their research’s major finding was the association between high mobile phone use during the 1-year follow-up period and sleep deprivation, stress, and depression. This finding was later confirmed by Lemola et al. (2015). Their study’s objective was to investigate whether the use of smartphones at night was related to symptoms of depression and sleep disturbance in adolescents. Lemola et al. (2015) used questionnaires as their procedure for data collection, assessing respondents’ sleep duration, sleep difficulties, depressive symptoms, and electronic media use before sleep. Their most significant finding was the association between owning a gadget and increased use of electronic media before bedtime. The latter was also related to the signs of depression and sleep disturbance.
Further, Bruni et al. (2015) conducted a questionnaire-based survey of 850 preadolescents and adolescents, aiming to confirm that the late turning off time of mobile phones led to sleep quality deterioration. They found different negative effects of the use and number of gadgets in the bedroom, late turning off time, and other factors on sleep quality. Next, Amra et al. (2017) used the same procedure for data collection, aiming to “assess the relationship of late-night cell phone use with sleep duration and quality in a sample of Iranian adolescents” (p. 560). According to their findings, this connection is confirmed, and physical activity can reduce the effects of using gadgets before sleep. Further, as noticed by Gamble et al. (2014), who conducted a survey to collect data, using computers and cell phones was associated with sleep schedule disruption and wake lag. Overall, their review confirmed the negative health outcomes of night cell phone use, such as insomnia, depression, and fatigue, which was the purpose of their study.
The major strength of the mentioned articles is that they all proved the connection between the use of gadgets and poor health outcomes, supporting previous research. What is more, they all are quite self-critical as they include well-developed limitations. As for the weaknesses, one may notice that the choice of the data collection procedure might have resulted in biased results. In other words, information received through surveys and questionnaire is often overly subjective. Some studies also had small research samples and short follow-up periods.
Discussion
In summary, the studies analyzed in this review confirmed that night cell phone use leads to sleep deprivation, insomnia, and depression in adolescents and young adults. The academic community agrees that using mobile phones or other electronic devices before sleep is harmful to one’s sleep quality and mental health (Adachi-Mejia et al., 2014; Lemola et al., 2015). Noticeably, the negative effects of night cell phone use remained persistent in young adulthood: Thomée et al. (2011) confirmed an increased prevalence of depressive symptoms in young adults aged between 20 and 24.
Further, Alshobaili and AlYousefi (2019) revealed that young adults who spend more than 60 minutes on night cell phone use had a 7.4-times greater risk of disturbed, poor-quality sleep. In addition, the mobile phone use restriction tested by He et al. (2020) produced significant positive outcomes in individuals using cell phones before sleep. However, answering the PICO question requires additional RCTs tailored specifically to the adolescent population. Furthermore, such RCTs must include at least a one-year-long follow-up period to confirm the positive longitudinal effects of night cell phone use restrictions. In that regard, one can consider the lack of adolescent-focused high-quality RCTs a critical weakness in this research area.
Conclusion
So far, the academic community has confirmed various negative health outcomes stemming from night cell phone use. In particular, adolescents and young adults who use mobile phones soon before sleep are at risk of poor sleep quality, insomnia, and depression. However, the lack of high-quality, large-scope RCTs with adolescent participants makes answering the PICO question challenging. The studies point to a hypothetic positive effect of restrictions as an anti-insomnia intervention in adolescents aged between 12 and 18. While the efficacy of such intervention seems plausible, high-quality RCTs in targeted population groups are necessary to answer the PICO question with full confidence.
The problem of cell phones in public schools generates much criticism. The goal of this paper is to decide whether cell phones should be allowed in Massachusetts high schools. A detailed literature review is performed. The following themes are included: the patterns of cell phone use in public schools; the benefits and drawbacks of using cell phones in class; the Massachusetts cell phone policy; and possible methods to solve the problem.
Use of Cell Phones in Public Schools and Should Cell Phones Be Allowed in Public Schools
The growing pace of technological advancement impacts all spheres of public and private life. The system of public education is not an exception to this rule. Thousands of schoolchildren have cell phones and use them on a daily basis. At the same time, teachers and school administrators devise new strategies to prohibit the use of cell phones in class.
Present-day teachers claim that the use of cell phones in the classroom distracts students from learning (Humble-Thaden, 2011). This is why, in most U.S. public schools, including those in Massachusetts, the use of cell phones is strictly prohibited.
Meanwhile, many other schools and education professionals propose new strategies to turn cell phones into a driver of productive learning. Some teachers even suggest that cell phones could potentially replace computers and reduce inequality in computer access and use across various student groups (Watters, 2012). Still, the problem of cell phone use in public schools continues to persist.
While states enact policies to prohibit the use of cell phones by students, the latter express their indignation with the restrictions placed on their communication freedoms in the classroom. The goal of this paper is to understand the scope of the problem and its impacts on the public school system.
In this paper, the pros and cons of using cell phones in public schools are analyzed. The results of this analysis suggest that the state authorities should allow using cell phones in Massachusetts high schools, since they bring considerable instructional benefits and teach high school students of responsible technology use.
Literature Review
Case Example
The case of James Parker points to the strong and weak sides of cell phone bans in public schools. According to Shah (2013), this case is a result of a simple misunderstanding. However, it has profound implications for all cell phone policies in the U.S. system of education. Two years ago, John was a freshman and studied at O’Bannon High School in Greenville, Mississippi (Shah, 2013). According to the school rules, students were prohibited from using their cell phones on its territory. During one of the breaks, the teacher saw James listening to his friend’s iPod and thought he was using a cell phone (Shah, 2013).
The next day James was asked to visit the assistant principal and had to produce the phone (Shah, 2013). James’s parents said he had never owned one. The student who had loaned his iPod to James during the break also claimed that they had not used cell phones (Shah, 2013).
Still, James had to leave the high school and could not return, until he was able to bring his cell phone with him. He did not have one, and his absence from the school lasted almost two months. Eventually, he had to move to a different school, because the problem was never solved.
The case uncovers the hidden facets of cell phone bans enacted in public schools all over the United States. According to National School Safety and Security Services (2012), the use of cell phones can become a serious detraction from safety, especially at times of crises.
Simultaneously, many cell phones policies enacted by public schools are confusing and complex. The current state of literature provides rich arguments to inform future public practices. This information can help decide whether at all public schools should prohibit the use of cell phones by students.
Cell Phones in Public Schools: Statistics and Trends
Researchers and journalists in the field of education provide overwhelming statistics of cell phone ownership and use by public school students. Overall, the trends in cell phone usage reflect the common tendencies in technology use in other fields and industry sectors.
Today, being a cell phone owner is more of a necessity than a luxury. Aoki and Downes (2003) write that wireless communication technologies have become commonplace. In 2003, the number of cell phone subscribers increased by 50% compared with 2002 (Aoki & Downes, 2003). The same year, 34% of 16-22-year-olds and 28% of 10-19-year-olds were claimed to have a cell phone (Aoki & Downes, 2003).
Obringer and Coffey (2007) provide a different set of statistical data: in 2004, 58 percent of 6-12 graders had a cell phone, and 68 percent of students brought their cell phones to school on a daily basis. Maddox (2012) refers to this statistical information and provides an update: in 2009, 98% of high school students reported having a cell phone.
“Notably, 83% of middle-school students, 46% of students in grades 3 through 5, and 32% of students in Kindergarten through grade 2 also reported having access to cell phones in 2009” (Maddox, 2012, p.262). Not surprisingly, Humble-Thaden (2011) calls today’s students “Digital Natives”, because they cannot imagine themselves without technologies and develop remarkable information processing capabilities.
Kennedy (2013) cites the results of the Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project survey. According to Kennedy (2013), 73 percent of teachers confess that their students use cell phones as a tool of progressive education and learning.
In other words, students use their cell phones as a learning device, as they are working on their assignments. 44 percent of teachers say that their students use cell phones as a source of learning information, while 38 percent claim that their students use cell phones to record videos and make photographs for their home assignments (Kennedy, 2013). It seems that cell phones are particularly useful in the learning process, but they keep generating numerous educational concerns.
Statistically, 71 percent of students use their cell phones to send text messages in class (Earl, 2012). In schools where students can have cell phones with them but cannot use them during lessons, 65 percent of students receive or send text messages (Earl, 2012). Even in the presence of total bans on cell phones, 58% of students keep using them in class (Earl, 2012). Public schools cannot catch up with the technologies that have become pervasive, and even total ban policies do not work.
Educators’ Perceptions of Cell Phone Use in High Schools
The use of cell phones in public schools is a two-edged sword. On the one hand, educators and school administrators express the growing concern over the use of cell phones in schools. School administrators cite the following reasons why cell phones should not be used in the classroom: (1) they distract students from the learning process; (2) they favor and facilitate cheating during quizzes and exams; (3) they encourage cyber bullying among students; (4) students may use their cell phones to call in bomb threats; (5) cell phones have a calculator, which can be used during math tests; (6) they can even make it difficult for other students and teachers to use phone lines during emergencies (Obringer & Coffey, 2007).
21 percent of students who have cell phones and bring them to school have photo and video options, which can be used to picture quizzes and exams and then disseminate this information among classmates (Obringer & Coffey, 2007). Earl (2012) supports these claims and states that most educators perceive cell phones as a serious distraction from learning.
On the other hand, educators do not set a positive example of appropriate cell phone use in public schools. Getting back to Obringer and Coffey (2007), teachers were found to use their cell phones at school to solve non-school related problems, and while students were penalized for using their cell phones in the classroom, no disciplinary actions were applied to teachers (Obringer & Coffey, 2007).
Teachers keep using their cell phones at school and apply to various disciplinary actions, when they see that their students use cell phones in class. These actions can range from a simple note to confiscation (Obringer & Coffey, 2007). As a result, it seems that high schools promote the climate of unfairness in everything that comes to cell phone use. Still, cell phones do pose a number of problems, which public schools constantly try to eliminate.
Cell Phones in Public Schools: A Major Problem?
Cell phones by themselves are not problematic; it is the way they are used that pose a threat to the stability of the learning environment in Massachusetts high schools. Thousands of students use cell phones to solve their school- and non-school-related problems. Today, many schools allow their students to use their cell phones for safety considerations (Earl, 2012). At the same time, educators are becoming more concerned about the growing number of cell phones in the classroom.
One of the main reasons why cell phones should be banned in Massachusetts high schools is because they distract students from the learning process. Barack (2013) cites the results of a recent survey that covered 591 students from several high schools. 95 percent of the participating students were found to have used their cell phones regularly during classroom lessons (Barack, 2013).
They sent emails and text messages, while being in the classroom. 94 percent of students confessed that they had used their cell phones to download and upload their content to various social media sites, including Facebook (Barack, 2013). These results create a sobering reality in the public school system, where cell phones have a huge potential to disrupt the learning process.
Disruptions in the learning environment. National School Safety and Security Services (2012) lists several essential reasons why cell phones should not be used in class. First, and in line with Earl (2012), cell phones exemplify the source of real disruptions in the school environment (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012).
Such disruptions may take many forms, from the simple ringing of a cell phone in the classroom to the text messages that are used by students to cheat during tests and exams. As mentioned earlier, modern cell phones are extremely sophisticated and can be used by students for a variety of purposes, such as taking pictures of girls and boys who are changing their clothes in gym locker areas (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012).
Disruptions in emergency response. Second, those who claim that cell phones should be used in public schools to increase safety also forget that it is cell phones that can make the school’s response during emergencies less effective.
It has become quite popular among students to call in bomb threats, and when such calls are made from a cell phone, tracing the threat is almost impossible (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012). Moreover, in the moments of crises, schools need to keep their telephone lines free to make emergency calls.
However, when hundreds of students use their cell phones in emergency situations, the risks of overloading the cell phone network become very real. A child who calls his (her) parents to inform about emergencies is likely to generate panic and unreasonable decisions, while school authorities may want everyone to stay calm and act wisely (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012). Apparently, having a cell phone in public school is not the best way to deal with emergencies.
Bullying and rumors. National School Safety and Security Services (2012) also suggests that the use of cell phones in high schools greatly contributes to fear, rumors, and even bullying. These assumptions are also supported by Mayers and Desiderio (2013). Mayers and Desiderio (2013) speak about sexting – “the practice of sending or posting sexually suggestive text messages and images, including nude or semi-nude photographs, via cellular phones or over the Internet” (p.1).
Sexting is a relatively new phenomenon, but it poses a serious threat to the stability and security in public schools. In a high school in Texas, a fifteen-year-old girl sent her nude picture to her eighteen-year-old senior boyfriend; in a few minutes, the picture was circulating throughout the school (Mayers & Desiderio, 2013).
Students were giggling; classroom disruptions were frequent and unpreventable; and teachers could not provide any relevant guidance to resolve the cell phone dilemma (Mayers & Desiderio, 2013). At present, public schools have no adequate policies to address and prevent sexting (Mayers & Desiderio, 2013). As a result, placing a ban on the use of cell phones in public schools sounds like the most reasonable solution to the sexting problem.
More schools develop policies to govern the use of cell phones in the classroom. In Massachusetts, most high schools have totally banned the use of cell phones in class. Disciplinary actions included in such policies vary from immediate confiscation and retention for a period of time to a short-term suspension of the student (Maddox, 2012). In some cases, schools can retain the confiscated cell phone for up to 30 days (Maddox, 2012).
Very often, the confiscated cell phone is returned to parents, but only after the retention period is over (Maddox, 2012). Many parents and students tried to dispute the cell phone policies adopted by public schools. The past years witnessed a number of lawsuits filed by parents in the pursuit of their due process rights. In almost all those cases, courts found public school cell phone policies to be constitutional (Maddox, 2012).
Massachusetts Public School Cell Phone Policy
The Massachusetts school cell phone policy is one of the most notable examples of a cell phone ban. In Chicopee High School, Chicopee Academy, and Comprehensive High School, a policy was enacted to ban cell phones entirely and for everyone, without exceptions (DeForge, 2012). Massachusetts schools justify their policy step by the need to avoid classroom disruptions and cheating during tests and exams (DeForge, 2012).
According to Humble-Thaden (2011), most parents support the cell phone policies enforced by schools. However, many students confess that they keep carrying their phones with them and even use them during classroom lessons (DeForge, 2012). Members of the student council are confident that the ban on cell phones is more disruptive to the school environment than the policy that would allow students to use their phones freely (DeForge, 2012).
The main argument against the existing policy is that students will continue using their phones at school, but they will have to hide them under the desk or behind their books (DeForge, 2012). These actions will certainly distract them from the classroom processes. What students propose is to allow using their cell phones during breaks and lunchtime. At Southeastern, students are allowed to use their cell phones during passing times and in common areas (Wheeler, 2012).
Teachers provide education to teach their students appropriate use of cell phones and similar handheld devices (Wheeler, 2012). It is wise to let teachers decide whether or not cell phones can be used during their high school classes (Wheeler, 2012). Cell phones do not pose any problem, when they are used appropriately and according to the high school policy.
Why Cell Phones Are Needed in Massachusetts High Schools
Despite the growing concern over the use of cell phones in public schools, they have a number of positive sides. Modern researchers agree that cell phones could become a convenient element of the instructional and learning processes in public schools. Across the nation, teachers integrate cell phones into students’ learning experiences (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012). The impact of technologies on students is huge, and public school educators need to ensure that this impact is positive and benefits the learning process.
Students have become technology-savvy. 95 percent of school teachers say that their students carry out their research practices online (Kennedy, 2013). 79 percent of high school students use their cell phones to access online assignments, while 39 percent of students actively participate in online discussions (Kennedy, 2013). For many teachers, cell phones have already become part of their curriculum strategies and, when used reasonably and appropriately, cell phones can be of major advantage to students.
Igoe, Parisi and Carter (2013) speak about smartphone applications that deliver new knowledge to students. These applications enable students to develop the skills and knowledge required within the limits of the national middle-school curriculum (Igoe et al., 2013). Watters (2012) goes even further and suggests that cell phones have the potential to reduce technology inequities in schools and across households.
The argument is quite simple: today, only 48 percent of low-income families own a computer, compared to almost 91 percent of affluent families (Watters, 2012). At the same time, even those students who do not have a home computer are likely to have a cell phone (Watters, 2012). It is through cell phones that teachers in high schools can guarantee fair and equitable access to learning materials for each student (Watters, 2012).
These assumptions shape the basis for the development of the so-called “Bring Your Own Device – BYOD” policies. These policies have recently become an extremely popular object of professional discussions. High school teachers do not know whether all students have equal access to hardware and software at home (Stephens & Fanning, 2013). BYOD policies can help students reduce the social and information processing gaps and improve their learning results.
At times, cell phones can be used to assist students with learning disabilities in their striving to improve academic results. Bedesem (2012) proposed using cell phones as an instructional and educational technology to help students with learning disabilities self-monitor their performance in the classroom.
Bedesem (2012) relies on the previous research that confirms the value of self-monitoring to address inattentiveness, hyperactivity, lack of focus, and poor social skills. In this context, the cell phone plays the roles of both a cueing device and a recording device (Bedesem, 2012). The student can use headphones to hear the cues delivered through the cell phone, while also recording his (her) reactions and observations during the learning process.
Solving the Problem of Cell Phones in Massachusetts High Schools
Given the complexity of the problem, researchers provide various suggestions to solve it. These solutions can be divided into two broad categories: enforcing effective policies and teaching students of the principles of responsible use. National School Safety and Security Services (2012) recommends developing and implementing comprehensive cell phone policies that will also reflect the latest demands for technology use.
If leaders and administrators choose to ban cell phones in their schools, this decision should be accepted and followed by everyone. Charles (2012) notes that many teachers exercise increased leniency, whenever they see that students use their cell phones during lunchtime. At the same time, many teachers find it appropriate to use personal cell phones despite the total ban implemented in schools (Obringer & Coffey, 2007). Thus, the consistency of policy enforcement matters, when it comes to cell phones.
Researchers also recommend providing students with greater freedom and letting them exercise the benefits of responsible cell phone use. A recent editorial published in Educational Leadership provides principals’ opinions on the use of cell phones in public schools. They agree that cell phones should be decriminalized, and students should learn the basics of cell phone etiquette (Anonymous, 2011). School administrators can allow students to use their cell phones, if the latter are kept out of sight and out of mind (Anonymous, 2011).
Students need to have advanced knowledge of how their cell phones work and how they can benefit them during the learning process (Engel & Green, 2011). This aspect is particularly important for the teachers, who use cell phones as an instructional method. However, none of these approaches will be effective without parental involvement. Parents must be fully informed about the way their children use cell phones at school and support reasonable use of cell phones in the learning process.
Discussion
Apparently, the problem of cell phones in Massachusetts high schools is not simple. Researchers pay attention to the benefits and drawbacks of cell phone use in public schools. School leaders and administrators develop and implement complex policies. In most cases, these policies impose a total ban on cell phone use on the school territory.
This is exactly what happened in Massachusetts – the recently enforced cell phone policy generates abundant criticism on the side of students and their parents (DeForge, 2012). Students make repeated attempts to lift the ban on cell phones, but these attempts have been mostly unsuccessful.
The problem of cell phone use in Massachusetts high schools is complicated, mostly because cell phones have become too ubiquitous. Students are much more likely to have a cell phone than a home computer (Watters, 2012).
According to Regan (2010), 90 percent of high school students at Haverhill bring their phones with them and use them to send messages, take photos, make videos, and communicate with their peers. Apart from being an effective means of communication and socializing, it also has the potential to become a relevant instructional and learning tool (Stephens & Fanning, 2013; Watters, 2012).
More schools come to implement the so-called BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) policies, in order to reduce the existing inequities and create a uniform classroom environment (Stephens & Fanning, 2013; Watters, 2012). In the meantime, students use their cell phones to carry out their research and learning practices online. A cell phone is no longer a call-making instrument; rather, it is a complex computer with sophisticated functions. Cell phones should not be banned in public schools, because they bring much more benefits than problems.
Certainly, the fact that cell phones can become a problem for public schools should not be ignored. “Haverhill and Methuen require that high school students keep their cell phones off and out of sight for the entire school day” (Regan, 2010). High schools at North Andover and Andover allow using cell phones only during the time of lunch (Regan, 2010).
Researchers often mention the factor of distraction: school administrators believe that cell phones disrupt the learning atmosphere in the classroom and distract students from their primary learning tasks (Earl, 2012; National School Safety and Security Service, 2012; Obringer & Coffey, 2007). However, even the best policies that ban cell phones in public schools do not eliminate these concerns.
According to DeForge (2012), most students in Massachusetts’ public schools keep using their cell phones, but they have to hide them under their desks or behind their books. Meanwhile teachers keep seizing them from students (Regan, 2010). More than 400 cell phones were seized by high school teachers in Haverhill in 2010 (Regan, 2010). This creates a more disruptive atmosphere than when the use of cell phones is legitimized.
Teachers and school principals should remember that the modern generation of students is extremely technology-savvy. They are native to many digital technologies and will never give them up (Humble-Thaden, 2011). It is much more effective to provide students with an opportunity to use their cell phones during lunchtime, while also teaching them of how their cell phones could improve their learning results.
The problem is not with cell phones but with the consistency of the cell phone policies that are being enforced in public schools. Schools must ensure that everyone, from students in grades 1-2 to teachers and administrators, complies with the policy requirements. Today, many teachers find it appropriate to use their cell phones in school, while children are not allowed to do it (Obringer & Coffey, 2007).
Another mistake made by schools is that they fail to communicate the message of their cell phone policies to students and parents (National School Safety and Security Services, 2012). Students and parents are not given any voice, when these policies are being developed and implemented (Engel & Green, 2011).
Placing a total ban on cell phones is a sign of public schools’ reluctance to apply an effort and teach their students of the benefits and principles of reasonable use. Children, parents, and school administrators should finally come together and develop a policy that will allow students using their cell phones in the school territory but within the limits that do not disrupt the learning process.
Conclusion
Cell phones generate one of the most pervasive problems in the national school system. Many high schools in Massachusetts prohibit the use of cell phones on their territory. By contrast, students argue that such policies violate their fundamental rights. Definitely, cell phones can be equally advantageous and damaging to schools and students. They have the potential to become an effective element of curriculums and instructional decisions, but the dangers of unreasonable use should not be underscored.
Still, students should be allowed to use their cell phones in Massachusetts high schools, since they bring considerable instructional benefits and teach high school students of responsible technology use. Today, teachers and school administrators need to understand that students will keep using their cell phones against all odds. Even total ban policies in Massachusetts high schools will be ineffective. Teachers should provide students with better knowledge of how their cell phones can be used reasonably and productively.
Students should be allowed to use their cell phones, while they are having a lunch. Students should have access to their cell phones, because they help teachers reduce inequities in information processing and computer use. Parents, students, and high school administrators need to come together to develop effective policies that will let students use their cell phones in public schools, while also reducing the risks of learning disruptions.
References
Anonymous. (2011). Among colleagues: Should we allow students to use their cell phones in school? Educational Leadership, 96.
Aoki, K. & Downes, E. J. (2003). An analysis of young people’s use of and attitudes toward cell phones. Telematics and Informatics, 20, 349-364.
Barack, L. (2013). High school students use cell phones in class – but not for schoolwork, says study. The Digital Shift. Web.
Bedesem, P. L. (2012). Using cell phone technology for self-monitoring: Procedures in inclusive settings. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27(4), 33-46.
Charles, A. S. (2012). Cell phones: Rule-setting, rule-breaking, and relationships in classrooms. American Secondary Education, 40(3), 4-16.
DeForge, J. (2012). Chicopee students request change in school cell phone policy. The Republican Massachusetts. Web.
Earl, R. (2012). Do cell phones belong in the classroom? The Atlantic. Web.
Engel, G. & Green, T. (2011). Are we dialing up disaster? TechTrends, 55(2), 39-45.
Humble-Thaden, B. M. (2011). Student reflective perceptions of high school educational cell phone technology use. Journal of Technology Studies, 37(1), 10-16.
Igoe, D., Parisi, A. & Carter, B. (2013). Smartphones as tools for delivering sun – smart education to students. Teaching Science, 59(1), 36-38.
Kennedy, M. (2013). Today’s learning spaces: Advances in classroom tools come quickly, so schools and universities must make sure their facilities are flexible and welcoming to change. American School & University, 30-32.
Maddox, N. T. (2012). Silencing students’ cell phones beyond the schoolhouse gate: Do public schools’ cell phone confiscation and retention policies violate parents’ due process rights? Journal of Law & Education, 41, 261-269.
Mayers, R. S. & Desiderio, M. F. (2013). Not LOL: Legal issues encountered during one high school’s response to sexting. B.Y.U. Education & Law Journal, 1, 1- 20.
National School Safety and Security Services. (2012). Cell phones and text messaging in schools. National School Safety and Security Services. Web.
Obringer, S. J. & Coffey, K. (2007). Cell phones in American high schools: A national survey. Journal of Technology Studies, 33(1), 41-47.
Regan, S. (2010). Seized cell phones seized from Haverhill high students. Eagle Tribune. Web.
Shah, N. (2013). Disciplinary spiral over cellphone leads to months of lost schooling. Education Week, 6-7.
Stephens, W. & Fanning, S. (2013). Bring your own excitement. Library Media Connection, 12-13.
Watters, A. (2012). To have and have not: When it comes to the latest technology, some schools are more equal than others. School Library Journal, 34-37.
Wheeler, D. W. (2012). Principal: Cell phones have place in school. Enterprise News. Web.
An oligopoly is a market type in which an industry is controlled by a small number of sellers / firms and their products are either homogeneous or are differentiated (Riley, 2006). Market participants usually predict the actions of the competitor. Cell phone industry is a good example of an oligopolistic market structures since the number of organizations serving the industry is small.
The industry is dominated by organizations such as Nextel/Sprint and Verizon among others. Existence of oligopolistic markets structures exists in markets where there are large initial capital requirements, scarcity of growth opportunities and due to government regulations.
The paper will focus on the nature of oligopoly market in cell phone industry. Essentially, it brings forth how firms in the industry compete, how prices are determined, effects of demand elasticity on competition, and the application of the game theory. In addition, the essay discusses the equilibrium point of maximizing profits, advantages and disadvantages of the market structure.
Oligopoly competition
Oligopoly market structures are characterized by few large suppliers, the products are differentiated or homogeneous and the firm in the industry is driven by self-interest to set prices and output levels to maximize profits. Cell phone industry is of kind where products offered by the players are homogeneous and the competition is judged by the price determination.
According to Thomas & Charles (2007), the decisions of one company influence the decisions of competitors and also decisions of competitors influence decisions of a company. Generally competition in the industry takes three forms. These are;
Free competition and one company become a price leader
Larger firms becomes price setters and /leaders while smaller ones become the price-taker.
Cartel system exists where firms collude to agree on prices to surpass stiff competition.
Generally, the ability of the firm to dominate the market and have probability of control is determined by the economies of scale. This implies that organizations that take advantage of economies of scale in the oligopolistic markets will set lower prices and produce larger quantities becoming cost and price leaders (Thomas & Charles, 2007).
Conversely, two or more firms in the industry might collude to lessen the level of competition by forming cartels. In this case, small firms will be denied entry and if exist remain as price takers. Typical case in the cell industry is where dominant firm such as Verizon takes lead in making prices and impacts the price decisions on the small firms thus becoming price leader.
Oligopoly price determination
If an industry is composed of few cell phone firms each selling identical or homogenous products and having powerful influence on the total market, the price and output program of each is likely to affect the other significantly. This will consequently promote collusion ending to industry cartels.
In case there is product differentiation, an oligopolistic firm can raise or lower prices without any fear of losing customers or immediate reactions from his rivals (Thomas & Charles, 2007). However, intense competition among them may build up a condition of monopolistic competition. For an individual company in oligopolistic competition, prices are determined as illustrated by the following graph.
MC is the marginal costs; MR is the marginal revenues, while AC is the average costs. From the graph, profits are maximized when the marginal cost equals marginal revenues a point noted as equilibrium point (Anon, 2006). The industry faces two demand curves that are normal demand curve and marginal revenue curve that also act as a demand curve. At low prices, the firm faces fairly inelastic market demand.
The two market demand curves produce point p which is the firms’ price and maximum revenue point. Therefore, the market demand curve that the oligopolistic structures actually face is the kinked-demand curve (Anon, 2006). From the graph the kinked demand curve can be noted by points BCQ. Oligopolistic prices are determined where marginal costs intersect with marginal revenue curve.
Demand elasticity in oligopolistic markets
Oligopolistic markets demand curve are mostly kinked as indicated by the above graph. If for instance, one company increases its price above the equilibrium price p, it is assumed that the other firms in the industry will change their prices to affect the market price dynamism.
Alternatively, if one firm change prices and it assumes the role of price leadership other companies will be price takers (Riley, 2006). Ideally, the effect of price leadership and being price taker is caused by the kinked demand curve. In this case, firms will never change their prices in the short run since a small change may make companies loss customers.
Normally, firms in the industry assume price increases, as a strategy to achieve larger market share with lower prices advantages. Moreover, the elasticity will create small gain of customers if prices are largely decreased. This will consequently result into a price war among firms or industry developing cartels. In such case, in the long run new entrants will often enter the industry.
Game theory in oligopolistic markets
Shah, nd, indicates that game theory exists in oligopolistic structures and refers to approaches to gain a competitive position in terms of moves and counter interchanges. The strategic approach takes three elements that include firms, strategies and payoffs.
Cell phone industry is common example where game theory exists. Organizations such as Verizon and Sprint acts as players, their decisions on pricing and promotions act as strategies while the payoffs are profits or losses they make from such strategic moves.
Essentially, firms in the cellphone industry which is oligopolistic market will choose strategies with better payoffs which will further contribute to competitive advantage in the market (Shah, nd).
Profit maximization in oligopolistic structures
In an oligopoly market, the profit in firm is maximized at a point where marginal revenue curves intersect marginal costs curve. Oligopoly marginal revenue is also a demand curve, and the point where average costs and the demand curve meet determine the maximum profits.
According to Riley (2006), “kinked demand curve model predicts periods of relative price stability under an oligopoly with businesses focusing on non-price competition as a means of reinforcing their market position and increasing their supernormal profits”. Therefore, profits are maximized at an industry level while firms enjoy suboptimal equilibrium.
Oligopolistic markets benefits and disadvantages
Oligopolistic structures present a number of benefits and disadvantages to consumers. These are;
Benefits
Better quality of products and lower costs.
Extended services to customers since firms fight to retain customers at all costs.
High innovativeness and creativity on new products.
Discounts and promotions are largely utilized by competition thus consumers get all the information regarding certain products.
The contractual contacts usually exist between customers and producers.
Disadvantages
Oligopolistic competition in most cases leads to collusion of firms to form cartels which erodes the participation of consumers in [prices determination
The structure provide a platform of competition where prices a nd production is volatile. Prices are lowered and raised affecting buyer’s rationality.
Alliance of various firms to form cartels further brings about stabilization of unsteady markets which is a disadvantage to the economy.
Popular culture is the sum of a society’s actions, beliefs, traditions, and other such similar engagements that define a given society and its people. Although sometimes is described as an expression of the people occupying the lower classes of a society, as opposed to those occupying the higher classes, popular culture effectively encompasses a society’s wholesome activities and expressions.
Since the turn of the 21st century, the use of cell phones has increased tremendously all over the world, and more specifically in the United States. Unfortunately, the use of the cell phone while driving has also increased, posing a danger both for the driver and other road users.
Currently, the use of cell phones for reading or writing text messages while driving causes a significant number of road accidents in the US, leaving victims emotionally traumatised, maimed and even dead. Insurance claims arising, and healthcare needs for these victims puts unnecessary and avoidable strain on the economy. Currently, nearly half of the states in the US have passed laws, or are in the process of passing laws declaring the act of texting while driving illegal, with fines and jail terms of various degrees for the offenders.
The theory of progressive evolution states that popular culture is an expression of inherent and intrinsic activities of a society. Accordingly, the act of cell phone texting while driving – however dangerous – would be an expression of an aspect of the American lifestyle, a part of its intrinsic identity. Indeed, many of the culprits of this dangerous practice are teens and the youth, ordinarily the most ardent expressers of popular culture in a society. Adults, too, use their cell phones while driving, but to a comparatively lesser degree.
Another theory of popular culture that expresses the act of texting while driving is the theory of the culture industry, where consumer needs for gadgets such as the cell phone is the principal contributing factor of the high presence of cell phone amongst Americans, with its use in texting while driving being a logical consequence. The cell phone, according to this theory, is portrayed as a must have communication tool, leading many Americans to acquire it.
Heroes in American society are highly regarded and respected. In the American society, heroes belong to both the past and present times, and are given near mythical attributes (Browne, 2005, p.35). American heroes include former presidents such as Washington and Lincoln, or adventurists such as Charles Lindbergh. Celebrities are more numerous and easily identifiable in today’s celebrity-obsessed American popular culture.
Oprah Winfrey is one such celebrity, and her fame and philanthropic deeds make her a veritable American heroin. Oprah has been the face of the campaign to stop the practice of texting while driving. Because celebrities command a large following, and their followers tend to respect their word, the campaign by American celebrity and heroin, Oprah Winfrey, and other like-minded celebrities has the greatest potential of stopping the practice, especially amongst teens for whom such celebrities are highly adored and respected.
Therefore, by understanding the concept of popular culture, and subsequently applying the two popular culture theories to the topic of texting while driving, the concept of heroes and the cult of celebrities ties into the entire thread when the influence of these celebrities and heroes in curbing the practice of texting while driving is applied.
The insight of applying the influence of heroes and celebrities in positively changing one negative aspect of American popular culture (texting while driving) is attained through the application of the two theories of popular culture.
Reference
Browne, R. B. (Ed.). (2005). Profiles of Popular Culture: A Reader. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
Marketing cell phone requires multi-generational marketing strategies. Williams and Page (n.d.) state that each generation has unique tastes, preferences and history. Consequently, companies must reach out to these age-groups in order to convince them to buy their products.
Multi-generational marketing, thus, takes place when a business caters for unique needs and conducts of more than one generation (Williams & Page, n.d.). For a business to succeed in the US, its marketing plan must take into account Baby Boomers, Generation X and other age brackets.
On top, each generation calls for a different marketing strategy. This helps in creating relationships, trust and business opportunities. Cell phone manufacturers are now taking advantage of the exploding market of the aging Baby Boomers. For that reason, a market for cell phones magnifiers exists since a sizeable portion of the aging population is visually impaired. This essay provides an insight into the cell phone magnifier market.
Luecke (2006) reiterates that mass marketing has stalled due to intense competition and an increase in the number of customers with unique demands. As a result, producers have been forced to differentiate products as way of satisfying various tastes and preferences. Many producers are now focusing on the distinctive needs of smaller groups of customers. These groups are known as market segments (Luecke, 2006). Market segmentation entails employing different marketing strategies to diverse groups of people.
Cell phone magnifiers are meant to cater for the needs of a special segment of the mobile phone users. More specifically, this product is aims at helping the visually impaired, across all generations, to use their mobile phones with ease. Magnifiers enable phones to produce bigger fonts with more contrast. As a result, it is easier for the visually impaired to use phones. The Jitterbug models, designed for the old, are typical examples of phones with screen magnifiers (Squidoo, n.d.).
Statistics on vision impairment tend to favor production of cell phone magnifiers. Therefore, there is a market for these gadgets. Recent projections indicate that there are around 7.9 million people who are not able to see words or letters in a newspaper properly across the US (Leonard & Gordon, 2002). Worse is the fact that this problem persists even when these individuals are wearing glasses or contact lenses.
Leonard and Gordon (2002) add that an estimated 8.3 million people are totally blind or use one eye. Additionally, majority of middle-aged and older people with eyesight problems are partially blind. This is the group that struggles to use mobile phones. Accordingly, cell phone magnifiers are designed to help this population use mobile phones without any hiccups. For that reason, the Baby Boomers population is one of the market niches targeted by this product.
Although, the oldest Baby Boomers are around seventy years, corporate America is not ignoring this group of consumers. This generation is said be in the league of big spenders. Baby Boomers triggered an increase in the price of diapers in the 1960s. Furthermore, this cohort provided the largest market for power suits in the 1980s (Bryon, 2013). In the 2000s, the same age band spent huge amounts of cash on luxurious cars.
In view of that, cell phone magnifiers have a ready and willing market. Just like other companies, mobile phone companies must change product designs to accommodate this aging generation. Baby boomers do not like to be reminded that they are old (Bryon, 2013). Helping them own a mobile phone is, hence, one of the methods through which they can be made to feel young again.
The prevalence of self-reported visual impairment among people aged below forty five years is 1.7% (Leonard & Gordon, 2002). In the United States alone, this represents a population of three million people. This information indicates that eyesight problems cut across all age groups.
Additionally, the market of cell phone magnifiers can be sustained by other generation if the aging population reduces. Instances of future declines in the market of these gadgets are, hence, minimal. According to Squidoo (n.d.), a magnifier enlarges a phone’s content by 200% by slipping over a phone’s screen. Therefore, these phones can be converted to normal cell phones by removing the magnifier if their market declines drastically.
Cell phone magnifiers employ a simple technology to magnify the contents of a mobile phone. They are, hence, a new and innovative product for people with vision problems. Moreover, cell phone magnifiers companies and market strategists must focus on the aging population as it is associated with eyesight problems. “The prevalence of self-reported vision impairment increases with age” (Leonard & Gordon, 2002).
Furthermore, 21% of people aged sixty five years and over are visually impaired. According to Squidoo (n.d.), the oldest Baby Boomer is just below 70 years. For that reason, this technology targets this generation. Since Baby Boomers are big spenders, this industry can be sustained. Nonetheless, visual impairment cuts across all ages. Consequently, cell phone magnifiers’ market will not be under any serious threat if the aging population declines.
Negotiation is a skill of bringing people together who have differences into a common platform where they can solve their disagreements. There are many dynamics especially in business negations which prevent people from coming to an agreement. These dynamics may include cultural differences, difference of gender, culture, perception, cognition and emotional differences.
This paper therefore tries to analyze an all male and an all female negotiating teams which have cultural dimensions. On one hand the all male negotiating team seeks to buy a cell phone at $6 per unit while the all female negotiating team seeks to offer the cell phone with a $9 per unit. The main objective of this paper is to emphasize on the potential influence on cell phone price negotiations between Chinese and American negotiation.
Cultural Difference
When negotiating the two parties it is important to engage a third party intervention. This is due to the cultural difference between the Chinese and the Americans. Some of the benefits of having a third party intervention are to create an enhancing environment and a platform of communication between the two parties. This helps to reestablish communication between people of different cultural beliefs.
Secondly, most of the time will be used on substantive means such as negotiating for a minimum price of the cell phone which will be satisfactory to every individual (Lewicki, et al, 2010). Moreover of there is any imminent conflict between the two cultures it can also be solved by a negotiator through engaging of the conflict resolution skills.
There are some of the factors that should be considered when engaging a third party intervention in a cultural based negotiation process. To begin with, a Chinese and an American cannot conduct any form of transaction due the difference in their language. This creates a barrier of negotiation and therefore makes the negotiation process difficult to be conducted (Pienaar & Spoelstra, 1999).
Evaluation of data is also another problem which requires intervention from a third party. This is due to the reason that all the parties have different figures in which they have to negotiate in order to come up to an agreement. Furthermore a third party may also be used in the case where there is no procedural or protocol for selling and buying of the cell phones between the two parties.
In cases when their cultural dimensions consist of low power distance and high power distance a third party mediator may be used. In addition, autocracy may be used between parties with low term orientation and long term orientation.
However, arbitration method may be employed between a low contest negotiation and a high contest negotiation (Lewicki et al, 2010). Arbitration helps to encourage distributive bargaining more than any other form of third party involvement. Therefore most of the business people from diverse cultures should engage themselves in arbitration so as to increase the chances of an agreement.
Personality
Due differences which maybe brought about by negative response to some individuals, it may become difficult for the negotiation to take place without any form of conflict. Some of the conflicts may lead to an impasse, a situation where it is very difficult to reach consent. Some of the factors which lead to an impasse include divisiveness of the parties entering into a contract (Pienaar & Spoelstra, 1999).
The intensity of emotions may also increase thus leading to the formation of a conflict which may make it difficult to reach into an agreement. Moreover, the conflict may be so perverse especially to individuals who do not belong to the same culture.
The case at hand involves two divergent cultures, the American culture and the Chinese. One party may feel that they have been overpowered by the other party thus leading to conflicts of interest which may arise. Moreover, there is one of the characteristics which increase the probability of an impasse in a negotiation and they include lack of organization and structure which can help in formation of connectivity (Lewicki et al, 2010).
This should be resolved through arbitration from trusted individuals. Additionally, the conflict may also escalate due to the difference in fundamental values which may hinder any form of negotiation process. A consensus should be reached to ensure that each of the parties has been in agreement with each other.
Gender Difference
There are many dynamics which are brought about by differences in gender which can prevent a contract or an agreement from being entered. Gender difference can also lead to an impasse which is caused by lacking of reaching a consensus in regard to bargaining range (Pienaar & Spoelstra, 1999).
This can lead to a dispute which is caused by lack of agreeing to a common cost. There is also a possibility for the Chinese women to fail to enter into a negotiation with the men because they may feel that the price in which they are offering is discriminative thus blocking negotiations from taking place. When it comes to gender, the development of social identity within a particular gender may prevent any form of negotiation.
Perception, Cognition and Emotion
An individual with a negative emotion concerning another individual can also prevent a normal negotiation from taking place. This is because it is considered that one person perceives the other person as an individual who is more powerful thus creating unnecessary biasness.
A cognitive resolution is thus imminent to help the two parties to solve their problems. This helps to change the negative emotions into positive attributes which can lead to a negotiation (Lewicki et al, 2010). Another problem with doing business with people of different backgrounds is the belief that one particular gender contains a coercive power which might prevent the other from doing business.
This is because of the tendency created by women who feel that they are weak and may be extreme and biased to the men to the point that it might prevent negotiation from taking place. An adjustment from a third party is therefore required to increase the level of willingness to conduct business.
In conclusion, in order for the two parties to reach into a negotiation, they should solve factors which might cause conflicts and disagreements thus preventing a good environment for business. Some of the common issues which lead to conflicts such as personality differences, cultural differences, gender and differences in perception should be addressed effectively.
Aggressive bargaining techniques should also be employed to ensure that both parties have come to an agreement which would lead to a contract. Nevertheless, any barriers to negotiation should also be addressed using a third party intervention strategy which will help to improve negotiation. To sum up, the major tools of negotiation should be used to resolve any impasse which might block a normal agreement.
References List
Lewicki, R. J., Barry, B., & Saunders, D. M. (2010). Negotiation (6th Ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Pienaar, W. D., & Spoelstra, H. I. J. (1999). Negotiation: Theories, strategies and skills. Kenwyn: Juta.
The business operation of any company is heavily influenced by some crucial factors that are consequential of key aspects of business environments such as technical, legislative, competitive, economic, socio-cultural, and political issues. Among such critical factors, the technical aspects of business innovation are typified by a dynamic character on account of the increasingly changing nature of product innovation to enhance customer satisfaction. Amongst the various companies marked with innovative techniques and new products, a pre-paid cell phone was proposed. As per field experts, a product is an item that can be put up for sale in the market for grabbing the attention, achievement, utilization, or consumption and would be capable of meeting the needs and demands of the purchaser. This new product, the prepaid cell phone, would do just that through a range of innovations and it would be targeting the economic group who otherwise could not afford a high-priced product like any high-end pre-paid cell phone but always craves for it. Thus, this new product would be a cheap but attractive substitute for a high-end pre-paid cell phone. A benchmark of such a phone would be AT&T.
Benchmark
AT&T is a globally acknowledged market leader operating in the fields of data-networking hardware and software, earning approximately $41.5 billion in the form of revenue in the financial year 2009. (Nilsson 2008) As a key market dominator, the firm is well-situated and is capable of taking advantage of the growing demands for complex technology all across an economically emergent world order. AT&T obtains almost half of its sale volumes from within the U.S. with the remaining being split amongst Europe and the rest of the economies of the developing world. Thus, it is obvious that it is the best possible company for the benchmark of the new product.
Core strength
The core strength of AT&T lies in its new next-generation network processes that consume various kinds of signals, such as video (e.g., conferencing, Internet), audio, and data. The utilization of such high-bandwidth requiring applications is fostering the demand for an industry-wide network upgrading. AT&T supplies IP-based routers, switches in the market and caters to the needs of the consumers in related technologies that are capable of supporting larger bandwidth requirements and controlling a variety of applications. (Gilley 2009) This increase has been credited to the growth in the gross product sale volumes of advanced technologies. The advanced technologies division incorporates the freshly procured technology. (Nilsson 2008)
Learning procedure from AT&T
In terms of the socio-cultural and gender demographics of the target audience, AT&T fits the prototype of the young, successful male customer interested in technological products. According to the findings of a thorough customer, a survey carried out recently to identify the potential customer base and the needs of the average high end pre-paid cell phone and AT&T user, the typical high end pre-paid cell phone user appeared to be a man in his early 30’s holding a college graduation degree with average annual earnings of $75,600 which is 26 percent above the standard American salary. (Cowart, 2009) This company has a well-defined market structure. Thus, to compete it is essential to formulate a similar target market and with a better economic approach, it is possible to implement the strategy learn from this company. Thus, the new product would be on the line of high-end pre-paid cell phones but it would be much cheaper to invite the average economic group.
Strategy for new product
The new product would not include music features to reduce cost and to avoid competition with high-end pre-paid cell phones and the processor speed would be lower but it would include several other features that are low cost but attractive for economic users. There would be a built-in 4-megapixel camera that would come with an auto-focus feature. This new feature would allow the user to just tap the screen preview in the region where the exposure is required, and white balance and focus are to be calculated. The tap position would be capable of making a huge difference in the brightness, color due to the exposure and white balance of the refined photo making it a better experience altogether. A new voice-controlled calling feature would be introduced to address complaints received on the number of steps required to make a simple call. This feature allows the user to press the Home button for a moment, and issue a voice command to make a call easily and conveniently. (Trelease, 2008)
The applications provided in the new product would be integrated to work in concert and offer improved functionality by connecting application programs like Safari, Maps, and SMS with contact book, email, and other applications. Its compatibility level has been expanded to several Mac-based PC applications. Significantly it is also compatible with Microsoft Exchange, which is the most widely used communication program for business purposes. (White, 2009)
Additionally, there would be other cheap but attractive features like Electronic Compass, Accelerometer, FEM Quad-Band GSM, Tri-Band UMTS Antenna Switch and Quad-Band GSM RX RF SAW Filters, Flash Memory, Display Module, and Touch Screen Assembly. (Sadun, 2009) All these features would make the new phone irresistible for buyers who were not able to buy a high-end pre-paid cell phone and thus this new phone would be a great success.
References
Cowart, K. (2009). A structural look at consumer innovativeness and self-congruence in new product purchases. Psychology and Marketing 25(12), 1111-1130.
Gilley, A. (2009). Organizational change: Motivation, communication, and leadership effectiveness, Performance Improvement Quarterly, 21(4), 75-94.
Nilsson, A. (2008). Breaking hierarchies. MI: Uppsala University, Department of Business Studies.
Sadun, E. (2009). The Iphone Developer’s Cookbook: Building Applications With the Iphone 3.0 Sdk. NY: Addison Wesley Pub Co Inc.
Trelease, R. (2008) Diffusion of innovations: Smartphones and wireless anatomy learning resources. Anatomical Sciences Education, 1(6), 233-239.
White, I. (2009). A simple, low-cost stereographic video capture and viewing solution for teaching psychomotor skills using online delivery. British Journal of Educational Technology 34(4), 34-53.