There are several home care services available for individuals with cancer (American Cancer Society, n.d.); out of these, Julia Morales may be expected to use the services of a registered nurse who would assess the care needs of the patient and create a care plan (possibly in collaboration with physicians), as well as of a physical therapist (to help address the problems with walking, which will probably be additionally impaired due to her knee), and of an occupational therapist (to help to regain or not to lose the skills needed for daily living). Because Julia refused to continue chemotherapy and radiation treatment, her adenocarcinoma should be expected to get worse, which means she may need further services of a nurse, who would create plans for supportive care (such as pain control); as well as the services of social workers to help Julia and her partner Lucy to deal with the emotional fallout pertaining to the rapidly progressing cancer (American Cancer Society, n.d.).
On the whole, Julias condition should be expected to get worse, probably at a fast rate; therefore, the most basic nursing intervention would be aimed at providing Julia with medical care plans for supporting her organism and managing the possible adverse effects of cancer, such as pain and impaired functioning of organs into which metastases may spread. In addition, Julia should be supplied with psychological interventions aimed at creating an atmosphere of trust between the nurse and the patient, giving health education, transferring the patients focus from her adenocarcinoma, and helping Lucy to assist Julia (Cheng, Kong, Chang, & Wei, 2013). For Julias family (including Lucy), it is possible to provide psychological interventions aimed at relieving grief, as well as educational interventions to empower the family to better assist the patient and tend to her needs.
When communicating with Julia and Lucy, it may be recommended to utilize communication techniques that involve the elements of active listening; encourage the verbalization of thoughts and feelings, including such adverse emotions as grief, fear, sadness; and provide emotional support (Cheng et al., 2013; Doenges, Moorhouse, & Murr, 2014). The nurse should also supply the patient and her family with information pertaining to her diagnosis and the expected effects of the diseases further progression. The nurse might want to focus on the positive experiences and moments of the past (for instance, showing the patient that she had a good life, if possible) and the present (demonstrating to the patient that she is loved and cared about by her partner and her family). While providing interventions, the nurse should refrain from making judgments about the patients and her familys actions, as well as avoid giving the patent and her caregivers false hope; in addition, the cultural peculiarities of the patient and her family should be taken into account (Doenges et al., 2014).
There are a number of educational components and methods which may be included in Julias care plan. For instance, it might be desirable to educate the patient (and her partner, who gives her care) about the potential ways of further progression of her adenocarcinoma, and the mechanisms of coping with the adverse outcomes of these (Doenges et al., 2014). The patient and her caregivers should be taught to properly administer drugs, monitor the vital signs (HR, RR, BP, temperature, etc.) and respond to adverse changes in these (Doenges et al., 2014). The methods might include writing down the most essential information, using a medical diary for keeping track of Julias medication administration and her condition, etc. To ensure that the education has been effective, it is also possible to use the medical diary in order to monitor the responses of the patient and her care provider to the various situation which took place, as well as to check the patients/caregivers understanding of the basic principles of providing care for the patient.
Cheng, Q. M., Kong, C.-Q., Chang, S. Y., & Wei, A.-H. (2013). Effects of psychological nursing intervention on personality characteristics and quality of life of patients with esophageal cancer. Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology, 37(3), 283-288.
Doenges, M. E., Moorhouse, M. F., & Murr, A. C. (2014). Nursing care plans: Guidelines for individualizing client care across the life span (9th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a frequent deadly illness with no apparent etiology; colon cancer can affect women and men. Much necessary research is being undertaken to reduce the negative consequences of food habits by predicting and influencing health behaviors (Al Otaibi, 2018). The keywords related to the research questions were dietary habits or diet, HBM, CRC, health beliefs, perception, awareness, and Saudi Arabia and the Boolean operators.
Methods
In Saudi Arabia, the health beliefs model (HBM) is frequently employed. I discovered that Saudi Arabia had not researched the Saudi population connected to knowledge of diet as a potential cause of rising (CRC) occurrences that measure Saudis perceptions of such a linkage by researching and based on a relationship between diet consciousness and colon cancers. The report included a critical and current evaluation of the literature. Potential researchers will use the translated higher level of (HBM) to understand better what elements practitioners should focus on when executing programs in Saudi Arabia that promote a healthy diet.
Results
The aims and goals were to analyze the goals, techniques of solution, and outcomes of particular research and enhance knowledge about the topic area based on a review of freshly released data. The constant power, logical, functional substance, and the existence of an inner, conceptual, and significant characteristic were all used to judge quality.
Limitations
Specific obstacles, such as mental distress or discomfort, may prevent people from participating in a well-being action that is important and will result in beneficial health outcomes.
Conclusions
The concept is an excellent fit for the issue of nutrition; it may be viewed as an educational attempt to train Saudis about cancer risk factors.
This initiative would not have been feasible without the help of a large number of people. I would like to thank my primary supervisor for his guidance during this project. This attitude is mirrored in the professors basic yet direct writing style, which I intend to emulate throughout my life. I would also thank the members of my committee for their performance and dedication to this project.
Thank you to the Fakeeh College of Medical Sciences for offering me a Dissertation Completion Fellowship, which has enabled me to complete my study financially. The authorities of the governmental and non-government organizations, as well as other interested authorities, are also grateful for their strong interest and assistance in carrying out the research. Distinguished individuals, locals, and other contracted parties were questioned, and the source of information provided is also gratefully recognized.
I would also want to thank my friends for their encouragement and insights on the study. It is critical to keep a balance with life outside of the laboratory. As a result, I cannot emphasize enough the significance of my regular getaway with friends. My friends appreciate my gratitude for providing me with motivation and helpful advice, both direct and indirect, throughout this study.
Finally, I am eternally grateful to my family: my father for teaching me to respect history and narrative, my mother for teaching me how to write concisely with reason, and my brother for showing me that asserting power is not always a terrible thing. I offer everything to my family, including this. My successes and achievements are a result of their faith in me. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my family, who keep me focused, remind me of what is essential in life, and are always encouraging of my excursions.
Reference
Al Otaibi, H. H. (2018). Predicting Healthy Eating Intentions in Saudi Adults. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 9(12), 1358-1367.
European countries recorded the 17th century as undoubtedly dangerous due to pestilential epidemics occurrence at the time. The Great Plague of London is one of the notable pandemics, which occurred from 1665 to 1666 ( John Graunt, 2020). The plague affected many people as it happened in the spring and summer of 1665. It led to the deaths of about 100,000 people, most of who were London residents.
At the time, London was anticipated to be about 448 acres of land surrounded by a city wall. Maintaining proper hygiene was difficult due to congestion, as well as open sewage. The residents were also subject to poor sanitation and reckless disposal of rubbish ( John Graunt, 2020). The below-average living conditions instigated shanties formation while rats started inhabiting the structures. In 1894, Alexandre Yersin identified the pandemics cause to be a bacterial agent Yersinia pestis, from the rat fleas ( John Graunt, 2020). The continued exploration of the factors, as well as agents, leading to the spread of pandemics led to a quantitative and qualitative examination and the development of immunization to reduce infections.
John Graunt composed a book, namely Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality, combining the Bills of Mortality data. His quantitative publication demonstrated birth and disease incident patterns, differences between males and females, and newborn death rates ( John Graunt, 2020). He also reviewed the insufficiencies of the data, including geographical inconsistencies, from which the calculations were derived.
Some of the notable challenges included unbalanced intervals between recordings, lack of thoroughness, erroneous age approximations, and an indefinite disease categorization. These factors are used in evaluating important data in the present day. Other than statistical scrutiny, which led to public health development, Johns work was important in establishing principles for epidemiology and demography ( John Graunt, 2020). He was among the pioneers for deriving patterns from a disease occurrence in a geographical area or based on sex.
John Snow
John Snow (1813 1858), a renowned English physician, is remembered for his extensive study of Cholera. His work entailed probing into Londons Broad Street pump outbreak of malady, which happened in 1854 (Frerichs, 2020). His work was dubbed the Grand experiment to compare two regions in a city reported with waterborne cholera cases. One of the regions was getting fairly safe water, while the other was supplied with sewage-contaminated water.
In the 1854 outbreak at the Broad Street pump in London, Snow demonstrated that the ongoing cholera outbreak was a result of contaminated water from the pump. At the time, the epidemic had claimed several lives in the SoHo neighborhood (Frerichs, 2020). In the same year, in his Grand Experiment study, Snow compared London communities that received water supply from two companies.
One company used water upstream of the River Thames, which was relatively safe from urban pollution. In contrast, the second firm largely used water from other London inlets ( Location of Water, n.d.). Using this information, he developed the harmful effect of contaminated water and proposed interventions. The Grand Experiment was not exactly a true experiment, as Snow had not allocated two study groups for the process ( Location of Water, n.d.). He instead took advantage of the natural settings, which had provided room for two distinct study scenarios. He used the classical epidemiological design of exposure and disease presence to analyze his data and draw relevant conclusions.
During this period, a notion had been spread that the intake of contaminated air transmitted Cholera. On the contrary, Snow stated that a microbe-like agent was causing Cholera, a concept that was later substantiated in the 1880s when the causative agent, Vibrio cholera, was characterized. His works were published in his book On the Mode of Communication of Cholera in 1855 and later republished as an epidemiological piece, which would later bolster his recognition in the field of epidemiology (Frerichs, 2020). His book explains in detail the results of his quantitative epidemiological study, and the inferences therein that have been used to shape modern practice.
Edward Jenner
Out of every ten inhabitants, three who were infected by smallpox passed away. One of the methods used to control smallpox was a procedure called variolation. Material from smallpox sores was provided for people who had never had the illness ( History of Smallpox, 2016). They would then be scratched on the arm or made to inhale. Some of the people subjected to the variolation conditions had fever or rashes, but only a few died. The number of deaths as a result of the curative mechanism was significantly lower than the one caused by the illness.
Immunization is based on the findings of Dr. Edward Jenner, who established that variolation had positive outcomes, especially if administered to milkmaids who had at one time contracted cowpox. He experimented with a substance from an open patch on the maids hand and introduced it into a boys arm ( History of Smallpox, 2016). Edward then exposed the boy several times to the variola virus, but he was never infected. After several tests, in 1801 he published his work On the Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation. He showed optimism concerning the eradication of smallpox. Consequently, immunization was acknowledged and replaced the art of variolation ( History of Smallpox, 2016). Almost two centuries afterward, the World Health Assembly affirmed smallpox eradication, a feat measured to be one of the biggest international public health achievements.
Dr. Jenners effort is largely regarded as the foundation of immunology, which started with a hypothesis formulated by an epidemiologic observation; he and others who used the same method by counting and comparing smallpox cases in cowpox vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals discovered a lower percentage of smallpox disease in cowpox vaccinated individuals, demonstrating the usefulness of the vaccine ( History of Smallpox, 2016). Although the field of epidemiology had not been discovered, Jenner and those who adopted his findings were practicing it by collecting and scrutinizing data to ascertain the efficiency of the procedure for vaccination.
Application of the Epidemiological Methods to Current Public Health Issues
One of the current public health issues that the world is facing is Lung Cancer. Literature research is being used to provide a basis for identifying and shortening key reports on peoples behaviors concerning lung cancer risk, including smoking cigarettes and other tobacco products (Dubey, Gupta, & Jain, 2016). For the arithmetic study, prevalence and death, as well as endurance rates, are being used to better identify the grave condition of lung cancer (Dubey et al., 2016). These study patterns and approaches are founded on earlier inferences for collecting and interpreting large data sets, as well as producing reports.
The study summary was obtained from the New York Times publication of 26th January 2012. The summary was based on the prevalence of human papilloma virus in men which caused oralpharingel carcinoma.
The research article used after the insight of the summary in the New York Times was from the journal of American medical association. Published early 2012 the research paper explains the recent extensive research findings on the prevalence of HPV.
Study description
Author information
The author of the summary published in the New York Times is Anahad OConnor. He is an extensive research summary writer of the New York Times. The research which was based on the American population had its funding from the Ohio state university (OConnor 1).
Major research findings
The research indicates that the virus that causes most throat cancers is human papilloma virus (HPV). Being found in the genital area and affecting about 80 %, it is mostly transmitted by sexual means through intimate contact in cases of oral sex (Gillison et al. 2). The report indicated that 6.9 % of the population mainly made of adults and teenagers were infected with the virus causing throat cancer (OConnor 2). However, another strain of HPV coded HPV type 16 was as well found to cause the disease. The prevalence was found to be three times in men than in women. The research further indicated the identification of more related characteristics that increase the risk of infection such as drug abuse, increased irresponsible sexual activity and the advancing in age (Gillison et al. 2).
In rare documented results, the study also shows that the virus can cause genital warts. It can also cause cervical cancer and cancer of the vulva and vagina in women. In both sexes, the virus is reported to cause oral and anal cancers though in small percentages.
Benefits of the findings to the society
It is now apparent that, the predisposing factors have been put into existing knowledge thus; the society can be educated on the ways of preventing the infection of HPV. The society will as well be informed of the prevalence of the virus. The significance of establishing the rate of prevalence is that, it will aid in the allocation of funds to fight the rate of infection by the state government basing on the raised statistics.
Cancer relevance
Cancer as it is known is the abnormal growth of tumors on the organs of the body, the abnormality in the cases of infection by HPV is on the cells of the throat and back of the tongue. This causes cancer of the throat and oropharingeal carcinoma. The established statistics help in the improving the efforts put in the management of cancers generally.
Relationship to biology 401
Cancer is developed when an abnormal cell growth is experienced in the region. Being the biological basic unit of life, it constitutes the basis of biological involvement. Research into the cancer infections and causative agents involves cellular biological studies which explain the altered shape, size and physiological process of cells (University of Georgia 1).
The study itself is an overarching theme which enables the study being continuous process in which the structure and functionality of the cells infected is extensively put into account (University of Georgia 1).
Research article
The research article explains extensively on the method employed and the findings of the research. This is presented in the form of descriptive statistics clearly on the findings of the research. The pathogenesis of the virus is well explained in the article than in the summary. Percentages detailing the prevalence of HPV in both women and men are well put in the article. An extra explanation on the prevalence of the virus in homosexuals is also indicated in the research article but not in the summary.
The historical perspective covered in the article is also absent in the summary. The statistically presentation of the results in the research paper and the explanation given for the results confirm the report of the summary. The exact percentage of prevalence is also reflected in the both documents.
One of the methods the researchers used to collect data includes random sampling where the women and men were sampled. Biological specimen were collected and examined for infection in the laboratory. Interviews were also used to raise information relating to the condition of the sampled persons (Gillison et al. 2).
The research paper was written by a number of authors while the summary is comprehensive understanding of an individual.
Personal plan to keep updated with scientific advancement
It is my wish to keep myself updated with the scientific advancement. I would do this by keeping breast on the researches published online. I prefer the internet for more current updates. I would visit the online sites that publish article on biological research more frequently.
The internet is most reliable source of information and it is updates every time. It is my choice because of the limited errors associated to the information it provides.
Works Cited
Gillison, M. L. et al. Prevalence of Oral HPV Infection in the United States, 2009-2010. Journal Of American Medical Association (2012): 13-27. Print.
OConnor, Anahad. Oral HPV More Common in Men Than Women. 2012. Web.
University of Georgia. AP Biology: Major Themes. 2011. Advanced Placement Biology at the University of Georgia. Web.
Everyone should be able to have access to high-quality medical care and support, and be able to rely on it. The NCQA describes the three patients interventions and explains how the Nurse Practitioner (NP) explicitly measures the listed interventions effects. This study demonstrates how primary care interventions can improve patient outcomes while also lowering clinical costs. It also explains how the interventions resulted in improved patient ratings.
HEDIS assesses the healthcare performance in six different areas. The interventions discussed are related to the effectiveness of care. The three interventions chosen for the study are colorectal, cervical, and breast cancer screenings (HEDIS NCQA, 2021). As people get older, the screening process becomes increasingly essential. As a healthcare provider, it is critical to ensure that patients are informed about the importance of health care. The regular part of the test should ask the patient if they have had their trial, regardless of what the patient is being screened. If patients are of a certain age or are at high risk and have not been tested, it is critical to schedule these tests while they are present. Breast cancer screening should be offered to all women above 40, cervical cancer screening to women over 21, and colon cancer screening to both men and women over 50 years of age. If it is pointed out that the patient has not been screened, they should be educated and scheduled to be screened.
The next important step in performing the listed interventions is to measure the results. Organizations can use actual performance measurements to document their current supply and lay the groundwork for improvement. The CAHPS Patient Experience Survey is one tool for tracking patient outcomes from any cancer screening intervention. Each patient will receive an email containing a questionnaire inquiring on whether they were asked about a screening during their visit, whether they were scheduled during their stay, and whether their treatment was satisfactory. The office can then use the results to assess the interventions success. As screenings are better educated and people get them on time, they are more likely to be diagnosed early, resulting in cheaper services.
Interventions in primary care can improve patient outcomes with early detection of cancer by conducting regular health examinations after the recommended age. The consequences of delayed care due to a lack of cancer screening include a lower chance of survival, a higher prevalence of treatment, and higher healthcare costs, all of which lead to cancer-related death and disability that could have been avoided (WHO, 2019). Early diagnosis by screening is an effective public health strategy to improve cancer outcomes and reach a healthier population by providing care as soon as possible.
Availability of funds for medical care means better patient outcomes. The Medicare Medicaid Service Center (CMS) conducts some CAHPS surveys as a public reporting or reimbursement program (Womens Preventive Services Guidelines, 2019). The CAHPS survey allows for the measurement of interventions and provides for the size of patient ratings. While the patient is in the clinic for routine care, problems with preventive tests and their schedule are excessive for their health. In return, the patient feels better cared for, and the nurses reputation improves. This type of screening for all patients also leads to a healthier population and a higher chance of survival. Increased patient satisfaction levels are linked to better health results.
Conclusively, it is important to ensure that patients receive and are treated with better healthcare, with the respect they deserve according to their standards. The primary care interventions can therefore improve patient outcomes while also lowering clinical costs. What started as a patient satisfaction initiative has grown into a model for a cultural transformation that prioritizes quality and safety and quality, patient-reported outcomes, and cost savings.
Community-based health education boosts the knowledge of women on cervical cancer, its signs, and symptoms, and improves their cervical cancer treatment uptake (Kolander et al., 2013). Through awareness, women will be able to understand the life of the diseases and the control measures that should be put in place to eradicate the infection. Women who have prior knowledge of cervical cancer, tend to take cervical screening services frequently as compared to those without knowledge of the disease.
The life expectancy of women typically exceeds that of men worldwide. In 46 nations in 2011, womens life expectancy at birth exceeded 80 years, however, in the WHO African Region, it was just 58 years (Fouly & Hassen, 2020). Boys are much less likely than girls to experience sexual abuse.
Adolescent females die most frequently from automobile accidents in high- and upper-middle-income nations. The estimated 287 000 maternal fatalities per year, or nearly all (99%), take place in underdeveloped nations (Fouly & Hassen, 2020).
Maternal Health
The health of women throughout pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period is referred to as maternal health. To ensure that pregnant women achieve their maximum potential for health and well-being while maintaining the proper health of the fetus, each stage should be enjoyable. Despite significant advancement over the past 20 years, 30 000 women died during or after pregnancy and delivery in 2017. This amount is just too high (Fouly & Hassen, 2020).
The elimination of unnecessary maternal deaths must continue to be a key priority for the world (Penson, 2018). However, merely making it through pregnancy and delivery cannot serve as a benchmark for effective maternal health care.
Cervical Cancer
When cancer starts at the cervix it is referred to as cervical cancer. The cervix extends and connects the birth canal to the uterus (upper part of the womb). Every woman is at a risk of getting cancer of the cervix and it normally occurs in women at the age of above thirty years.
The majority of women die from the disease as a result of ignorance and poor screening process at cancer centers. The main cause of cancer in women is prolonged infection with some types of HPV (Fouly & Hassen, 2020).
Risk Factors of Cervical Cancer
The majority of cancers occur in people without any recognized risk factors, even though doctors have a notion of what may enhance your chance of developing cancer. Some elements that are known to raise your risk of cancer include lack of regular cervical screening, age, weird sexual behaviors, getting into early marriage, and having multiple sexual partners (Kolander et al., 2013). It is well-recognized that several lifestyle decisions raise your chance of developing cancer.
The cervical cancer mortality rate is high in women. The American cancer society projected that by 2025, there will be more than 2 million women suffering from cancer in the United States of America (Fouly & Hassen, 2020). Most women who are suffering from this disease are from developing countries where the cost of living is high and there are poor health care services. The relevant health body states could assist in reducing the rate of getting cervix cancer by offering regular screening and providing early treatment on time (Penson, 2018).
Causes of Cervical Cancer
Scientists have discovered that there is no single cause of cervical cancer. They believe that the interaction of several factors together caused cancer cells. The factors causing cervical cancer can be environmental, genetic, or at times caused by the genetic constitutional characteristics of a person. Additionally, HPV is claimed to be the major cause of cervical cancer. HPV has been classified into three district types by the World Health Organization and these include; Carcinogenic (HPV types 16 and 18), Probably carcinogenic (HPV types 31 and 33), and possibly carcinogenic (other HPV types excerpt 6 and 11) (Penson, 2018).
From the cancer tests and screenings done, it was found that no. 16 is prevalent among all types of cancer. Out of the total samples collected, approximately of 82% tested with type 16 (Fouly & Hassen, 2020). This kind of cancer affects the entire birth canal unlike type 18 that only affects the endocervical gland. Another type of cervical cancer that is very common after type 16 is 35 (Penson, 2018).
Prevention of Cervical Cancer
Smoking is associated with more cancers than simply lung cancer. You can lower your future chance of developing cancer by giving up now. The suns harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation might raise ones chance of developing skin cancer. Reduce your exposure to the sun by seeking out shade, using sunscreen, or donning protective gear. Obesity or being overweight may raise your chance of developing cancer (Fouly & Hassen, 2020). By combining a nutritious diet with regular exercise, work to reach and maintain a healthy weight.
Encouraging the Target Audience to Take Action
Presently, it is vital to promote the importance of awareness regarding the issue of cervical cancer in the target population. Specifically, it is necessary to empower women and girls to seek active health education and support from healthcare experts. Thus, the importance of regular tests, including pap smears, must be explained to the specified demographic. Specifically, healthcare experts and nurses must prompt active communication between women and healthcare practitioners, gynecologists, and endocrinologists. Thus, active education must be promoted. Specifically, women and girls must be provided with core information about the means of preventing cancer and the strategies for identifying the relevant risk and threats at the earliest stage possible. Thus, fatal outcomes in women can be prevented successfully.
Raising Public Awareness
To build awareness on the subject matter, the use of social networks and similar digital tools will have to be considered. Specifically, the platforms in question will b utilized to build awareness and promote active education among women and girls. The specified step will allow the elimination of the damaging effects of misinformation that are currently present in the digital context. Similarly, the proposed solution will encourage the promotion of health education among the target population. As a result, women will be able to identify key threats to their health and require the necessary screening. Consequently, instances of cervical cancer will be identified and prevented successfully. Furthermore, essential interventions will be administered to the population at risk so that cervical cancer could be addressed accordingly at the earliest stages before it reaches the metastatic stage.
Conclusion
Even while not all cancers are unpleasant, pain can nonetheless be brought on by the disease or its treatment. Pain brought on by cancer can be adequately managed with medications and other methods. A sense of being out of breath might be brought on by cancer or cancer treatments (Allen et al. 2019).
References
Allen, E. M., Lee, H. Y., Pratt, R., Vang, H., Desai, J. R., Dube, A., & Lightfoot, E. (2019). Facilitators and barriers of cervical cancer screening and human papilloma virus vaccination among Somali refugee women in the United States: a qualitative analysis. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 30(1), 55-63.
Chan, C. K., Aimagambetova, G., Ukybassova, T., Kongrtay, K., & Azizan, A. (2019). Human papillomavirus infection and cervical cancer: epidemiology, screening, and vaccinationreview of current perspectives. Journal of oncology, 2019.
As the world progresses, it is important to ensure a healthy population. A healthy population inevitably ensures progress. However, in recent years, this seems to be an impossible goal. The increased number and incidence of various diseases can be related to the decrease in modern nutritional habits. The food a person eats helps him to prevent certain diseases that can endanger their life, such as cancer. Likewise, diet and nutrition are imperative in the onset and treatment of the disease. It is an important fact, given that the fatal illness incidence has continued to rise over the past few years.
During treatment, the patient needs to make nutritional changes to help build strength and prevent side effects that may result from the process. Good nutrition is important to patients because the disease and its cure can change how the patient eats (Benefits of good nutrition during cancer treatment 2022). The patient will have to eat foods that are not normally recommended for healthy people. To maintain a patients weight, they may need foods high in protein and calories or heavy, cold foods such as milk or ice cream when they cannot eat anything because of mouth and throat ulcers. When deciding the best nutrients that the body of the patient needs, it is essential to account for the kind of cancer they have, the undergoing treatment, and any possible side effects.
Maintaining a healthy diet while undergoing cancer treatment may help patients better tolerate treatment-related side effects, reduce the risk of infection, quickly recover, and maintain physical strength and energy. Eating various foods is an important part of a healthy diet to get the nutrients the patient needs to fight cancer. Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, water, vitamins, and minerals are among those nutrients. Eating healthy has many benefits, so medical practitioners must consider proper nutrition for cancer patients.
Prostate cancer is a common malignancy that affects the prostate glands of the male reproductive system. The affected glands are located just below the bladder, next to the urethra, but the cancerous cells can spread to other body parts like the lymph nodes and bone tissues. Prostate cancer has gained significant attention over the past years due to its high prevalence and alarming mortality rates. Although prostate cancer is curable at its early stages, medical practitioners experience limitations with its early detection as most individuals are not aware of its risk factors or its manifestation and do not practice routine medical check-ups. As a result, the disease keeps ravaging communities, allowing it to become a major cause of premature deaths. The following paper discusses various aspects of the condition, suggesting that creating awareness about the disease can significantly minimize severe cases and aid in its eradication.
Background of the Disease
Prostate cancer is also known as Carcinoma of the Prostate and it starts when cells in the prostate glands develop an abnormality that allows them to grow out of control. Although most complications in the male reproductive system are easy to detect and rectify, the position and size of the prostate glands make it difficult to note the illness at its initial stages. In addition, the condition is rare in individuals between 30 to 40 years old. Instead, it mostly affects old-aged individuals, thus encouraging a culture of negligence among the youth and young adults (Pernar et al., 2018). Prostate cancer was first identified as an ailment in 1853 and was considered a rare disease because of its low life expectancy and insufficient detection methods, which only allowed its diagnosis after long periods of advancement. In the 20th century, prostate cancer can be identified using non-invasive techniques that detect tumor cells. Additionally, clinicians can apply molecular tests that investigate the presence of PCA3 mRNA, which is presumed to be over-expressed in the existing prostate cancer cells (Teo et al., 2019). Although prostate cancer generally affects the prostate glands, it showcases several signs and symptoms that have adverse implications on peoples life quality.
The Effects of the Condition on the Human Body
Prostate cancer has long and short-term effects on the body which may be difficult to notice unless they significantly interfere with an individuals lifestyle. Initially, prostate cancer does not have effects on body functions. However, it generally interferes with the functions of the reproductive system and leads to frequent urination, blood in the urine, weak and interrupted urine flows, pain and burning during urination, and increased discomfort. Even so, one of the most common implications of prostate cancer in the human body is erectile dysfunction (Merriel et al., 2018). The nerves responsible for erectile responses are located proximal to the prostate glands. Therefore, a tumor and associated complications can interfere with their mechanisms, thus limiting their ability to achieve or sustain an erection. Subsequently, dealing with the condition and taking erectile dysfunction medication can adversely impact a persons life quality.
Prostate cancer can also lead to incontinence, which refers to an individuals inability to control their urinary bladder. A prostate cancer patient with urinary incontinence may leak urine occasionally and cannot control when they urinate. The effect is due to the destruction of the muscles and nerves that control urinary functions. Prostate cancer also results in metastasis, which is a condition that occurs when malignant cells spread from the prostate glands to other body parts and organs. Metastasis is an abnormality that advances through the lymph system, the blood, or tissues (Oliveira et al., 2019). Thus, it puts critical body organs including the nervous system, bladder, spinal cord, and bones at risk of harboring these cancer cells. Although there is limited evidence of the impact of prostate cancer on the brain, clinicians suggest that these cells can spread and interfere with the brain. That being said, seeking early interventions can help limit adverse outcomes.
When cancerous cells due to prostate cancer spread to other regions of the body, they might lead to complications that include severe pain, weak bones, stiffness in the thighs, hips, or back, weakness in the legs and arms, and fatigue. Prostate cancer can also result in hypercalcemia, a condition characterized by higher-than-normal calcium levels in the body. In addition, it can cause spinal cord compression, which manifests into muscle weakness and bowel incontinence (Grossman et al., 2018). However, most of the conditions that arise from prostate cancer are manageable using injectable medicine and drugs like bisphosphonates. Prostate cancer can gradually deteriorate an individuals health status and prevent them from engaging in essential activities. Ultimately, the condition leads to death as it becomes increasingly difficult to manage its effects when it progresses. Nevertheless, the treatment and management period can present several issues to individuals and their families.
The Implications of the Disease on the Life Quality of its Victims
Prostate cancer negatively impacts its victims as it limits their comfort and obligates them to alter their life practices to fit the conditions management. Nevertheless, the disease does not only have a health impact as it interferes with all other aspects of human life. For example, an individual suffering from prostate cancer administers various drugs to curb its spread, most of which have unpleasant side effects (Oliveira et al., 2019). Additionally, these individuals suffer through financial constraints associated with occasionally seeking medical attention, chemotherapy, and cancer drugs that are very costly. Moreover, prostate cancer affects an individuals social life as they cannot perform normal activities like healthy individuals. Therefore, most of them experience loneliness and suffer the pain of broken relationships, thus interfering with their life satisfaction.
Prostate cancer also has mental and physical implications on its victims, which expose them to other life conditions. For instance, an individual suffering from the latter stages of the condition might become a burden to family members who are obligated to sacrifice their time and money to provide the patient with a peaceful death (Owoo et al., 2022). In addition, these patients may lack the enthusiasm or ability to spend time with their loved ones or friends, which is detrimental to their emotional stability. These factors, jointly, can expose a person suffering from prostate cancer to aggravated stress, depression, and anxiety that affect their mental status. Moreover, these individuals may lose the motivation to engage in active treatment, especially if these issues come in between their personal and family relationships (Teo et al., 2019). As a result, the disease can substantially erode its victims living standards, comfort, life quality, and satisfaction.
Types of Prostate Cancers
There are various types of prostate cancer depending on how abnormal the malignant cells look, their ability to spread, and their size. However, adenocarcinoma is the most common type as it is diagnosed in almost every individual with the disease. Adenocarcinoma growths can form on any organ in the body. Particularly, they occur in the glandular epithelial cells lining the interior of organs. In the prostate, this type of malignancy is also known as glandular prostate cancer (Wedge et al., 2018). Adenocarcinoma is also divided into sub-types that include acinar adenocarcinoma or conventional adenocarcinoma and prostatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Acinar adenocarcinoma accounts for most prostate cancer manifestations. Cancer cells associated with this type of growth start developing at the back of the prostate and can be felt near the rectum (Merriel et al., 2018). Prostatic ductal adenocarcinoma or PDA is rare but more aggressive than acinar adenocarcinoma. This type develops in cells lining the ducts and tubes of the prostate glands. Moreover, these cancers develop individually but can both manifest in particular prostate cancer cases.
Although there are several other types of prostate cancer, they are rare since many individuals are diagnosed with adenocarcinomas. Nevertheless, some known types include urothelial cancer or Transitional cell carcinoma, which start from the urethra and gradually spread to the prostate. Carcinoids or neuroendocrine tumors are another type of prostate cancer that does not produce PSA and might appear in glands and nerve cells that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream. Small cell carcinoma is another type of prostate neuroendocrine cancer that is aggressive and develops in small round cells in the body (Wedge et al., 2018). Squamous cell carcinoma is a rare form of prostate cancer that begins in the flat cell and spreads rapidly to the prostate glands. Finally, prostate sarcoma or soft-tissue prostate cancer forms outside the glands and in muscles, nerves, and soft tissues around the prostate. Although some prostate cancer types are lethal and spread fast, other types do not affect an individual. Hence, it is critical to investigate the type of prostate cancer in individuals and its levels of severity to deliver the best possible care.
Risk Factors of Prostate Cancer
All men are at risk of developing prostate cancer at any time in their life cycle. Although there are limited prostate cancer cases in children, scientists reveal that small boys are also at risk of developing the disease as they are exposed to its risk factors. The three established risk factors of prostate carcinoma include age, genetics, and ethnicity. A majority of individuals diagnosed with the condition are older than 65 years. Nevertheless, prostate cancer can also affect younger people, especially those between 30 to 40 years (Pernar et al., 2018). Moreover, researchers point to genetic and ethnic factors as studies show significant variations across these components. Even so, these attributes are non-modifiable, meaning that individuals should adopt alternative solutions to limit being affected by the illness. Scientists also suggest that a persons diet, level of physical activity, and lifestyle attributes are associated with prostate cancer as some habits facilitate the development of malignant growths in the body system (Oliveira et al., 2019). Thus, familiarizing with these factors can help develop comprehensive approaches to reduce its cases and implications.
Genetic Components and Unusual Factors of Prostate Cancer
Although prostate cancer generally occurs in individuals without a family history of the disease, clinicians suggest that several inherited gene mutations can increase an individuals risk of developing the condition. For example, inherited BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations, known to increase the risk of ovarian and breast cancer in women are associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer. Similarly, a man born with Lynch syndrome is at an increased risk of suffering from various cancers, including prostate cancer (Pernar et al., 2018). The genetic components of prostate cancer are also associated with family background, race, and specific gene changes. People with first-degree relatives, who include a father or brother, diagnosed with prostate cancer as twice more likely to suffer from the disease than people without a history of the ailment in their family (Wedge et al., 2018). However, research suggests that the risks of prostate cancer are significant in individuals with brothers diagnosed with the illness. In addition, studies suggest that prostate cancer in the US affects black men more than Hispanic or White individuals. Thus, most researchers conclude that genetic factors play a major role in the development and advancement of prostate cancer.
The Factors that Differentiate Prostate Cancer from other Disease Conditions
Cancerous cells in the body, tumors, or malignant growths are critical disease conditions that severely affect body functions and interfere with normal living. However, one aspect of prostate cancer that is unusual in several other cancerous ailments is its lack of signs and symptoms, especially at the initial stages, making it extremely difficult to detect and treat on time. Research studies conducted on individuals autopsies revealed that a considerable number of old-aged men and the youth who died from other reasons had prostate cancer (Teo et al., 2019). In some cases, tumors due to prostate cancer spread slowly and may not cause adverse reactions in the body for years. Therefore, its implications are never noticed until it is too late and impossible to cure. Despite its slow manifestation and high mortality rates, prostate cancer is curable using several treatment solutions that can eliminate all abnormal cells. Researchers suggest that more than 95% of cases detected when the cancer is still confined to the glands respond well to treatment (Merriel et al., 2018). Therefore, creating awareness about its existence can help potential victims and other individuals to become proactive against the disease.
Current Prostate Cancer Statistics
Prostate cancer is gradually becoming a critical public health issue because of the growing number of affected individuals and its high incidence rates. Prostate carcinoma is currently the second most common type of cancer in the US after skin cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, about 268,490 new cases and 34,500 were recorded at the beginning of 2022 (Giaquinto et al., 2022). Studies suggest that one out of eight men in America is likely to be diagnosed with the condition throughout their lifetime (Schatten, 2018). However, about six out of ten cases occur in older men more than 65 years while men under 40 register the lowest rates. Nevertheless, the number of black individuals with the condition is significantly higher than whites and Hispanic, with the median age of infection estimated at 66 years old (Giaquinto et al., 2022). Research also reveals that about 50% of individuals diagnosed with the illness live with it until it reaches the metastatic stage. Even so, many individuals are diagnosed with the illness after it surpasses its initial stages.
Despite its high mortality rates, individuals diagnosed with prostate cancer can live a long and healthy life after the diagnosis. The American Cancer Society suggests that at its initial stages, individuals have a 100% chance of surviving for five years. Subsequently, the condition has a 99% survival rate at 10 years and a 94% survival rate at 15 years (Schatten, 2018). Therefore, men with prostate cancer have a high chance of surviving the disease and living a normal life. Currently, prostate cancer has the highest rate of curability compared to other cancers due to advanced detection mechanisms. More than 90% of cases detected early are treatable using both invasive and non-invasive techniques like chemotherapy. Treatments using radiosurgery therapies generally take less than a week and a patient can resume normal activities as soon as they recover. Still, the condition records high mortality rates because people do not discover the disease and do not seek treatment early.
Why Prostate Cancer is a Condition that Warrants Attention
Compared to other cancer types like breast cancer in women, prostate cancer is an illness that received little recognition even though it is curable and manageable at its initial stages. Prostate cancer is a condition that affects most individuals during their old age. As a result, it is occasionally characterized as a disease that manifests due to deteriorated body functions. Still, researchers suggest that several factors come into play to cause the condition. In other words, anyone can get prostate cancer and live with it throughout their lives, only to suffer at its later stages. Consequently, many prostate cancer victims live a poor life quality because of neglecting simple mitigation strategies (Pernar et al., 2018). Since many individuals are unaware of the disease, its manifestation, and its implications, medical practitioners should take initiative and establish programs to limit its incidence and prevalence.
Healthcare systems in the 21st century are designed and advised to adopt preventive rather than treatment solutions to curb community health issues. Thus, prostate cancer is a condition that medical institutions should prioritize since its adversities outweigh the efforts required to prevent its development. Nurses, clinicians, and public health practitioners must identify easily manageable illnesses and prevent them from interfering with individuals well-being (Teo et al., 2019). Therefore, they should acknowledge the existence of prostate cancer and its adverse implications on the community to encourage goal formulation toward its eradication. The ultimate solution to completely counter the ailment is creating awareness and making diagnosis solutions more accessible to encourage occasional evaluation and assessment.
Conclusion
Carcinoma of the prostate is an abnormality that manifests in the prostate glands when cells grow beyond their normal size. Although most prostate malignant growth only affects the glands, some types can spread to other body organs and significantly interfere with an individuals life. The most common implications of prostate cancer include erectile dysfunction and urinary inconsistency. However, prostate cancer can also interfere with other bowel functions and result in a lot of pain and discomfort. Nevertheless, the condition results in social, financial, and emotional issues that interfere with its management and the healing process. Although prostate cancer records high mortality rates, the disease is highly curable. Still, this is only possible at its initial stages before it reaches the metastasis stage. Even so, a majority of cases are never discovered until they exasperate due to a lack of awareness and the lack of supportive frameworks. As a result, the condition requires much recognition because it causes a lot of suffering when it is easily manageable.
Pernar, C. H., Ebot, E. M., Wilson, K. M., & Mucci, L. A. (2018). The epidemiology of prostate cancer.Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 8(12), a030361.
Cancer is one of the most dreadful diseases that can affect human beings of all ages. It is characterized by malignant growth or tumor as a result of the abnormal and uncontrollable division of body cells. Once it starts, cancer can spread to other body parts through the lymphatic system or the bloodstream. Over a long period now, the diagnosis, treatment and the associated side effects of cancer are very stressful encounters in the sufferers life, especially among children (Dowling, 2005). For children, it is not easy for them to endure the painful procedures, worries of losing somebodys parts through mutilation, as well as the uncertainty associated with the treatment of cancer. Many researchers have therefore tried to find out ways of effectively helping children deal with cancer. The paper seeks to discuss how a researcher will approach a research question concerning cancer and humor in children. It will then conclude on the most appropriate approach to use between qualitative and quantitative approaches. The research question under consideration is as stated below:
How do hospitalized children diagnosed with cancer respond to the use of humor by nurses?
To successfully research this question, a researcher must differentiate between qualitative and quantitative approaches in the task (Kelly & Lenn, 2004). Identifying the ways of collecting data under each category is also very essential. Trying to conduct a review of existing literature on the topic to be investigated is paramount. This will help in finding out the conclusions drawn by other researchers if at all the topic has ever been researched. According to Kelly and Lenn, the understanding of appraisal, stress, and coping strategies indicate that the outcomes are greatly influenced by the personal factors which are used in dealing with the patient (2004).
Then the researcher can define the limits for the group of children to be investigated. For instance, the age bracket of children to be studied will play a significant role. It is believed that children develop from birth to about age 6, and then from age 7, they move to a completely new group in terms of their perception of life and its experiences (Dowling, 2005). They can reason logically and can differentiate between good and bad. Being diagnosed with cancer, therefore, children within given categories may respond differently to treatment approaches used by the nurses. The effect of humor will not be an exception.
The impact of the environment under which the child is at the time of investigation is also crucial for a researcher. For instance, a hospitalized child will respond to treatment approaches differently from when at home. Furthermore, if the child is accompanied by parents or siblings, he or she will respond to humor differently from the case when the child is not accompanied. More so, the researcher must consider the type of humor-evoking approaches used by nurses.
The next strategy that research must consider is the instruments for collecting data from the child (Kelly & Lenn, 2004). To do this, the researcher must specify the objectives inherent in the research question. This will help in exploring the question effectively. Data collection methods like interviews, observations, and review of nurses records about the childrens progress would be invaluable for the researcher. The use of interview method will help determine how children express their worry and sadness when exposed to humor by the same nurse. Furthermore, the childs perception of whether the experience was humorous or not would need to be investigated. This would be a qualitative approach.
Making different observations as the child is exposed will require the use of different techniques to measure the childs response to humor. The researcher would want to collect data about the childs pain tolerance by conducting measurements. Other measurements that the investigator may want to measure as the child responds to humor by the nurse include; pain intensity, laughter and smile ratings. Some of the ways of evoking humor among hospitalized children include the use of funny movies and should be administered at the right time and place. All these would require quantification.
This research question, from the discussion, will require many instances of quantitative measurement as well as qualitative data collection. The assessment of a childs response to humor by the nurse seems to be mainly through subjective investigation; hence the best approach to use is the qualitative study after which the collected data can be analyzed for meaningful interpretation. However, there are human rights concerns about this kind of research. The researcher may not be able to access the childrens medical records to legal restrictions. The investigator would also have to get the parents approval as well as that of the hospital for their children to be participants.
The paper has discussed the factors that a researcher must consider when planning to investigate the relationship between the sense of humor and hospitalized childhood cancer stressors. The appropriate approach for collecting data has been identified.
References
Dowling, J. S. (2005). Impact of sense of humor, childhood cancer stressors, and outcomes of psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing. 20 (7) 272-291
Kelly, M. & Lenn, C. (2004). Investigating the impact of humor on hospitalized children diagnosed with cancer. [Peer Reviewed Journal]. Journal of Undergraduate Research. 3 (5) 34-67
According to the Babylon dictionary (1) case-control design is defined as A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls) . Lewallen (57) describes the case-control design as an observational design. According to the above case, the patient population subjected to the study design is a selection of an outcome variable. This epidemiological study focuses on effect and cause. It is an analytical study that focuses on outcomes then proceeds to study the causes. Patients who have developed specific problems with past exposures to aetiological factors are identified and compared with a selected group of cases or controls that do not have or have not developed a similar problem or medical condition. These are referred to as controls as argued by Schlesselman and Stolley (14). Lewallen (57) affirms that in a case-control study patients who have developed a disease are identified and their past exposure to suspected aetiological factors is compared with that of controls or referents who do not have the disease . Lewallen (57) describes the design as a retrospective, implying that outcomes about a case are already known by the investigator. A case must have been proved on acceptable clinical diagnosis and sufficiently identifiable on a clinical criterion. Controls should be similar in many aspects such as sex and age. According to Lewallen (57), when cases and controls are marched, they form a case controls design.
Advantages of Case-Controlled Studies
According to the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (2) case-controlled studies require shorter lengths of studies to give adequate statistical strength which is a comparative advantage to other study designs. Lewallen (58) indicates that case-controlled studies are quicker, easier, and inexpensive to conduct as compared to other study designs. Lewallen (58) asserts that the design is suitable for conducting investigations on outbreaks and for studying rare diseases. Such studies may include endophthalmitis which is due to ocular surgery and the study of risk factors associated with corneal cancer as argued by Lewallen (58). Lewallen (58) has determined that it is possible to enroll a large number of patients with a rare disease which is an advantage of the design. Lewallen concludes that The practical value of producing rapid results or investigating rare outcomes may outweigh the limitations of case-control studies. Because of their efficiency, they may also be ideal for preliminary investigation of a suspected risk factor for a common condition;.. , in addition to the design requiring a few study subjects.
Disadvantages of Case Controlled Studies
Lewallen (58) argues that case-controlled studies have the disadvantage of business. Bias arises if a report on certain risk factors is incorrect after a rigorous study is conducted to verify the same report. As another disadvantage, case-controlled studies can not be relied upon if records are inadequately kept. This implies that some data may be missing or may not be precisely recorded. Results could be susceptible to flaws. Another disadvantage is that it is difficult to generate incident data on a case. According to the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (2) this may be due to the interference from confounding variables. Confounding variables lurk within a scientific study thus influencing the resulting outcome of an experiment. Lewallen (58) noted that selecting case controls can be very difficult. This disadvantage medically grades this design study on a lower quality scale.
Odds Ratio
An odds ratio is the ratio of the odds of an exposure in the case group to the odds of an exposure in the control group , a definition coined by Lewallen (58) and describes an odds ratio As a measure of the strength of the association between an exposure and the outcome, case-control studies yield the odds ratio . This measure determines the strength between a pair of binary values and determines the risks associated with a particular outcome. This definition may be based on the odds that are group-wise or on conditional probabilities on a pair of random binary values.
Confidence Interval
According to the free dictionary (1), confidence interval (n), usually expressed as a percentage, is defined as an interval of values bounded by confidence limits within which the true value of a population parameter is stated to lie with a specified probability . Confidence intervals are valuable statistical tools for measuring the validity and reliability of research results. According to the Journal of Clinical Nursing (2), a 95% confidence interval provides a high degree of a statistical parameter being true. It is a statistical interval estimate population parameter that is used to determine the degree of confidence or the extent to which an estimate can be relied upon.
Interpretation about Oral Cancer and Unemployment
The significant probability of oral cancer being incident in unemployed people was high since the OR (odds ratio) is 2.27. When the OR is less than one, the odds are less likely, but when OR>1, the odds are highly likely to be predominated by the unemployment factors. Note that this OR is greater than one (OR>1), i.e. (2.27) at a 95% confidence interval which is greater than one, i.e.1.21. Thus dividing the number of those who experience oral cancer and are unemployed against those who do not, results in the value of 4.26. This study illustrates the fact that unemployment positively impacts oral cancer as a socioeconomic factor.
About Oral Cancer and educational attainment an oral cancer
The odds ratio is less than one (OR<1) i.e. OR=0.17. This implies that the odds of the number of those with oral cancer and with educational attainment (ED) divided by those without oral cancer and with a similar educational attainment (n-ED) is less than one, i.e. (ED/n-ED) =0.17 i.e. (95%CI 0.05, 0.58). This implies that educational attainments positively influence will be affected. The 95% confidence interval illustrates that.
Additional information for drawing conclusions
Samples should be repeatedly taken from the same population. If the statistical results are the same or do not vary widely, then they are reliable else not. Random sampling should be used to avoid systematic bias. Observations on the sample should be independent. In addition, two types of variables should be used, i.e. dependent and independent variables.
References
Babylon Dictionary. NCI dictionary of cancer terms [Online]. 1997-2009. Web.
Journal of Clinical Nursing: Information Point. Odds ratio. [Online]. 2001 257269. Web.
Lewallen S. Journal of Community Eye Health, International Centre for Eye Health, London. Epidemiology in Practice: Case-Control Studies [Online]. 1998; 11(28); 57-58. Web.