Category: Carbohydrate

Introduction

An ergogenic aid is an external influence, both legal and illegal which positively affects sporting performance. The legality of ergogenic aids is controlled by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) (Kayser et al, 2007). Buck et al (2013) stated that a legal ergogenic aid in sport can provide athletes with additional opportunity to enhance their performance beyond training alone. There is therefore growing interest for both coaching staff and performers themselves in foods and other legal aids which have a beneficial effect on sporting activity, as well as shorten recovery periods resulting in a faster return to training (Reid, 2013). Intake of nutritional ergogenic aids such as carbohydrates are consequently used to elevate performance levels in a variety of ways such as reducing the effects of fatigue. (Alireza et al, 2016)

Glucose (a form of carbohydrate) is the primary fuel source respired by the body for energy. During exercise, the stored form of glucose, known as glycogen, is converted back to glucose and used for energy (Berger, 2016). Cermak & Loon (2013) stated that performers partaking in prolonged exercise lasting 60 minutes or more should eat 60 grams of carbohydrates per hour but that well trained endurance athletes can metabolise up to 90 grams per hour. This literature review will look to analyse how useful carbohydrates can be as an ergogenic aid by identifying whether performance can be improved through changing the volume of carbohydrates consumed before performance, as well as the preferred form of exogenous carbohydrate consumed during performance.

Main Body

Consumption of Carbohydrate through Diet

Lima-Silva et al (2013) Presented a study in order to examine the effects of high and low carbohydrate diets on performance levels and the contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. 6 male participants were told to eat as they usually would for 48 hours followed by a maximal cycling exercise at 115% maximal oxygen uptake right up until exhaustion. They were then given 72 hours recovery followed by another 48 hour period of either a diet high (70%) or low (25%) in carbohydrate content. The same cycling test was then repeated and results gathered. The results obtained showed that the low carbohydrate diet reduced the time until exhaustion, and therefore showed that these participants had less available energy when performing maximally. This test showed that by having a diet low in carbohydrates, individuals found themselves reaching exhaustion sooner than they would using their usual diet. This suggests that carbohydrates are an important source of energy during maximal cycling events, in order to delay the onset of fatigue. The results obtained are only based on male performance and so it could be argued that females may perform differently under a similar situation.

This was supported by Maffetone and Laursen (2017) who conducted a study on a 38 year old female Triathlete. They reduced her training time from 30 hours a week to 18 hours a week, increasing to 24 hours over a 6 week training programme. They also reduced her carbohydrate intake from 73% (475g) to 12% (78g). After the 6 weeks, the participant stated she felt she had more energy during and between training sessions, as well as less perceived fatigue and hunger. Her cycling output increased by 20 Watts and running speed increased from 12km/s to 15km/s. They concluded that by reducing training load and carbohydrate consumption and increasing fat intake prior to performance you can improve health functions and increase performance levels in elite triathletes. This study could be seen as unreliable due to the fact that it only tests a single individual on one occasion.

Therefore, it could be argued that other factors such as the type of training being conducted may have affected the result. Some of these findings are also subjective as the performer perceives her hunger and levels of fatigue rather than numerical statistics to support these claims. Similar to Maffetone and Laursen’s study, Podloger and Debevec (2016) also carried out a study on a single athlete in order to identify whether a low carbohydrate diet produces the same level of performance as a high carbohydrate diet. This male athlete consumed a 14 day low carbohydrate diet and was then put through a serious of tests. The tests involved a moderate intensity (65% VO2 max) and maximal intensity (90% VO2 max) of constant cycling. They were then repeated after a 14 day high carbohydrate diet. Minute ventilation was recorded and oxygen uptake assessed via calorimetry of blood samples to determine glucose and lactate concentrations. This test again found that the diet rich in carbohydrates resulted in a 9% faster time to exhaustion during moderate intensity, but an 3% increase in time toexhaustion during maximal intensity. These results show that at lower intensities, a diet rich in carbohydrate is less effective than a low carbohydrate diet. This is due to the fact that there is more oxygen available to the working muscles so fats can be oxidised rather than carbohydrates.

To oppose this, Lima-Silva et al (2014) conducted another test to identify the effects of a high carbohydrate diet on running performance in adolescent boys. 19 trained individuals performed a 10 minute run at 65% VO2 max to determine Respiratory exchange ratio. the test results showed that consuming a carbohydrate rich diet enhanced performance in the 10000 metres compared to that of a fat rich diet. This further suggests that due to higher intensity, carbohydrates are acting as a primary fuel source and supply the body with energy for respiration, therefore reinforcing the idea that carbohydrates can act as an ergogenic aid if consumed in excess during the dietary phase prior to performance.

Consumption of Carbohydrate during Performance

A study conducted by Gui et al (2017) found that female distance runners improved their performance when ingesting a carbohydrate electrolyte solution (CES) during a 21km run. In a randomized crossover design, the 11 participants consumed a CES or a sweetened placebo at a rate of 150ml per 2.5km. This tested was repeated on 3 different occasions with at least 28 days in-between each race. Results showed that those who consumed the CES had slightly shorter running times than those with the placebo (129.6 ± 8.8 minutes and 134.6 ± 11.5 minutes respectively). These resultsshow that by consuming carbohydrates during activity, performance levels can be elevated as glycogen stores aren’t used up and instead the exogenous carbohydrate acts as the energy source.

To further identify whether different carbohydrate-rich drinks produce different levels of performance, Dobson and Seery (2016) conducted a test involving a carbohydrate-protein (CP) drink and chocolate milk (an everyday drink rich in carbohydrates) They wanted to assess whether some drinks are better at producing top results than others. Eight male collegiate cyclists completed 2 experimental trials, separated by 1 week. Each activity consisted of a glycogen depleting trial, a 4 hour recovery phase and a 70% VO2 Max cycle until exhaustion. 2 hours into recovery performers consumed either a chocolate milk drink or a CP drink, Blood lactate and Glucose levels were taken during rest as well as heart rate measurements during the cycle. Results showed there was no significant difference between the two beverages suggesting that carbohydrate specific drinks will not perform more effectively than household chocolate milk, This also suggests that any drink high in carbohydrate concentration can be used as an ergogenic aid in sport. However a limitation of this experiment is that only the two types of beverage were consumed which means other drinks may have a different effect

Carbohydrates can be consumed during performance in the form of Gels, drinks and bars. There is therefore interest into which exogenous carbohydrate has the most benefit on performance. Sareban et al (2016) conducted a study on 9 well trained triathletes, in order to identify weather a gel and liquid form of carbohydrate affects performance and comfort and which is the better option. The study found that performance didn’t improve between the two forms of exogenous carbohydrate however, 7 of the 9 participants stated they experienced gastrointestinal discomfort when using the gel. This may cause a hinderance to performance levels as the discomfort may result in pain after long periods of time causing distraction or even the inability to perform. This may therefore show that ingesting carbohydrates in the form of a liquid may be the optimum way of increasing glucose in the body for energy during performance.

A similar study was also carried out by Guillochon and Rowlands (2017) however this study included bars and Mixed exogenous carbohydrate sources as well as gels and drinks. The participants of the study reported increased levels of nausea and stomach cramps with higher perceived exertion when using the bars as an exogenous carbohydrate, rather than the gels. These results contradict the previous test by Sareban et al (2016) as there were no changes in discomfort levels when using gels or liquids. This may be because a different form of gel and liquid had been used as well as the activity being focused on male cyclists rather than triathletes.

The pain from the previous test may have come during the swimming phase of the triathlon and so cyclists are not negatively affected in this way. Rather than consuming food during exercise, there has been increased interest into carbohydrate (CHO) oral rinsing on performance in activities lasting sub 60 minutes. Clarke et al (2017) performed a test on 12 males to identify if a CHO rinse will improve their results In a variety of maximal intensity exercises. His results found that oral CHO rinsing improves 10m sprint times, bench press and squat repetitions. These results suggest that by using CHO rinsing as an ergogenic aid in morning maximal intensity exercise, performance levels may increase without the need to use other exogenous carbohydrate aids.

Oral CHO rinsing was again tested with different concentrations on a 1 hour cycle ergometer by James et al (2017). 11 male cyclists completed the 1 hour time trial 3 times. Every 5 seconds they rinsed their mouths with either a 7% concentrated CHO solution, a 14% or a placebo. Heart rate was recorded at every 12.5% of the trial and gastrointestinal discomfort every 25%. Their results showed that the 7% CHO solution improved cycle times compared to the placebo, but increasing the concentration had no effect. This may therefore suggest that there is a limit to the amount of CHO oral rinsing that the body can utilise and surpassing this threshold provides no extra benefit. However, More concentrations may have been used in order to recognise this pattern.

Conclusion

To conclude, The data found regarding carbohydrate consumption prior to performance shows that performance levels in maximal intensity prolonged exercise can be improved. The data to show otherwise has only been tested with minimal participants across a narrow range of ages, however the data identified also shows how as intensity of exercise decreases, there is less requirement for carbohydrates as the primary fuel source and so carbohydrates as an ergogenic aid wouldn’t be as effective. It was also found that the majority of athletes preferred consuming energy drinks over other forms of exogenous carbohydrates as they resulted in no stomach pains. This allowed participants to focus on performing to the best of their abilities and so yielded increased levels of performance. Bars and Gels on the other hand were reported to give participants (particularly triathletes) Increased levels of Nausea and higher rates of perceived exertion with no actual improvement to performance levels, however this may have just been due to the type of bars or gels being used as well as the types of activity being performed and the combination of food they had eaten prior to these exogenous carbohydrate sources. There hasn’t been enough data gathered to truly state which source of exogenous carbohydrate gives the best results as there hasn’t been a large number of participants tested and so the data isn’t yet reliable.

In recent years there has been a boom in the variety of healthy fad diets , for the better, since the same form of eating, no matter how healthy it may be, does not always work equally well throughout the world. Among these diets, the famous Mediterranean Diet continues to stand out , which together with the DASH Diet continue to be the winners in the Harvard University ranking . On the other hand, there is the Paleo Diet , which we talked about at the time in kitchens, low-carbohydrate or low-carb diets , and a step further is the Ketogenic Diet , which we talk about today.

The difference between low-carbohydrate diets and the Ketogenic Diet is that the former, in terms of percentages, imply a carbohydrate consumption of less than 40-45% of the total caloric intake, while in the Ketogenic Diet the carbohydrate intake is decreases even more, reaching the point of not eating more than 50-60 g of carbohydrates a day with the aim of putting the body into ketosis and producing so-called ketone bodies. Although initially it may be difficult to adapt, one of the great benefits of the Ketogenic Diet is its benefit against epilepsy, and a recent study suggests that the secret would be in the intestinal bacteria.

Ketogenic Diet: What is it and how is it done?

As we have already mentioned, a Ketogenic Diet is nothing more than that type of diet where the intake of carbohydrates does not exceed 50-60 g per day , an amount of carbohydrates low enough for the body to enter ketosis . Although it was previously thought that the central nervous system can only feed solely and exclusively on sugar (glucose), this is only half true. It is true that the brain and the rest of the nervous system cannot feed directly on fat, but after fasting for 2-4 days, or on a diet very low in carbohydrates such as the Ketogenic Diet, the nervous system does allow the passage of ketone bodies through a process called ketogenesis, which is produced in the liver.

In this type of diet, if the objective is to lose weight , it is sought not to consume more than 0.2-0.5 g / kg / day of carbohydrates, while the consumption of fats is not restricted. In the case of using the diet for other objectives, such as improving the symptoms of epilepsy , in the initial phases a Ketogenic Diet will be more restrictive if possible, reducing the consumption of carbohydrates to 20 g per day or less; later a 4: 1 formula will be used, where for every 4 grams of fat 1 gram of added carbohydrates and proteins will be consumed.

Finally, what is achieved is that around 80% of the calories in an entire day come from fat (from fresh sources, of course, always avoiding processed and ultra-processed). Proteins are then calculated , which should be around 1 g / kg / day (a little more than the usual WHO recommendations), with the rest going to carbohydrates .

As an example of more well-known Ketogenic Diets, there is the Atkins Diet , which is a variety where a higher proportion of protein is produced than in a standard Ketogenic Diet, but the level of hydrates is decreased in a similar way to these.

Adverse Effects of the Ketogenic Diet

While Ketogenic Diets have been shown to produce greater weight loss compared to others , including a greater reduction in visceral fat, and have even been shown to extend life , they are not without short- and long-term side effects.

In the short term , the most typical symptoms that occur during adaptation to the Ketogenic Diet are headaches, bad breath, feeling weak, fatigue, and even muscle cramps and constipation.

In the long term , Ketogenic Diets have been shown to cause vitamin and mineral deficiencies, gastrointestinal disorders, and even heart arrhythmias. On the other hand, some works claim that maintaining this type of diet in the long term can cause mood disturbances, although some works disagree on this. On the other hand, although recent studies ensure that there is no impairment of physical performance, previous studies do affirm that a Ketogenic Diet decreases sports performance and would produce a greater feeling of fatigue.

Finally, currently and with the data available to date, it is not recommended that individuals with kidney diseases or pregnant women follow this type of diet , since in healthy individuals there does not seem to be kidney involvement, but in patients who already Previously suffer a disease in these organs can make the situation worse. On the other hand, during pregnancy, it is advisable to consume at least 175 g of carbohydrates daily to ensure good neurological development and general growth of the fetus.

Why the Ketogenic Diet Works for Epilepsy

Regarding one of the most studied benefits of the Ketogenic Diet, the treatment of epilepsy , a recent work published in the journal Cell by Elaine Hsiao and her colleagues at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), states that the secret would be in the intestinal bacteria .

In this case, the study was conducted in mice, in which a Ketogenic Diet was found to alter gut bacteria . In fact, if the intestinal bacteria of rodents are completely eliminated this type of diet would be useless in preventing seizures. And, in contrast, by transplanting gut bacteria from mice on a Ketogenic Diet to other mice, the latter obtained protection against seizures.

In the work, mice were fed a Ketogenic Diet in several groups of mice, showing that this diet produces changes in their intestinal microbiome in just four days, reducing seizures of epilepsy compared to a non-ketogenic diet. Specifically, the study found that this diet increased the number of two types of bacteria: Akkermansia muciniphila and Parabacteroides . And, if these bacteria were administered in combination to mice without gut microbiome, an anticonvulsant effect is also recorded. The researchers suggest that these two groups of bacteria should be analyzed in future research, as they may be a new avenue of treatment for seizures in epilepsy.

First we need to know what is diet? Diet is a special plan to preserve or maintain our body shape from being fat or slim, dieting is a pattern of eating food in a managed and regulated style to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight. Another meaning of diet, it is conscious control or limitation of the eating regimen. A limited eating routine is regularly used by those people who are overweight or obese, some of the time in mix with physical exercise, to reduce body weight. A few people follow an eating regimen to get some weight (for the most part as muscle. A healthy dieting plan gives your body the nutrients it needs each day while staying inside your everyday calorie aims for weight reduction. A good dieting arrangement also will bring down your hazard for heart illness and other health conditions, so for a good dieting we need nutrients what is nutrients? Nutrients are mixes in foods basic to life and wellness, giving us crucial power, the building blocks for fix and development and substances important to supervise chemical procedures. There are six significant supplements: Carbohydrates (CHO), Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water. A nutrient is a substance utilized by a living being to survive, develop, and replicate. The necessity for dietary supplement requirements applies to creatures, plants, organisms. we have 6 essential component of a healthy diet(carbohydrate, fat, protein, mineral, vitamins, water).

They are all important to our body according to our needs for growths and repairing of the tissues and now we are going to talk about The six essential nutrients for healthy(balanced) diet and their classifications, Importance of Good Nutrition.

Detail

We have 6 essential nutrients for a healthy balanced diet. We have many nutrients include chemical and non-chemical nutrients such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids (found in protein) fatty acids (found in lipids).they are all have their own metabolism factors on our body, we have two types of nutrients, they can be divided into two parts macronutrients and micronutrients. The three main classes of macronutrients includes carbohydrate, protein, and fat. The two class of micronutrients are vitamins and minerals, and these nutrients are extra molecules that cells need to make power. Now we are going to talk about macronutrients four types of macronutrients first.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules consist of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. The portion of these atoms every time is C:H:O=1:2:1. This types of nutrients is an example of chemical nutrients they are used for a quick energy receiving. Carbohydrates are the biggest source of dieting calories for a large for most of us, it has many functions including as energy storage as glycogen, and formation of cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates are significant in our body because it is first source that our body will use it because it is quicker to become into energy rather than proteins and fats. We have three major types of carbohydrate Sugar, starch, and fiber they are all classified as carbohydrates.

• Sugars. are simple carbs. The body quickly breaks down and absorbs sugars and processed starch. They will give fast energy, however they don’t make as to feel full. They will also cause an increase in blood glucose levels.
• fiber. Fiber is also classified as carbohydrate. The body break down a few kinds of fiber and utilizations them for energy; others are broken down by gut bacteria organisms, while some of them excreted through the body, Fiber. Fiber helps build bowel regularity in a child. It can also have an effect in decreasing the possibility of coronary illness and malignancy after a while foods that contain high levels of fiber include (nuts, seeds, lentils).
• Starch is a kind of carbohydrate, also mentioned as a complex carbohydrate since it’s created from long chains of sugar molecules, our body digests starch to make glucose, which is a vital energy source for every cell. Food companies use starch to thicken processed foods, and to make sweeteners. Scientists also working on the consequences of those sweeteners on health, Starchy foods include peas, corn, potatoes, beans, pasta, rice and grains.

And We have four structure types of carbohydrate

• monosaccharide: they are simple sugar they consist of f 4–6 carbon atoms. We have three types of monosaccharide.

Glucose contains six carbons, and is the general sugar in the body. We can have them in honey, sugar and vegetables.

Fructose does have 6 carbons, Fructose is found in honey, vegetables. Additionally got from corn starch, it is currently utilized widely as a substitution for sucrose in sodas, canned natural product, sticks and jams and is available in some dairy items. It is less expensive than sucrose and has better freezing properties. After consumption fructose is used in the liver; the products are glucose, glycogen, lactic acids or fat.

Galactose it has 6 carbons as glucose and fructose is released as a result of the digestion of lactose from milk. It is fundamental for neural tissue building in newborn children and can be changed into either glucose or glycogen.

• disaccharides: Disaccharides The simple sugars structure the configurate of extra complex starches. The cyclic groups of two sugars can be connected together by methods for a condensation response. A hydrogen particle from one particle and a hydroxyl group from the other atom are remove as water, with a result covalent bond connecting the two sugars together by then. A disaccharide is a carbohydrate made by the combination of two monosaccharides. Other common disaccharides include lactose and maltose. We have many types of disaccharide, this is three known types of disaccharides.

Sucrose, often known as table sugar in its refined structure, is a disaccharide found in numerous plants. It is formed of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. As sugar, sucrose is a significant part of the human eating regimen as a sweentener. Individuals with congenital sucrase-isomaltase insufficiency (CSID) they can’t take sucrose because they become sensitive to it and can’t process it well since they are feeling the loss of the protein sucrose-isomaltase. A few people with Congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency(CSID) experience difficulty processing starches too. An individual who is sucrose sensitive must restrict sucrose however much as could be expected, and they may need to take meds.

Maltose, also called malt sugar, it is made off two glucose atoms. Malt is shaped when grains soften and develop in water, and it is a part of beer, starchy foods like cereal, pasta, and potatoes. In plants, maltose is made when starch is dissolved for food. It is utilized by developing seeds so as to develop.

Lactose, or milk sugar, is made up of galactose and glucose. The milk of mammals have got plenty of lactose and gives supplements to newborn children. Most of the mammals can just process lactose as newborn children, and they lose this capability as they grow. In reality, people that can process dairy products in adulthood they got a mutation in their genes that let them to do that. This is the reason such a significant number of individuals are lactose sensitive people.

• oligosaccharides.

Oligosaccharides, including stachyose, raffi nose and inulin, make a quantitatively little supplement to our diet. They comprise of less than ten monosaccharide units (for the most part galactose, maltose or fructose appended to glucose units), and they exists in plant food, for example, leeks, onions, garlic, lentils and beans. Oligosaccharides in beans make it right to the internal intestinal undigested. It is bacteria in the digestive tract that at long last separates these sugars. Doing so causes maturation and the creation of gas that we excrete as fart.

• polysaccharides

Polysaccharides comprises over 10 monosaccharose units arranged in straight, branched or curled chains. historically divided into digestible (available) forms, for example starches, and non-digestible(unavailable) forms, like cellulose and lignin, Starch consists of connected glucose units they are organized in either straight or branched chains.

Fat

Fat is fundamental for many types of body functions. It our power source, and it saves the skeleton and nerves. Fat also makes it feasible for different nutrients to carry out their works, we have two kind of fats saturated and transf, unsaturated fat.

Saturated fat are bad for as if we eat excessive amount of it, it can cause to increase cholesterol and increase disease threat on our health. Unsaturated fats support health and may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Fats are characterized in a range of ways, rely upon their qualities:

• Fats or fatty acids: These terms can point to a fat, however ‘fats’ ordinarily illustrates those that are strong at room temperature.
• Lipids: This can point to any kind, whether or not it is fluid or strong.
• Oils: This can portray any fat that is fluid at room temperature.
• animal fats: Among these are butter , cream, and fats in meats.
• Vegetable fats: Among these are the fats in olives and avocados.

saturated fats are solid at room temperature. The essential carbon structure of these fatty acids is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen molecules. Saturated fat may increase health risks if a person takes too much over a long period. A high admission of saturated fat may in the end raise levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the body .thus, builds the danger of cardiovascular illness and stroke. The American Heart Association (AHA) suggest that individuals eat close to 13 grams of soaked fat every day.

Unsaturated fat are liquid at a normal room temperature, and they mostly derived from plant oils. medical services experts consider these to be ‘good’ fats.

The two major class of are

Monounsaturated fat: molecules aren’t saturated with hydrogen molecules every fat molecule has bonded with one hydrogen atom, Monounsaturated fats might lower low-density lipoprotein, or “bad,” cholesterol levels, and maintain healthful levels of “good” lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. However, directly adding monounsaturated fat to the diet won’t have this impact, unless someone also does reduces their intake of saturated fat, some many health experts describe that a diet made in monounsaturated fats can also avoid a person’s risk of cardiovascular disease. The Mediterranean diet, that analysis suggests could lower the chance of chronic illness, contains lots of monounsaturated fats, some food that conatin Monounsaturated fat(olive ,nuts ,avocados)

Polyunsaturated fats:A number of areas around every aren’t molecule don’t seem to be saturated with hydrogen atoms, Omega-3 fatty acids could defend against heart condition by lowering blood cholesterin levels and, possibly, inflammation. That said, a large-scale Cochrane analysis found that polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements had no important advantages for heart health. Deciding the consequences with certainty would require any analysis. The other kind of unsaturated fats are omega-6 fatty acid fatty acids. These largely occur in vegetable oils and processed foods. An excessive intake of omega-6 fatty acid, that is common within the commonplace American diet, could result in raised inflammation. Found in (nuts ,seeds ,oily fish)

Trans fats: Trans fats are artificial. They are the result of a procedure that adds hydrogen to fluid vegetable oils to make them more solid. Trans fats are not fundamental, and they have harming wellness impacts. Trans fats raise levels of LDL cholesterol and lower levels of HDL cholesterol. This expands the danger of coronary illness, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. include in (pizza ,fast foods)

According to the World Health Organization, to avoid unhealthy weight gain: total fat intake ought to be less than 30 percent of total caloric intake saturated fat intake ought to be less than 30% of total caloric intake ,trans fat intake ought to be less than 1% of total caloric intake.

Protiens

Proteins are long chains of amino acids that structure the fundamental of all life. Protein comprises of amino acids, and amino acids are the building blocks of protein. There are around 20 amino acids. These 20 amino acids can be organized in a large number of various approaches to make many various proteins, each with a particular job in our body. The structures vary as indicated by the arrangement where the amino acids binds.

The 20 diverse amino acids that the body uses to make proteins are: Alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic corrosive, cysteine, glutamic corrosive, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and valine.

Amino acids organic atoms that comprise of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. We have three kind of proteins. Complete proteins: These foods contain all the fundamental amino acids. They mainly happen in animal food, similar to meat and eggs.

Incomplete proteins: These foods contain at least one basic essential compound, because there’s a shortage of stability inside the proteins. Plant foods, similar to peas and grains basically contain incomplete macromolecule. Complementary proteins: These request 2 or a great deal from foods containing incomplete proteins that people will blend to create protein.

Proteins consider a job in almost every natural procedure, and their capacities changes in general. The major role of proteins in the body are to create fortify and fix or replace things, for example, tissueThey can be:

• structural, like collagen
• hormonal, like insulin
• carriers, for example, hemoglobin
• enzymes, such as amylase

Water

We do include water in our component of a healthy diet because Water is a significant piece of all body functions and procedures, including absorption and disposal. when you’re on a diet, water also works about as a weight reduction help since it can assist you with eating less. ‘Drinking water is significant during weight reduction since it gives hydration without undesirable calories, an adult human body is up to 60% of water, and it needs water for some procedures. Water contains no calories, and it doesn’t give power.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are essential in small amounts. They include vitamins and minerals.

Mineral: our body needs a small amount of micronutrients here are some of minerals that our body needs it in small amount of them.

Potassium: is an electrolyte. It allow the kidneys, the heart, the muscles, and the nerves to work appropriately, too little magnesium can finally lead to shortcoming, nause, sleepiness, restful legs, rest conditions, and different side effects. An excess of can bring about stomach related and, in the end, heart issues.

• Zinc: does a job in the health of body cells, the immune system, wound heling, and the production of proteins. Too little can prompt male pattern baldness, skin wounds, changes in taste or smell,and looseness of the bowels, yet this is uncommon. An excess of can prompt stomach related issues and headache pains.
• Iron: is vital for the construction of red platelets, which convey oxygen to all pieces of the body. It additionally assumes a job in making connective tissue and making hormones. Too little can bring about anemia, including stomach related problems, shortcoming, and difficulty thinking, iron lack. An excessive amount of can prompt stomach related issues, and significant levels can be deadly.
• Manganese: The body utilizes manganese to create power, it does a job in blood clotting, and it supports the immune system. Too little can bring about weak bones in child, skin rashes in men, mind changes in ladies. An excessive amount of can prompt tremors, muscle fits, and different side effects.

Vitamins

Individuals need to takes up water-soluble vitamins consistently on the grounds that the body expels them all the more rapidly, and it can’t store them without easily. here are some of them.

The body takes up fat-soluble vitamins through the digestion tracts with the assistance of fats (lipids). The body can store them and doesn’t eliminate them rapidly. Individuals who follow a low-fat diet routine will most likely be unable to take enough of these vitamins.if too many develop, issues can increase. Some of them.

Clinical evaluation which you may consider as a physical test. With the clinical appraisal, a wellbeing expert is searching for physical data of information of nutrients medical issues. These data of information might be seen or felt in superficial body tissues, for example, the skin, eyes, hair, nails, mouth and gums. These tissues are able to detect nutrition insufficiencies. For instance, if an individual’s hair with out any power pulled out, it could be a piece of information that protein is inadequate. On the off chance that an individual’s nails are meager and indented like a spoon, it could be an intimation that there’s an iron lack. What’s more, draining gums or an irritated mouth might be pieces of information that specific nutrients are insufficient.

Conclusion

nutrition is the investigation of nutrients in food, how the body utilizes them, and the connection between diet, wellbeing, and sickness. Nutritionists use conception from molecular science, organic chemistry, and hereditary qualities to see how nutrients influence the human body. nutrients also concerns around how individuals can utilize dietary decisions to lower the danger of sickness, what occurs if an individual has too little or too much of a nutrients, and how sensitivities work.so we had 6 essential nutrients 4 of them are macronutrients and 2 of them are micronutrients. 1st carbohydrate we have three major types of sugar ,starch ,fiber. And we have 4 structure types of them monosaccharide,disaccharide,oligosaccharide,polysaccharide. Monosaccharide have three class of them Glucose, fructose , galactose.we have many types but three of them most known sucrose, maltose, lactose.2nd fat is a fundamental kind of nutrients it consist of saturated fat and unsaturated Not all fats are equally beneficial. It is important to understand the differences between the types of fat, saturated fat are the bad fats they cause as increase cholesterol and increase disease threat if we eat too much of it, saturated fat are solid at a room temperature. Unsaturated fat are liquid they are the good fat ,consist of Monounsaturated fat, Polyunsaturated fats, trans fat.3rd protein we have 20 essential amino acids and we have three kind of proteins complete protein, incomplete protein, complementary protein.4th water is an essential kind of nutrients because it make up 60% of our body.5th mineral is an micronutrients because we need them in a small amount of it we have many mineral include potassium, zinc, iron,manganese and many mores.6th vitamins are micronutrients too because we need them in small amount too like mineral we have many kind of them for instance vitamin A,B1,D,K.

ABSTRACT

The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high fat, low carbohydrate, and restricted protein diet that was framed in the 1920’s as an alternative therapy for refractory epilepsy. Refractory epilepsy poses high risk of morbidity and mortality for pediatric population. It is a desirable treatment modality for refractory epilepsy in children. The ketogenic diet can be used by people of all ages. In the hospital setting, patients are administered with 1 g of protein per 1 kg of bodyweight, 5-10 g of carbohydrates, and the rest daily calories are given in the form of fat. The efficacy of ketogenic diet is more acknowledged than most of the new antiepileptic drugs. The neuroprotective activity of ketogenic diet can be applied beyond its treatment for epileptic conditions. The ketogenic diet is not heave of side effects. Despite of that, the side effects such as dehydration and hypoglycemia are foreseeable, avertable and treatable. Thus ketogenic diet can be considered as a safe intervention in comparison with other conventional antiepileptics. Pharmacists can play an important role in impeding the use of medications with high carbohydrate content. So along with the advancements in medical field, ketogenic diet can be considered as an apparent therapy for refractory seizures.

INTRODUCTION

The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high fat, low carbohydrate, and restricted protein diet that was framed in the 1920’s as an alternative therapy for refractory epilepsy [1]. Intractable or refractory epilepsy is a childhood neurological medical emergency defined by inadequate control of seizures despite its optimal treatment with conventional medications [2]. Wilder et al. introduced the concept of a diet consisting of “ketogenic” and “antiketogenic” components for the treatment of epilepsy [3, 4]. The International Ketogenic Diet Study Group recommends the therapy of KD in children who fail to respond to 2 or 3 anticonvulsant drugs regardless of age or gender [5]. In the hospital setting, patients are usually administered 1 g of protein per 1 kg of bodyweight, 5-10 g of carbohydrates, and rest daily calories are given in the form of fat [6].A ketogenic-diet team, including a trained neurologist and dietitian, is necessary for the therapy [5,7,8,].These dietary treatments are now also being considered for neurological disorders other than epilepsy, such as brain tumors, Parkinsonism, Alzheimer’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [1].

TYPES OF KETOGENIC DIET

Classic ketogenic diet:

In classic KD the fat and protein is present in a ratio of 4:1 grams and rest with carbohydrate, 90% of the calories in the diet come from fat. Younger children are provided with a ratio of 3:1[9].

Modified Atkins diet:

The modified Atkins diet allows unlimited protein and fat intake. It is comprised of 60-70% long- chain fatty acid, 25–30% protein and 5% carbohydrate [10].

Low glycemic index treatment:

The low-glycemic index (low-GI) treatment diet restricts the patient’s carbohydrate intake to low-GI carbohydrates, allowing for a larger daily allowance of carbohydrates [10].

Medium chain triglyceride:

The MCT diet is comprised of 71% medium-chain fatty acid, 10% protein, and 19% carbohydrate [10]. Adverse effects like renal stones, acidosis, hypoglycemia, constipation, and growth retardation are less common [9].

Modified medium chain triglyceride:

The modified MCT diet distributes the calories as 30% MCT oil, 40-50%conventional or long-chain fatty acids, 10–20% protein, and 5–10% carbohydrates [10].

COMPOSITION OF KETOGENIC DIET

MECHANISM OF ACTION

The antiepileptic effects of KD are still unclear. The ketosis reduces the seizure activity by inducing changes in energy metabolism, lipid composition of cell membranes, brain water content, or brain pH [11].The anti-apoptotic activity is responsible for the neuroprotective activity of KD [12].The prolonged fasting resulted in detoxification of the gut, resulting in a decrease in the frequency of seizure occurrence [13].KD improves mitochondrial function by increasing metabolic efficiency, while lowering the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which then protects the brain from oxidative stress[14,15,16].

EFFICACY OF KETOGENIC DIET

The efficacy of KD is better than most of the new antiepileptic drugs [17]. Neal et al. randomized children to receive KD, after one month (treatment group) or four-month delay (control group) with no changes in the anti-epileptic drugs. The seizure frequency after four months was significantly lower in diet group compared to controls [18, 19].KDs have also been found to reduce neuronal cell death and the generation of seizure activity in experimental models of stroke and cerebral ischemia [20, 21]. KD has been also indicated in deficiencies in spatial learning and memory, as well as impaired brain growth [22]. The introduction of KD in Alzheimer’s patients augments the cognitive activity [23].

PREPARATION AND INITIATION OF KETOGENIC DIET

The patients growth, nutritional parameters, inborn errors of metabolism, family history of renal stones must be reviewed and those with severe neurological impairments should be assessed for ability to chew and swallow and any evidence of gastro esophageal reflux[7].The child’s medications should be reviewed and Type of KD Macronutrient content (% total daily calories) changed to carbohydrate free preparations. Corticosteroids and ACTH should be abstained at least one week prior to diet initiation [5]. For adjusting ketogenic therapy and maximizing ketosis, the monitoring of patient weight and serum titers (lactate, glucose, and beta hydroxybutyrate) was beneficial [24]. Families are taught to check urine ketones and monitor for other illnesses if there is an increase in seizure frequency [25]. On a regularly basis the patient should be monitored by medical and dietary staff who is knowledgeable about the diet and its risks [26].

Initiation of a ketogenic diet most often occurs in a hospital setting at an epilepsy center in order to safely monitor glucose levels and urine ketone levels. Traditionally, a 24-48-hour fasting period marks the initiation of KD. Supplements with multivitamin plus minerals (including trace minerals) and preparations containing calcium with vitamin D are administered to children who are on KD [5].

MONITORING, FOLLOW UP AND DISCONTINUATION OF KETOGENIC DIET

The duration of the ketogenic diet fluctuate among patients. A six week treatment period is usually adequate to determine success or failure. When the seizure control is optimized after a few months, AED therapy may be tapered or discontinued [5, 27]. In order to assess seizure control parents are advised to maintain a daily seizure and urine ketone chart. The blood tests (hematological and biochemical tests, and fasting lipid profile) and urinary spot calcium to creatinine ratio should be reasoned every six months.KD can be terminated immediately in cases of emergency or more slowly over weeks/months by reducing the ratio cautiously in those who have been treated for years [5].

SIDE EFFECTS OF KETOGENIC DIET

The ketogenic diet is not heave of side effects [28, 29] Frequent side effects include constipation or nausea and vomiting [25]. Some effects are very foreseeable, avertable, and treatable, such as dehydration and hypoglycemia[30, 31, 32].Nephrolithiasis is treated by increasing fluid intake, alkalization of urine, and discontinuation of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors; depending on the patient’s symptoms, timely referral is made to Urology [33]. Vitamin and mineral supplementation is provided to prevent known deficiencies. Gastrointestinal complaints can be treated with fluid intake, dietary adjustments and laxatives [25].

ROLE OF PHARMACIST IN KETOGENIC DIET THERAPY

Pharmacists can play an important role in regulating the use of medications with high carbohydrate content [34]. Carbamazpine suspension, ethosuximide syrup, phenobarbital elixir, and valproic acid syrup contain the highest amounts of carbohydrate and should be avoided in ketogenic diet patients [35].Providing pharmacists with a system to find out high carbohydrate content medications during order entry or via a software alert system can secure the patient from seizure recurrence and the re initiation of a ketogenic diet [36].

CONCLUSION

Ketogenic diet is a better therapeutic option for the treatment of refractory epilepsy. Ketogenic diet can be used by people of all ages. Even though the ketogenic diets are having side effects, they are preventable and treatable. Other than epilepsy it can also be used for Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, hypercholesterolemia etc. Other treatment alternatives may achieve control of seizure but potential for morbidity is higher. The pharmacist is also having a greater role in regulating high carbohydrate content medicines, thereby avoiding unwanted effects and improving effectiveness of ketogenic diet.

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This report will investigate and explain the six essential nutrients that are required in our diet. The report will look at macronutrients which are needed in large amounts and micronutrients like vitamins and minerals which are only needed in small amounts, the report will also look at water. This report will include details such as specific structure, what role they have in the body and some examples of where they are found.

Carbohydrates are mainly used as a fuel source and provide the body with the energy our brain and body needs, carbohydrates also supply dietary fibre and breakdown fatty acids in the blood. Carbohydrates in the body also prevent ketosis.

Simple carbohydrates can effectively contribute to the diet but can have negative effects if taken in excess as it can become unused energy which will then become fat, a few sources of simple carbohydrates are sweets, soft drinks, and fresh fruit.

Complex carbohydrates should take up the bulk of the diet, they help by providing the body with many micro-nutrients, a few sources of these are potatoes, pasta, and rice. (NESCol,2020)

A carbohydrates structure is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, a carbohydrate can differ depending on whether it is monosaccharide (comprise of the simplest carbohydrates and contain one single sugar unit), disaccharide (made of two sugar units), or polysaccharide (contain several sugar units). (Dotson, 2012).

There are two types of fibre, soluble and insoluble, soluble fibre can dissolve when it becomes in contact with water and gastrointestinal fluids within the stomach and intestines. This type of fibre can help lower your cholesterol levels. Soluble fibre can be found in oats, peas, and beans.

Insoluble fibre cannot be digested but it can help move other foods and waste through the gut and can also help prevent constipation, Insoluble fibre can be found in wholegrain foods like wheat, brown rice, it can also be in root vegetables like carrots and parsnips.

The main function of fat is to be a storage system and be a reserve supply of energy. Fat can also help the body conserve body heat as fat acts as an insulation layer. And anther role of fat is to line and protect internal organs from any potential damage. (Eufic, 2015)

Fats are a subgroup of lipids, the most common type of lipid is called a triglyceride, it is made up of three fatty acid chains which is attached to a glycerol backbone, these fatty acids are chains of carbon atoms. These triglycerides are stored in fat cells. (A-level biology, 2015-2020)

There are two main types of fat, saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fat is fat that is tightly packed with no double bonds between the fatty acids. Saturated fat can correlate to having bad effects on the heart such as clogging arteries and causing heart disease although there is no conclusive evidence. Saturated fat can be found in animal fat, dairy products, and coconut oil.

Unsaturated fat can help lower your cholesterol. Omega-3, which is found in fish, has fatty acids which is a type of polyunsaturated fat that our bodies cannot create. Omega 3 can help prevent blood clots along with a lot more health benefits. Unsaturated fats are commonly found in fish, oils, and nutseeds. (Heart UK, no date)

Protein is mainly built up of amino acids, within protein multiple amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds which form a chain. A peptide bond is a chemical bond which is formed when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of another molecule which causes the release of a molecule of water (This happens between two molecules). That sequence of amino acids is considered the primary structure of protein. (Nature education, 2014)

Protein has a few functions some of these are, to build, maintain and repair cells of the body. Protein also enables muscle contractions to take place, and protein also helps protect against disease. (NESCol,2020)

There are two types of protein, complete and incomplete. Complete proteins have all the essential amino acids our bodies need and are mostly animal based whereas the mostly plant based incomplete proteins do not contain all the essential amino acids our bodies need. Complete proteins are found in meat, fish and eggs and incomplete proteins can be found in wholemeal pasta, nuts, and lentils.

Minerals are inorganic compounds found naturally, with functions that include maintaining strength and structure of the skeleton and a few more. Minerals are classified as macro and trace minerals. Macro minerals are needed in large amounts. Trace minerals are needed in very small amounts.

Water is found in fluids such as tea, coffee, and soft drinks to some extent. There are foods that are high in water content such as watermelon (96% water), celery (95% water) and tomatoes (94% water). (NESCol,2020)

In conclusion macro and micronutrients are important in the diet and it is important to get the right amount of them in our diets as they play a vital role in maintaining the health and functioning of the body. Ensuring we get enough minerals, carbs vitamins etc is vital to maintaining health as each of them play key individual roles in the body.

EAWEEDS are marketed as “functional foods” or “nutraceuticals” due to their highly biochemical ingredients, and they are vital as food supplement in order to relinquish physiological condition and resist diseases. In the present study, the biochemical compositions of the seaweeds Caulerpa racemose, Digenea simplex, Sargassum polycystum and Cystoseria myrica were studied. The total protein, carbohydrate, lipid, fatty acids, amino acid, Minerals and dietary fibers were assessed. The highest content of protein found in D. simplex, while C. racemosa has the highest lipid contains. The highest concentration of carbohydrates and dietary fibers was detected in S. polycystum and C. myrica. C. myrica branded by high concentration of vital amino acids. In This investigation, we illustrated the consumption of seaweeds as appreciated nutritional food and therapeutic products due to their chemical composition, as well as partial replacement of conservative dietary protein sources.

Introduction

Seaweeds are used since ancient times as food (Alexandre et al., 2017), fodder and fertilizer and as supply of healthful medication (Rupapara, 2017). They need gained importance as meditative sources due to their high healing, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities (Jiao et al., 2010). (Gade et al. 2013 and Ismail 2017) illustrated the vital role of seaweeds for human and animal health and consumed as daily diets in orient countries

Seaweeds are referred to appreciate sources of protein, elements, dietary fibers, vitamins, essential amino acids and they contain frequent polysaccharides, including alginate, cellulose and laminarin (Lyu et al., 2016) Moreover, seaweeds also contain potential bioactive compounds which exhibit medication, antiviral and antifungal properties (Marinho-Soriano et al., 2006). Ortiz et al., 2006 inveterate that the species, maturity, environmental growth conditions and seasonal period Influenced on the nutrient compositions of seaweeds.

Owing to the accumulative world population, the anxiety for food and energy are levitation the necessity for numerous, sustainable sources for food commodities (Janssen et al., 2018).

Seaweeds display excessive disparity within the nutrient contents that are related with numerous environmental factors as water temperature, light and nutrients (Paiva et al. 2017and Parker 1998). Most of the conservational restrictions diverge conferring to season and the variations in ecological conditions will stimulate or inhibit the biosynthesis of many nutrients (Hernández et al., 1995 and Manivannan et al., 2009). They are the most nutritious and rich in vitamins and minerals than the other food. The nourishing assets of seaweeds are poorly known and normally are assessed from the chemical composition (Ismail, 2017).

The most necessary biochemical components of algae are protein, carbohydrates and Lipids. Limited studies were done on fatty acids of microalgae and seaweeds. Macroalgae biomasses can accumulation large amounts of oil which can be demoralized for the assembly of biodiesel (John & Anisha, 2011). The species of algae play a vital role on alteration the protein content (Ratana-arporn & Chirapart, 2006).

Some evidences counsel that fatty acids and sterol composition could also be helpful for taxonomic purposes (El-Shafay, 2014 and Herbreteau et al., 1997). Accumulation of olefinic fatty acids was observed in Rhodophyta, principally arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids. Alternative luxuriant fatty acids during this category are palmitic and oleic acids. The amino acids composition pronounced variations were discovered in protein and amino acids between different algal groups (MacArtain et al., 2007 and Qasim, 1991).

Seaweed has lots of essential nutrients, fundamentally trace elements and a number of other bioactive substances. That explains why nowadays seaweeds are considered as the food supplement for twenty-one century as supply for first proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, mineral, vitamins and enzymes.The intention of this work is to investigate the biochemical composition (in protein, carbohydrate, lipid, fatty acids and amino acids) in Caulerpa racemosa, Digenea simplex, Sargassum polycystum and Cystoseria myrica.

Materials and methods

Four marine algal species were picked from Hurghada Red Sea coastal, Egypt throughout March 2017. These species classified into three categories chlorophyta species (Caulerpa racemosa), Phaeophyta species (Sargassum polycystum and Cystoseria myrica) and Rhodophyta species (Digenea simplex).

All samples were delivered to laboratory in plastic bags containing sea water to forestall evaporation. Epiphytic and potential contaminants were rinsed with sea and distilled water. The seaweeds were dried in room temperature air and kept in plastic bags for biochemical analysis.

Biochemical composition

Lowry method (Lowry et al., 1951) was employed to evaluate Seaweeds total protein. The dry seaweeds were extracted by Tris HCL buffer (0.1 M pH7.5) overnight at 4 °C with stirring. The supernatant total protein was monitored photometrically at 750 nm using a standard bovine serum albumin (BSA). The Amino acids profile of the extract was determined using amino acids analyzer.

Dubois et al., 1956 was employed the Phenol-Sulphuric acid method to evaluate seaweeds total carbohydrate. Folch et al. (1957) used chloroform-methanol mixture to assessed Lipid content.

Dietary fiber analysis

Dietary fiber was evaluated by the indigestible fraction method (Goni et al., 2009), in which the 4 dried edible seaweeds were subjected to several enzymatic treatments (pepsin, pancreatin, α-amylase, and amylo-glucosidase), dialysis to remove the digestible components of the sample and separate soluble and insoluble dietary fiber.

The elements contents analyses

The element contents were analyzed photometry (AAS) for Ca, Mg, K and Na, gravimetric method for P (Kolthoff et al., 1969). A toxic lead was conducted according to the methods of Evan (1978) and Suddendorf et al. (1981).

Lepage and Roy (1984) were modified by Pereira et al. (2012) to estimate fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Determination of the total amino acids was performed by Walker et al., 1996 protocol at the National Center of Radiation Research and Technology, Cairo, Egypt.

Statistical Analysis

The biochemical components (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and Mineral composition) were obtained as the mean of three replicates ± SE (standard errors). The mean values of control and treated species were implemented by Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at the significant level of p < 0.05 using SPSS (version 21.0)

Discussion

The most vital organic chemistry constituents of algae are protein, carbohydrate and lipid (Hannan et al., 2013 and Chew et al., 2017). A carbohydrate is that the main molecule symptoms that influence on different physiological response in regulated genes in photosynthesis, metabolism and self-protective retorts. There are alterations in the accumulation and distribution of carbohydrates among the two studied algae. There are variances in the accumulation and distribution of carbohydrates within the four studied macroalgae. In the current investigation, the data of carbohydrates accumulation exposed three situation of the accumulation of carbohydrate were recorded in four species as the following:

1. Decrease in C. racemos and about the same content in D. simplex 42.40%
2. Increased progressively in S. polycystum
3. Moderate in C. myrica about 78.7 %.

Environmental factors and the method used to extraction (Peinado et al., 2014) the most vital role to alteration between species. Dhargalkar et al. (1980) and Sobha et al. (2001) illustrated that maximum value of carbohydrate accumulation in Rhodophycean members higher than in Phaeophycean and Chlorophycean members. In the current investigation, the contrastingly Phaeophycean members showed high carbohydrate content than Rhodophycean and Chlorophycean members. The higher accumulation of carbohydrate in phaeophycean might be due to higher phycocolloid content in their cell walls (Dhargalkar et al., 1980).

The all picture of protein in the four algae species revealed that the criteria of protein differ greatly among the different species of algae used (type of algae is the mainly factor on these fractions) for example:

1. Moderate for green algae (17.81% of dry weight).
2. Low for brown seaweeds (5.85& 10.35 % dry weight).
3. High for red seaweeds (maximum 21.14 % dry weight)

The association among all algal species was nonsignificant (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05). These variances might be predictable as dissimilarities in the protein content of seaweeds can be accredited to species variances and seasonal effects (Fleurence et al., 2018).

The total lipid contents within the studied seaweed species were relatively low (Fig. 1), the highest value was found in C. racemose 4.45 %, and however the lowest value was recorded in S. polycystum. Typically, seaweeds don’t seem to be good source of lipid (Ratana-arporn & Chirapart, 2006), and the total lipid content was perpetually found less than 4% (Herbreteau et al., 1997). These results are supported by the conclusions of (Shanmugam & Palpandi, 2008) in Sargassum wightii (0.45 %), in Caulerpa racemosa (7.56) and in brown alga jania (0.9 %). The dissimilarities might are because of factors like climate and geography of development of the seaweed (Herbreteau et al., 1997).

These results refer that the brown algae rich in dietary fibers when compared with other seaweeds. Conferring to the standard daily amount of dietary fiber (25 g per day) Susan and Robin, 2002. Seaweeds can deliver up to 12.5% of a person’s every day. This is relatively large amount when compared with other terrestrial foods.

Ion quotient Ca+Na/ Mg+K this molar ratio was calculated (Table I) to be 0.20, 0.99, 0.99 and 0.79 for D. simplex, S. polycystum, C. racemosa and C. myrica, respectively. The ion quotient usually diverges between 2.5 and 4.0 in human body (El-Said & El-Sikaily, 2013). These results infer that exhausting seaweed species in foods can reduction this range in human body and lessen related diseases such as hypertension, and heart disease.

Seaweeds are currently deliberated to be a promising source of fatty acids (FA). However, FA content and their composition can vary greatly depending on species and environmental conditions. As detected from table II, fatty acids were the predominant in types present in the all studied species. Species D. simplex & S. polycystum contain the highest percentage of total fatty acids, while, Brown seaweeds contain the lowest content of total fatty acids. This result corresponds with (Shanmugam & Palpandi, 2008) who found that the saturated fatty acids constituted 70.01% of the total fatty acids. As detected from table II, the unsaturated fatty acids present by nearly low concentration in the four studied species (Ishakani, 2017). In the recent search species C. racemosa was branded by the highest amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids among the premeditated algae, and it characterized by the present of Linoleic (ω6) (C18:2). This discrepancy could be due to various factors, allied result has been obtained (Colombo et al., 2006). Conferring to Nelson et al. (2002), total macroalgae lipid content accumulated during winter and spring and deteriorated in summer. Temperature considered the most important environmental factors that influenced on fatty acids cell membranes (Peng et al., 2015) wherever at low temperatures Fatty acids contents escalation and algae from cold waters are frequently richer in PUFA in contrast to those from warm waters.

The nutritive assessment of food can be determined by the content, proportion and availability of its amino acids, particularly for assessment of a new protein resource (Gressler et al., 2009). The four species contained large amount of aspartic and glutamic acids, which are responsible for the special flavor and taste. Related results have been obtained in prior studies (Gressler et al., 2010 and Wong &Cheung, 2000)

The studied species featured distinctive high concentrations of essential amino acids; whereas nonessential amino acids present with low concentration within the all studied species. These results coincide with (Ratana-arporn &Chirapart, 2006) who rumored that C. lentillifera and U. reticulata proteins were of prime quality as a result of the essential amino acids described virtually 40% of total amino acids. Geographic factors seemed to have a significant effect on the amino acid composition of macro-algae.

Hence, results of the current study determine that seaweeds are a prospective health food in human diets and in the food industry as a source of constituents with high nutritional worth. Seaweeds can provide a dietary alternate owing to its nutritional assessment and its commercial worth can be superior by improving the superiority and escalating the range of seaweed-based products. Supplementary research is needed to evaluate the nutritional value of marine algae; seaweeds can be regarded as an under-exploited source of health benefit molecules for food dispensation and nutraceutical industry.

Conclusion

The edible green, brown and red seaweeds, Caulerpa racemosa, Sargassum polycystum, cystoseria myrica and Digenia simplex, were analyzed for their nutritional compositions and were then compared to those in many different seaweeds and native vegetables. It absolutely was found that the four seaweeds studied seemed to be fascinating potential sources of plant food proteins due to their high protein levels and balanced amino acid profiles. On the opposite hand the highest carbohydrate contents obtained from the studied species may be used for fermentative production of bioethanol. The results of the current study concluded that these seaweeds will provide dietary alternatives owing to their nutritional values.