Category: Cancer

Skin cancer is caused by exposure to the sun UV radiation. Skin cancer types are classified in two categories, non melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) and malignant melanoma. NMSCs are basal cell carcinomas and cell carcinoma and are rarely fatal. UV rays mostly affect the face and hands as they are the mostly exposed areas to the sun. Studies reveal that after UV radiation exposure, the radiation remains accumulated to the skin thereby causing cancer. Malignant melanoma on the other hand is the most fatal cancer than NMSC and affects people with large numbers of moles, blonde/red hair, fair skin ad those who like to tan (WHO, 2003, p.2).

Ultraviolet (UV) has been known to be one of the causes of skin cancer and is mostly acquired at work places especially in industries that involve in curing of paint, arc welding, ink, disinfection of equipment at the hospital and laboratories. Workers who are also exposed to UV radiation from the sun on there way to work are also at risk of contracting skin cancers. Short term exposure of UV radiation causes sunburn, swelling and reddening. The visible effect of sun burn makes the skin color turn as a defense mechanism a term commonly known to us as suntan. Sun tan occurs to protect the skin from further exposure. Long exposure to UV radiation causes skin cancer and commonly affects light skinned people (WHO, 2003, p.2).

In relation to non-solar sources of UV radiation, good personal protective equipment minimizes skin cancer risks. For workers who are regularly exposed to the sun for longer periods, a more comprehensive strategy is required since sun exposure cannot be controlled like any other normal workplace exposure hazards. Other causes of skin cancer include; family history of skin cancer, personal history of the disease, over exposure to the sun, history of sunburn early in life, large moles, freckles and light skin complexity. Skin cancer can be prevention and the decisions lie on the individual person. The decision calls for a change of attitudes and behavior that increases skin cancer risks (Koplan, 2001, p.1).

The Melanoma Education Foundation is a nonprofit organization dedicated to saving people’s lives from melanoma, the most fatal skin cancer that is extremely dangerous unless detected early. This foundation objective is to increase melanoma awareness through; a). Training students and health educators in middle school and high school and providing learning materials and lesson plans on risks and prevention of skin cancer b). The foundation provides information on what students should look for in terms of symptoms detection and designed a user friendly website on education on melanoma prevention c). The foundation conducts talks and facial analyzer screenings for businesses and organizations in the area (WHO, 2003, p.2).

In Training students and health educators, the foundation discovered that high school and middle school students were not well informed about skin cancer, melanoma for this case. According to research carried out on adolescents and young adults in schools, the results revealed that the majority of the students did not realize the dangers of such exposure. They believed that indoor skin tanning was the safest way to go. In a 1999 nationwide survey on popularity of tan amongst young adults and adolescents, reports found that 7% of adolescents girls at the age of 14 and 35% of 17 year old females use tan regularly. The foundation therefore devised a plan to publicly educate teachers and students about melanoma since it was not in the curriculum. The goal of the foundation is to ensure that students are taught about early self-detection and the prevention of melanoma. On skin check, the foundation provides teachers training videos for lesson plans, teacher resource CDs, students hand out and videos (MEF, 2009, p.1).

Risks of UV exposure would be eliminated by reducing sun exposure and tanning lamps during the early ages especially childhood. The foundation has helped in prevention through teaching health educators skin examination to detect early melanomas thereby reducing death rates. The public is also required to avoid sudden exposure to strong sunlight as UV is the major cause of melanoma. The minimization requires sun exposure during peak intensity hours from 10am to 4pm. Mothers are requested to keep babies out in the sun until when they are 6 months old to protect their skins and eyes. Secondly, the public is requested to wear sunscreens. Sun Protection Factor (SPF) extends the time to which the skin takes to burn thereby minimizing the redness. The public is advised to use UVB- protecting sunscreens that contain micronized zinc oxide and micronized titanium oxide as they contain safe ingredients that do not cause allergic reactions as compared to organic addictives. Also teenagers and adults are required to apply sunscreen lotions thickly to receive maximum protection. Sunscreen should be applied 20 to 30 minutes before sun exposure and reapplied every two hours while in the sun. Consumers are asked to check expiry dates as sunscreens become ineffective once they are past due dates (MEF, 2009, p.6)

The public is advised to wear sun protecting clothing in hot weather such as lightly woven fabrics, RIT Sun Guard, laundry additives and good T-shirts to minimize sun burns. Brim hats and UV protective sunglasses are recommended for protecting the eyes as they block both UVA and UVB rays. Melanoma Education Foundation is discouraging people and tanning salon operators from using UV tanning beds despite advocacies from The Indoor Tanning Association (ITA). ITA makes people believe that indoor tanning is the safest as the tanning beds do not cause melanoma and it protects them from further sunburns. MEF advised people to shun away from such commercials as they do not have any evidence on the safety of tanning beds. What the UV tanning industry does is make more profits than caring for peoples’ lives. MEF therefore advises people to use sunless bronzer which is much safer and contains active ingredients that safely tans the outer layer of the skin without exposing it to the dangers of ultraviolet radiation (MEF, 2009, p.6).

Healthy people 2010 foundation goals and objectives are to reduce the rate of melanoma cancer deaths among the American population by the year 2010. It targets to reduce 2.5 death rates per 10,000 populations by 2010. In its previous research of the year 2000, the target of 2.8 deaths per 10,000 improved by 11 percent. Therefore its objective aims to reduce death rates at greater levels by the year 2010. It also proposes to increase the proportion of cancer survivors of five years or longer after diagnosis by 70 percent. This report is based on 1989 to1995 statistics of 59 percent of cancer patients living 5 years or longer after diagnosis and of which 19 percent were reported to improve. In achieving this target, the foundation intends to make public awareness of skin cancer thereby reducing the number of new cancer cases, disability, illness and death (Healthy People 2010, 2009, online).

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) a non profit organization has taken up role in educating the public about UV radiation. In its research, it continues to study the risks factors of skin cancer through the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The research uses photographs from skin cancer patients to determine the prevalence of skin cancer and other conditions. CDC and federal agencies are working together to provide Community Preventive Services to prevent skin cancer through published pamphlets such as Guide to Community Preventive Services that educate the community. The guide contains scientific information that helps people deal with skin cancers as researchers are still implementing interventions to prevent skin cancer. CDC’s media campaign goes like “Choose your Cover”. This message is directed to increase people’s awareness about skin cancer, causes and influential social norms such as tanned skin. The information is publicized in TVs, radio public service announcements, websites (www.cdc.gov/chooseyourcover), posters and brochures. Campaigns targets young adults, parents and adolescents (Koplan, 2001, p.3).

CDC support for skin cancer prevention education initiatives entails funding skin cancer prevention projects targeting children, caregivers and parents to reduce the number of illnesses and deaths. One of the initiatives is the Pool Cool initiative developed by the University of Hawaii together with Boston University School of Medicine targeting lifeguards, parents and children aged 5-10. The campaign promotes the use of sunscreens and hats. The second initiative is the Sunwise Stampede in San Diego University, a program aimed at promoting sun safety among zoo visitors. All visitors including children are given sun safety tip sheets when entering the park and discount coupons for hats and sunscreens. Children’s hands are stampeded with sun safety reminders and help them participate in projects that reinforce sun safety messages such as art and crafts. This strategy will greatly reduce incidents of sun burn around the zoo thereby reducing skin cancer illness and death at greater levels (Koplan, 2001,p.4).

In conclusion, public education is the most effective preventive measure as the information reduces illness and deaths thereby helping Healthy People 2010 achieve preventive goals. Healthy people 2010 developed epidemiologic research and monitoring system to determine previous trends in sun protection behaviors of people of different ages in terms of behavior and attitude about sun exposure. The findings were analyzed and used to better target and evaluate skin cancer prevention efforts. CDC projects are equally very effective as they spread messages in all active sun exposure areas such as swimming pools and zoos. Non profits organizations such as CDC and MEF, WHO and Health People 2010 have done tremendous jobs on educational campaigns on dangers of UV exposure, now the decision rests on our hands to practice safety precautions when exposed to the sun.

References

1. Healthy People 2010 (2009). Cancer.
2. Koplan, J.P. (2001). Skin Cancer: Preventing America’s Most Common Cancer
3. 2001. Department Of Health and Human Services Centers For Disease Control and Prevention, p. 1-4.
4. MEF. (2009). Savings Lives Through Education.
5. World Health Organisation. (2003). Ultraviolet Radiation As A Harzard In The WorkPlace. Ontario Ministry of Labor Canada, 1-4.

Introduction

The aim of this paper is to analyze the article “Using genetically-modified bacteria to fight cancer at Johns Hopkins” by John F. Cox. To do so, a concise summary of the article will be provided, followed by a review of its relevance to the course. Also, the writer will address the reason why the article caught their attention, as well as give an opinion on the best mode of funding for the research.

Summary

In his article, Cox (2005) reports how scientists are developing an interesting type of therapy as they seek to find a remedy for cancer. The novel technique involves the use of Clostridium novyi. This is a bacterium that has undergone genetic modification to remove its lethal toxin. Although the experiment has only been tested on lab animals (rabbits, rats, and mice), preliminary results, however, show that when tumor cells are infected with C. novyi, the bacterium renders them vulnerable. C. novyi is mobile by nature and it thrives under an anaerobic environment. Consequently, blood supply to the inner core of a tumor is relatively poor, causing an oxygen-deficient environment. Once C. novyi has been injected into a tumor, its mobile nature enables it to penetrate to the inner core of the tumor without causing any harm to healthy cells. Since the local environment is oxygen deficient, secretion of C. novyi destroys the tumor. Once the trial animals at Johns Hopkins had been injected with the bacteria, the researcher observed that their immune system was triggered to initiate an attack on the tumor.

How the article relates to the course

The article in question is relevant to the course content in a number of ways. For example, it addresses the issues of the metabolic alterations of Clostridium novyi to rid of its toxin, a process that involves genetic engineering. This process is covered by the topic on DNA structure and function. The article is also relevant to gene expression and control, since genetic modification of a bacterial cell involves gene transfer from one organism to another. The article is also relevant to the topic on cell structure and function. In particular, it describes the anaerobic nature of C. novyi.

Why the article caught my attention

The article caught my attention because it talks of the limited toxicity of genetically-modified C. novyi on normal cells, and how the bacteria is also highly selective on tumor cells (Patyar et al., 2010). This makes it a very effective remedy for cancer, compared with other more invasive techniques such as chemotherapy. Cancer is among the leading killer diseases. Over the past decade, I have lost a few close friends and family to cancer. A few of my acquaintances are still battling with one form of cancer or another and as such, this alternative cancer therapy could be a source of hope to them.

Opinion on funding of this research

The research should be funded jointly by the government and the private sector. This would give both parties a chance to set guidelines and policies agreeable to all.

Conclusion

The trial experiment at Johns Hopkins to treat cancer tumors using genetically-modified C. novyi is a classic example of the hope that alternative cancer therapy holds in the search for a cure to cancer. Indeed, such a breakthrough would offer hope to many cancer patients. Both the government and the private sector need to be actively involved in the funding and development of policies and procedures that will govern the application of this novel approach to the fight against cancer.

Reference List

Fox, J. F. (2005). Using genetically-modified bacteria to fight cancer at Johns Hopkins. Web.

Patyar, S., Joshi, R., Byrav, D. S., Prakash, A., Medhi, B., & Das, B. K. (2010). Bacteria in cancer therapy: a novel experimental strategy. Journal of Biomedical Science, 17(21), 1-9.

Summary

It is important to note that the article explores novel ways of cancer diagnostics and screening methods using blood tests for various signs of the condition. The attempts to implement the practice are currently under the evaluative phase, where the researchers need to show FDA that it is accurate, with benefits substantially outweighing the harms and costs (Johnson par. 12). The given local news article is related to the topic of cells, circulatory system animal transport, genetics, and mitosis.

Mitosis: Cell Division

Firstly, I think that using blood tests to analyze the cancer pathology in a patient is an outstanding objective, which could increase the screening rates and allow people to treat cancers at their early stages of development. When it comes to the subject of mitosis, cancerous cells are usually the result of unregulated cellular division, where cells either lose tumor-suppressing genes or acquire oncogenes. It is possible that one could identify various commonalities between the most dangerous cancer types, which manifest themselves in some form of a biological marker in blood tissue. I would comment that the course material provides an insightful overview of how a multitude of bioprocesses can produce responses which can be tracked and observed.

Circulatory System Animal Transport

Secondly, I would comment on the fact that circulatory system animal transport is also essential for many non-cancer illnesses. One of the most prominent causes of death is cardiovascular disease alongside cancer. Considering that current healthcare practices regularly involve blood test measures, screening for cancerous signs can effectively be implemented into bloodwork. In other words, it is likely that even if such a screening approach is not as effective as traditional means, it will be useful due to a sheer level of accessibility and ease of conducting the process.

Genetics and Cancer Analysis

Thirdly, it is important to comment on the topic of genetics in regard to the article. For example, the author writes that the blood-based screening process focuses on checking for specific DNA fragments expressed by tumor cells (Johnson par. 4). In other words, there are certain genetic and metabolic differences between normal cells and tumor variants. Since the latter is involved in a more dynamic and unregulated cellular division process, the genes expressed in these cells will differ from the regular patterns. If the specific gene or DNA fragments are shed by such cells into one’s bloodstream, it will prove both potent and useful to do a blood screening as a part of a regular blood test.

Cells and Their Role in Blood Analysis

Fourthly, the comments should be provided on the topic of cells themselves from the information derived from the local news article. Cells are complex units of all living organisms, which is why understanding the underlying mechanisms of cellular regulation of growth, division, and internal differences between various types of cells are of paramount relevance. I think blood offers a convenient and informative sample of human cells to create a fuller picture of a patient’s overall condition. Blood not only provides data on diabetes, cardiovascular issues, and the presence of toxicants but also can be used for cancer screening. Therefore, I would further comment on the fact that blood analysis should become a staple of evidence-based medicine, which enables a general overview of a person’s health status.

Work Cited

Johnson, Carla K. “Can Cancer Blood Tests Live Up to Promise of Saving Lives?”The Detroit News, 2022.

Descriptive Data

The notion of descriptive statistics is of paramount importance for the public health paradigm, as it provides professionals with the ability to analyze data and introduce new approaches to treatment patterns, professional training, and patient education. Some of the major tools of descriptive statistics may be divided into two groups: measures of central tendency and measures of variation. The former, including mean, median, and mode, is used in order to calculate the common characteristics of a given variable, whereas the latter, comprising variance, standard deviation, and range, aims at describing the extent of variation within the sample.

The definitions for the measures presented are as follows:

• Mean = sum of all data points / number of data points;
• Median = the value that’s exactly in the middle when it is ordered from low to high;
• Mode = the most frequent value (Bhandari, 2020a, para. 2).
• Range = the subtraction of the lowest data point from the highest point;
• Variance = the average of squared distances from the mean;
• Standard deviation = average distance of the mean (Bhandari, 2020b, para.2).

The major difference between the two types of measures is the fact that in cases when points of data within the variable differ significantly in their primary nomination, the measures of central tendency are not reliable enough to present the data. As far as the data from the National Cancer Institute are concerned, it is necessary to calculate the measures of deviation, as they help identify the patterns of cancer cases from a diachronic perspective, manifesting the difference between the cancer casualties and year of the report. In such a way, the tendencies of cancer incidence rates may be traced and analyzed by public health institutions.

Analysis of the Statistics

Having considered the data from the Excel spreadsheet, the first important conclusion drawn from the variables is the positive tendency in terms of cancer incidence rates among all the minorities. Indeed, according to the range measure, the rates of cancer incidence per 100,000 are lower at least by nine data points. Thus, one may assume that the overall patterns of cancer incidence are gradually improving among all the ethnic groups.

When speaking of cancer incidence among the ethnic minorities, it becomes evident that even despite the overall improvement, the cancer incidence rates in the Black community remain unprecedently high. Moreover, the variance measure of 45,42895833 indicates that the change in rates over time may not be fully controlled by the statisticians, and such data cannot be efficiently generalized. The lowest rates, in their turn, may be identified within the Hispanic community.

The aforementioned data states that there is a significant discrepancy between the cancer incidence rates among various ethnic groups, and this gap is to be bridged by the quality public health intervention. First, medical professionals are to be educated on the matter of cultural competence and cancer predisposition rates among each ethnic community in order to implement a personalized approach to regular cancer diagnostics and disease prevention. Second, nurses as health advocates are to educate patients in the matter of cancer prevention and major risks regarding the individual’s ethnic and racial affiliation.

References

Bhandari, P. (2020a). Central tendency: Mean, median and mode. Sribbr. Web.

Bhandari, P. (2020b). Measures of variability. Scribbr. Web.

The characterization of variation in the human genome has begun to pay dividends.

These are mainly being delivered through genome wide association studies (GWAS). Since early 2001, variation at nearly 100 regions of the genome have been associated with an increased risk for diseases with a complex genetic background.Such as diabetes, inflammatory bower disease, cancer and heart disease.

The latest installment in the GWAS story deals with lung cancer. It identified variation in the same region of the long arm of chromosome15 (15q24/15q25.1) as the top hit for genomic association with lung cancer. Among the genes in this region are those that encode subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors which have an affinity for nicotine. The genetic variation analyzed was in the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP’s).

These studies provide strong evidence for an association between SNP variation at 15q24/15q25.1 and lung cancer. But differ on whether the connection is direct or mediated via smoking behavior. Precious studies had identified the genes encoding sub units of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as strongly associated with smoking behavior.

Thorgeirsson et al report an association of SNP variation at 15q24/15q25.1 with the number of cigarettes smoked per day and a nicotine- dependence scale. They suggest that the link with lung cancer is primarily mediated through nicotine dependence and thus provides a case study of a gene- environment correlation in the pathogenesis of disease. Hungetal and Amos et al examined SNP variation in patients with lung cancer and control subjects and reach the conclusion that the association is primarily with lung cancer and not with smoking. In these kinds of studies researchers distinguish between ‘eversmokers’ and never smoker. Amos and colleagues describe the evidence for the association of their ‘lead’ SNP’s with smoking behavior (among ever smokers) as weak. Hung et al examined the relation between the lead SNP’s and smoking behavior and thus suggest that the genetic association in their study is unlikely to be due to confounding effects of smoking behavior.

The two studies that also examined never smokers reached different conclusions, Hung et al conclude that there is an association with the risk SNP’s while Amos et al. conclude that there is no such association.

These are the first GWAS to attempt to identify the genetic component of a disease that has such an overwhelming strong environmental cause. They signal the need for greater methodological rigour in attempt to account for both the genetic and the environmental cause that we think underlie most diseases. As GWAS have become available, the importance of large sample sizes to detect modest effects has become apparent. Much GWAS research has tended to be retrospective and thus this information could be biased; the requirements for public access to individuals data maybe suppressing the availability of potentially high quality data sets because of limitation in obtaining informed consent. These studies demonstrate importance of balancing the undeniable need for quantity in GWAS with the need for quality of ancillary data.

The next round of research will involve re-sequencing 15q24/15q25.1 and incorporating any additional SNP variants into future epidemiological work. Further genome-wide scans are needed in studies that can look to patients with lung cancer for when detailed data on smoking exposure, nicotine dependence and duration intensity of smoking are available. It is also essential to examine larger samples of non smoking lung cancer patients and perform analysis according to the specific type of cancer. Pooling of GWAS data will help, as will full disclosure of SNP rankings for the major smoking behavior to permit a better understanding of the genetic associations with these behaviors.

The rationale claimed for determining risk in individual is that it will encourage them to change their lifestyle and /or undergo screening so that disease can be detected earlier. On the other hand we may be able to evaluate smoking cessation treatments informed by knowledge of a person genetic predisposition to start smoking or to nicotine addiction and thus add new weapons to the anti-smoking arsenal. Follow-up studies should clear the differing conclusions of these papers and establish the biological rationale for the robust association of 15q24/15q25.1 with lung cancer. For most diseases more loci will surely be discovered adding to the first wave of results that have been primarily related to disease causation. On the horizon we can see the crest of studies reporting on disease outcomes but progress both in understanding the basic causes and in estimating personal risks will require environmental and lifestyle factors to be taken into account.

Work Cited Source

Stephen, J. and David, J. When The Smoke Clears, Vol. 452/3 2008.

The main dietary source for vitamin D is from the diet. However, body can synthesis it through use of ultra-violet rays from the sun. One of the main functions of vitamin D in the body is to help calcium absorption and bone integrity. In addition to these functions it has been found that vitamin D may have an important role in prevention of cancer as it is found to check the uncontrollable growth of body cells. As such, vitamin D has protective effect against cancer especially on colorectum and neoplastic cells from a hormone produced by circulating 25-hydroxly-vitamin D (Jenab et al, 2010).

It has been speculated that this may have direct responsibility in modulating growth of normal and neoplastic colonic cells. But such evidence is not really substantiated and there lacks supporting pre-diagnostic data particularly from European populations to verify this. This was what made the authors to undertake an investigation on correlation between pre-diagnostic of circulating 25- (OH) D concentration in the body and dietary intakes of vitamin D and calcium with colon and rectum cancer risk among European populations. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to give statistical summary and results of this study (Jenab et al, 2010).

The type of study design used was nested case control design. Study site was in ten European countries namely Denmark, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom. About 520,000 subjects from ten western European countries were enrolled in the study. Statistical analysis indicated that the mean age of participants in the study both colon group and rectum group were similar. For colon case had 59.6 with standard deviation (SD) of 7.2 and controls had 58.0 with SD of 7.2 while rectum cases had 58.0 with SD of 6.8 and controls had 58.0 with SD of 6.9.

It was considered that level greater or equal to 50nmol/l to <70nmol/l of circulating 25-(OH) D was associated with reduced risk of cancer while circulating levels than these were linked with increased risk of cancer. Higher circulating 25-(OH) D concentration were found to be associated with lower colorectal risk in a dose-response trend. Incidence rate ratio for lowest to highest quintile was 0.60(95% CL 0.46 to 0.80) with stronger association in colon as compared to that of rectum (Jenab et al, 2010).

There was colorectal cancer risk for a 10% increment in 25-(OH)D for specific incidence rate ratios at 95% confidence levels in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom. Nevertheless, dietary intake of vitamin D did not indicate any correlation with colorectal cancer risk. Higher consumption of dietary calcium revealed some association with reduced cancer risk for rectum. There was inverse association (p=0.154) between colorectal cancer risk and circulating 25-(OH) D concentration and its interaction with dietary calcium. In terms of heterogeneity, cancer risk did not neither differ by sex (25-(OH) D=0.782, vitamin D=0.600 nor by dietary calcium=0.500. However, there was variation between colon and rectal anatomical sub sites (Jenab et al, 2010).

Therefore, study results indicate that pre-diagnostic concentrations of circulating 25-(OH) D below 50nmol/l have association with an increased risk of colon cancer. On the other hand, circulating 25-(OH) D above 70nmol/l does not have significant reduction of colon cancer risk. Participants in highest quintiles of 25(OH) D were found to have 40% lower colorectal cancer risk. But there is need to carry out new randomized trials to confirm these results before making recommendations for vitamin D supplementation.

Reference

Jenab, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. B., Ferrari, P., Franzel, J. B., Duijnhoven, V., Norat, T., Pischon, T.… Eugene, H. J., (2010). Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations: a nested case-control study. BM Journal, vol. 340 p 1-10.

From the discovery, the onset of metastasis can be identified. Several tumors tend to spread at a faster rate than others. This scientific discovery from the Salk Institute has managed to establish the reasons behind the rate of spread. Despite the new body of knowledge in the management of lung cancer, it is interesting to mention that cervical cancer and melanoma can be treated using scientific knowledge on molecular cells (Jolla par. 1).

The ability of lung cancer to metastasize is quite fast. c any positive impact on the health of a patient. The cancerous cells can affect the entire human body within a very short time.

It is expected that this new study on lung cancer will expound or give a clearer picture of why certain subsets are more intrusive than others. Once the latter has been established, scientists will be in a position to devise more effective treatment and management methods for lung cancer. At this point, it is crucial to mention that the discovery by the Salk institute is just a beginning of a long scientific journey that is anticipated to culminate in a comprehensive and conclusive study on lung cancer (Paddock par.7).

Lung cancer does not only affect smokers. Individuals who do not smoke are also vulnerable to this chronic infection (Jolla par. 5). Therefore, a breakthrough in this Scientific study is expected to benefit a large segment of the global population. In any case, the most invasive form of cancer is the one that affects the lung bearing in mind that it records the highest number of deaths every year. In addition, medical expenditure on lung cancer has remained extremely high over the years (“New gene discovered par. 3).

For instance, over 12 billion dollars is spent by the federal government in the United States to manage healthcare cases emanating from lung cancer. Despite this huge budget secured for lung cancer, the survival rate is quite dismal. After being diagnosed with the infection, most lung cancer patients pass away within the first five years. The cellular machinery is overridden by cancer cells. Worse still, the molecular anchors attached to the cell membranes can either be turned on or off by the cancerous cells. As a result, the harmful cells can easily move through the patient’s body with a lot of ease.

The epitome of the discovery is a tiny gene referred to as the DIXDC1.

Both the LKB1 and DIXDC1 genes work as a unit. In other words, the ‘stay put’ signal is made possible by the communication between the above genes (Paddock par.4). Although the DIXDC1 is very powerful in controlling the metastasis process, it cannot guarantee treatment for lung cancer. The Salk Institute has just set the right stage to progress the study. It is upon other like-minded scientists to support this discovery so that lung cancer can finally find its cure.

It is only expected that the new scientific discovery will generate desired results. Similar research pathways have been documented in the past without any visible end. For example, we are yet to evaluate whether the cancer research study commissioned in the UK and Austria bore any fruits. In February 2014, a team of scientists from the United Kingdom and Austria came up with a research finding that could halt the spread of most forms of cancer. The study aimed at using the immune system of a patient to fight off cancerous cells. There are scores of such findings that have been carried out in the past without any practical results.

The trial phase for this discovery is not yet over. After the process has been completed, it will be up to the scientists to move to the next level of making the treatment option more robust. It would also be interesting to see whether scientists will seek treatment alternatives for other forms of cancer such as prostate, cervical, and skin cancers.

Perhaps, patients will require to be furnished with information on the stage of lung cancer that can be easily treated. Needless to say, the efficacy of the discovery will also rely on the stage of cancer development in patients. Second, the researchers will also be expected to highlight the risks and benefits of the available treatment options. At this stage of development, it is too early to establish certain latent facts about the study.

On a final note, the cost of treating lung cancer will be on the higher side. Even if the discovery becomes functional in the long run, will patients from low-income households meet treatment costs? The national wage bill in healthcare is already overstrained. Most patients depend on healthcare insurance coverage to meet medical expenses. To some extent, it will be the responsibility of governments to make the cost affordable to citizens.

Works Cited

Jolla, La. New gene discovered that stops the spread of deadly cancer. 2014. Web.

New gene discovered. 2014. Web.

Paddock, Catharine. Scientists discover gene that stops spread of deadly lung cancer. 2014. Web.

Human characteristics are the result of thousands of strands of genetic material known as DNA (Boskey, 2008). These strands are made up of unique combinations of protein and define the specific characteristics that define an individual. It can be said that the language spoken by genes tells a story of the uniqueness of every individual. They define why one sibling has red hair and another has blonde hair; why you are average height while your parents are both considered below average height (Boskey, 2008). A gene or strand is an instruction that is used in the composition of a cell, then an organ, and eventually a human being.

Genetic testing refers to the process of collecting and assessing genetic material from people. This process has been practiced in various industries for many years. For example in the insurance industry genetic testing has been used for underwriting purposes for almost 100 years (Betta, 2006). Even today in Australia insurers ask potential clients questions aimed at identifying whether close relatives have succumbed to diseases that indicate a strong familial link. This information is used in the determination of monthly deposits for life insurance policies.

It has been observed that of the single, multiple sessile, and pedunculated polypoid colon tumors, Familial adenomatous polyposis is the most common. (Swearingen, 2003). This is of practical significance as these polyps tend to become malignant. Familial adenomatous polyposis is characterized by but distinct from a condition of frequent colon polyp formation.

In this disorder, the glandular epithelia of the colon or the rectum undergo excessive proliferation throughout the mucous membranes, which leads to the formation of pedunculated or sessile polyps (Swearingen, 2003). The polyps are by nature soft and red or purplish and vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters. They may also range in number from a few to several thousand. They are also found anywhere along the entire length of the colon but the rectum is almost always affected. Each individual with untreated familial adenomatous polyposis will develop cancer at some point in time caused when one or more of these polyps experiences malignant degeneration (Swearingen, 2003). The disease is hereditary and is passed via an autosomal dominant trait. The disease appears commonly after puberty to the late ’30s and has an incidence of 1 in almost 8,300 births (Swearingen, 2003).

The role of familial adenomatous polyposis in the appearance of cancer in an individual is one instance where genetic testing has progressed significantly in the recent past (Givel & Mortensen, 2009). This disorder is characterized by the development of hundreds of thousands of adenomatous polyps in the colon and rectum early in life. It is reported that most carriers develop polyps around puberty and develop to cancer around middle age except where prophylactic colectomy has been performed (Givel & Mortensen, 2009).

Thanks to the role of research and modern technology those at risk of exposure to the disease have benefited immensely. This comes in the form of greater clinical awareness and more predictive genetic testing. The majority of cases detected early can thus undergo prophylactic colectomy (Givel & Mortensen, 2009). Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is the first cancerous disorder for which the causative gene was identified (Zbar & Wexner, 2010).

This disorder (FAP) is the result of gene mutation adenomatous polyposis coli gene and in a few instances mutation of the MYH gene (Hay, 2011). The disorder is hereditary by nature. The disease is known to affect 1 in almost 10,000 people with as high as 100% penetrance (Zbar & Wexner, 2010). As mentioned before it is characterized by a large number of polyps between puberty and middle age. It is possible to want to know why this testing is important. This is because colon cancer is the second leading cause of death where cancer is concerned (Passarge, 2007). In addition to that, it is reported that colorectal polyps affect as many as 25% of individuals aged 75 years and above. This position, therefore, suggests that if through genetic testing this serious disease can be discovered and potential patient’s lives can be saved leaving individuals to live more complete and satisfactory lives. In addition to that, the large amounts of money that would otherwise be spent on treatment can be averted.

References

Betta, M. (2006). The Moral, Social and Commercial Imperatives of Genetic Testing and Screening: The Australian Case. Dordrecht: Springer.

Boskey, E. (2008). America Debates Genetic DNA Testing. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.

Givel, J. C., & Mortensen, N. J. (2009). Anorectal and Colonic Diseases: A Practical Guide to Their Management. Leipzig: Springer.

Hay, D. W. (2011). The Little Black Book of Gastroenterology. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Passarge, E. (2007). Color Atlas of Genetics. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag KG.

Swearingen, P. L. (2003). Manual of Medical surgical Nursing Care. Missouri: Elsevier Mosby.

Zbar, A. P., & Wexner, S. D. (2010). Coloproctology. London: Springer.

The given article, titled “A Cognitive-Affective Analysis of Cancer Behavior in the Elderly: Are You as Healthy as You Feel?” is the third chapter in Springer’s publication, titled “Effective Health Behavior in Older Adults.” The authors of this article are Suzanne M. Miller, James C. Knowles, Robert A. Schnoll, and Joanne S. Buzaglo. The article analyzes the psychological effect of the general perception about health in instances where a person is diagnosed with cancer.

After brief demography of the elderly population in the United States, the authors also discuss the elderly cancer patients (while comparing the occurrence of cancer in male and female elderly people). The authors believe that in spite of the fact that it is impossible to thwart the occurrence of breast cancer, there is a possibility of minimizing the mortality rate (due to breast cancer). Such an endeavor can be successful by following a systematic screening schedule so that it would be possible to detect breast cancer at an early stage.

But, at the same time, it is quite possible that once a female is diagnosed with breast cancer, she might experience depressing psychological effects. The authors claim that the younger breast cancer patients have more negative psychological effects than the elderly patients. Such psychological effects persist even after the treatment has been stopped. As time passes, the patients get more worried because they think that the disease might recur, and they might have to face social and sexual obscurity. The younger patients are more susceptible to such problems than the elderly ones.

The authors are of the opinion that the future psychological condition of cancer patients depends on the way they perceive the situation. It is the tendency of patients to have a pessimistic view about their disease and its impact on their lives. Such an interpretation alters the significance and implications of the disease and its effects. Even people who are not affected by breast cancer have the tendency to misjudge their probability of being affected by breast cancer.

But one good thing in such cases is that such people tend to follow the cancer guidelines conscientiously. The authors, referring to survey results, claim that younger women have the tendency to overestimate their probability of being affected by breast cancer. The authors further suggest that people having anxiety and depression are prone to high levels of negative psychological conditions that may desist them from following standard health schedules.

The comparison between the perceptions of young and elderly people about cancer and its implications is very informative. Considering the fact that diagnosis and treatment (wherever possible) of cancer has gained momentum during the past couple of years, most of the elderly people are not aware of any efforts being made by the health department to control and minimize the mortality rate (due to cancer). It is a human tendency to anticipate danger or risk involved in specific situations.

So, it is obvious that women (especially the younger ones) have the tendency to perceive greater risks associated with cancer. A majority of elderly people do not have any specific ambition in life, but the younger generation is full of ambitions, and their overestimation of being prone to cancer results in their psychological imbalance. They feel that they will not be able to pursue their ambitions if they get affected by the deadly disease.

Introduction

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a form of supportive guidance offered to cancer patients. It entails therapeutic practices aimed at assisting the patient to gain a feeling of motivation, better recognition and improved self-worth. It is recently the broadly used psychological cure for unrelenting pains in cancer. Pain is a complicated sensory and expressive experience mostly influenced by the patients’ imaginations, feelings and manners. Cognitive-behavioral therapy came up as a result of the discoveries that pain is a regular and often immobilizing problem in cancer patients. Estimates have shown that newly diagnosed cancer patients experience less pain compared to advanced cancer patients.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be used to help cancer patients in several ways. In its efforts to help cancer patients, it is divided into various steps. The first step is pain education during which the patients are meant to understand how their reactions to pain affect their experiences. They thus recognize the importance of coping with this pain about pain control (Abernethy et al, 2006). The second step is training; the patients are taught skills of managing pain. For each skill, the psychotherapist provides an educational ground where guided applications are put in place and feedbacks is obtained.

The patients are then encouraged to practice the skills learned in non-demanding conditions such as at their homes. They are further supported to apply these skills to more demanding tasks such as managing pain while walking. The final step includes assisting the patients to develop programs for upholding these skills and conquering setbacks in their efforts to cope.

The treatment plan for a hypothetical cancer patient

Cancer treatments are complicated and are mostly carried out over a long period. The treatment plan is divided into pre-treatment, treatment and post-treatment periods. The pre-treatment period involves evaluating maladaptive conditions and subsequent behavioral patterns. During this period, the therapists’ task is to support, accept and facilitate interactions between him and the patients. The relationship between the therapist and the patient should not be coercive.

During the treatment period, diagnostic tests are performed and treatments administered. Records of the drugs and dosages given to the patients are kept. The patients are educated on aspects such as how to maintain pain involved during cancer infections. The treatment plan entails the dates when the patient goes for medical checkups and the doses administered. Effects of the treatments received are considered. The patients are advised on preventive measures such as health and well-being maintenance. Recommendations on appropriate nutrition, exercise, and support are offered.

The post-treatment period is typified by a slow recovery from the negative effects of treatment such as fatigue and infertility. The treatment plan at this point involves counteracting the symptoms and problems which persist as late effects. It also includes coordinating the continued care of the patient such as the management of last-minute effects and tactics for health promotion and successive cancer monitoring. The psychotherapist should maintain good points of contact with his patients during the post-treatment period (Keefe and Abernethy, 2005).

Conclusion

Current research testing the effectiveness and validity of cognitive behavioral therapy for pain associated with cancer has shown that it significantly reduces pain. The provision of cancer treatment summaries and care plans is nowadays recognized as a major component of care coordination that is likely to promote the provision of high-quality tumor care. For optimal results, the cancer patients should be referred to a competent psychotherapist.

References

Abernethy, A. P. Keefe F.J. McCrory, D.C. Scipio, C.D. Matchar, D.B. (2006).

Behavioral therapies for the management of cancer pain: a systematic review. IASP Press; p. 789-801.

Keefe, F.J. and Abernethy, A.P. (2005). Psychological approaches to understanding and treating disease-related pain. Annual Rev Psychol; 56:601–630.